7/26/2020

Jannette Perez, MS, PE 1

downtojn@gmail.com

1. Usted tomó cursos sub-graduados en todos los cursos que

vamos repasar estas 8 semanas.
2. Usted tiene y sabe usar una de las calculadoras recomendadas
para el examen.
a. Saber implica poder calcular valores para: regresiones,
distribuciones de calidad, estadísticas descriptivas
3. Usted tiene el fundamento del tema.
4. Yo lo voy a ayudar a repasar y que usted identifique sus áreas
de oportunidad y que debe repasar cuando salga de aquí.
5. También lo voy a ayudar a resolver posibles problemas de
examen.
6. El repaso NO sustituye su experiencia universitaria.

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We covered this in Quality section

Using Casio model

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▪ Determine population standard deviation

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▪ ¿Hoy many distinct numbers we obtain with 712?

▪ 712
▪ 721
▪ 127
▪ 172
▪ 271
▪ 217
▪ Permutations = n!
▪ In this case 3!, or 6 different unique groups

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▪ Total n objects arranged taking r

items at a time:
▪ n x (n -1) x (n - 2) x … (n – r +1)

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▪ Consider letters C A S U forming two Word letters,

how many words can we create?
▪ n1 = 4 (four letters in the first space)
▪ n2 = 3 (remaining three letters in second space)
▪ Using multiplication rule: N = n1 x n2 = 4 x 3 = 12

C A S U
CA AC SC UC
CS AS SA UA
CU AU SU US
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▪ In Casio (Permutations)
▪ A permutation is a selection of objects in which the
order of the objects matters.
▪ Example: To determine the possible number of
different arrangements using 4 items selected from
10 items.
▪ [10] [SHIFT] [nPr] [4] [=]
▪ Solution= 5040

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▪ You win a prize at the lotery is you can match

two numbers from 0 to 9.
▪ How many two number arrangements can
you obtain?
a. 90
b. 9
c. 10
d. 2

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▪ Solution is a
▪ n = 10 //{0,1, 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
▪r = 2
▪ P(10, 2) = 90

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▪Select r objects from n units

without preferring a particular
order.
▪ These are called combinations.
▪ Selected objects: n
▪ Not selected: n-r.

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▪ A combination is a selection of objects

from a collection and order is
irrelevant. Example: To determine the
number of different combinations of 4
items selected from 10 items
▪ [10] [nCr] [4] [=]
▪ Solution = 210

https://www.casioeducation.com/resourc
e/pdfs/fx115ms_training_guide.pdf 18

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▪ You ask for a sundae considering:

▪ 10 flavors and 5 toppings
▪ How many sundays can you make using
3 flavors of ice cream and 2 toppings
a. 10
b. 120
c. 1200
d. 50

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▪ Flavors: 10 Cr 3
▪ C(10,3)=10!/(3!(10-3)!)=120

▪ Toppings: 5 Cr 2
▪ C(5,2)=5!/(2!(5-2)!)=10
▪ Using multiplication rule
▪ 120x10 = 1200

▪ Answer is c

▪ Why is this a combination and not a permutation?

▪ Permutation: Chocolate Vanilla, and Vanilla Chocolate are
permutations for two flavors
▪ Combinations: Chocolate Vanilla is the same as Vanilla
Chocolate
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HTTPS://WWW.SIYAVULA.COM/READ/MATHS/GRADE-10/PROBABILITY/14-PROBABILITY-03

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▪ The complement of the union of two sets is

the intersection of their complements
▪ The complement of the intersection of two
sets is the union of their complements.

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▪A ∪ B = B ∪ A
▪A ∩ B = B ∩ A

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▪ A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
▪ A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

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▪ A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C
▪ A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C

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▪ Conditional probabilities
▪ P(A|B) x P(B) = P(A,B)
𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 𝑃(𝐴)
▪𝑃 𝐴𝐵 =
𝑃(𝐵)

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▪ The following data shows a study of smoking patters by males

and females. What is a probability that if a person from the
smoking group chosen, it is male?

Percentage Gender Smoker Not Smoker Total

0.51 Male
2,000 68,000 70,000

0.49 Female
1,200 61,800 63,000

Total
3,200 129,800 133,000

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▪ Conditional probabilities
▪ P(A|B) x P(B) = P(A,B)
𝑃 𝐵 𝐴 𝑃(𝐴)
▪𝑃 𝐴𝐵 =
𝑃(𝐵)

▪ Conditional probabilities
▪ P(M|S) x P(S) = P(M,S)
𝑃 𝐶𝑀 𝑃(𝑀)
▪𝑃 𝑀 𝑆 =
𝑃(𝐶)

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Percentage Gender Smoker Not Smoker

0.51 Male 0.029 0.971
0.49 Female 0.019 0.981

P(A|B) = P(B|A) x P(A)

P(B)

P(M|S) = P(C|M) x P(M) 0.6096

P(C)

P(S) 0.024
P(M) 0.510
P(S|M) 0.029

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▪ Three providers can source the magnesium used in

your manufacturing plant. As a GMP product, there is
a risk of recalls. The market share and risk of recalls
are shown next.
▪ What is the probability that a recall comes from a Pharma
Lab product?
a. 0.435
b. 0.600 Market
c. 0.069 Company Risk Recalls No recalls
Share
d. 0.050
0.6 Pharma Lab (PL) 0.05 0.95
0.3 Celeb Lab (CL) 0.03 0.97
0.1 New Pharm (NP) 0.3 0.70

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Market
Company Risk Recalls No recalls
Share
0.6 Pharma Lab (PL) 0.05 0.95
0.3 Celeb Lab (CL) 0.03 0.97
0.1 New Pharm (NP) 0.3 0.70
-

P(A|B) = P(B|A) x P(A)

P(B)

P(PL|D) = P(D|PL) x P(D) 0.4348

P(PL)
0.434782609
P(PL) 0.600
P(D) 0.069
P(D|PL) 0.050
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The correct answer is a.
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▪ Consider this discrete probability distribution

X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequenc
y 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

▪ What is the probability that X is less than 6?

▪ What is the probability that X is less or equal to 6?

▪ What is the probability that X is greater or equal than 9?

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X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

P(X<6) = 10/36

X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

P(X<=6) = 15/36

X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

P(X=>9) = 10/36
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▪ Description of set of probabilities associated with values of X.

▪ This can be specified in multiple ways.

▪ Will will discuss this for:
▪ Continuous RV
▪ Discrete RV
equals

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▪ Example:
▪ A variable named X represents the length of a PVC tube. The tube
can measure between 0 and 20cm with a probability density
function of f(x)=0.05.What is the probability the tube measures less
than 8cm?
8
▪ 𝑃 𝑋 < 8 = ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝑥 = 0.05 8 − 0.05 0 = 0.4

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▪ Example:
▪ A variable named X represents the length of a PVC tube. The
tube can measure between 0 and 20cm with a probability
density function of f(x)=0.05.
▪ What is the probability the tube measures is between 5cm
and 10cm?
▪ What is the probability the tube measures > 20 cm

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▪ Example:
▪ A variable named X represents the length of a PVC tube. The tube
can measure between 0 and 20cm with a probability density
function of f(x)=0.05.What is the probability the tube measures is
between 5cm and 10cm?
10
▪ 𝑃 5 < 𝑋 < 10 = ‫׬‬5 𝑓 𝑥 = 0.05 10 − 0.05 5 = 0.25

▪ P(X>20)=0

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▪If X is a continuous random

variable with pdf, f(x)=0.05
defined from 0 to 10, determine
the:
▪ Mean
▪ Expected value

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https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses/Saint_Marys_College_Notre_Dame/MATH_345__-
_Probability_(Kuter)/4%3A_Continuous_Random_Variables/4.2%3A_Expected_Value_and_Variance_of_Continuous_Random_
Variables 55

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▪ If f(x) = x, defined between 0 and 1, the

expected value is:
a. 0
b. 1
c. ½
d. ¾

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▪ Answer: 1

න 𝑓 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = 𝐹 1 − 𝐹 0
0
12
𝐹 1 = = 0.5
2
0
𝐹 0 = =0
2
E(x)=0.5

▪ The correct answer is c

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▪ If f(x) = x, defined between 0 and 1, the

variance value is:
a. 0
b. 1/12
c. 1/2
d. 3/4

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1
▪ Var(X) = E((X − µ) 2) = ‫׬‬0 (x − 1/2)2 dx

𝐹 1 − 𝐹 0 = 1/12

▪ The answer is b

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▪ For the following data sets, the expected value and variance are:

X P(x)
0 0.2
1 0.1
2 0.1
3 0.3
4 0.15
5 0.15

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(x^2)
X P(x) x P(x) P(x)
0 0.2 0 0
1 0.1 0.1 0.1
2 0.1 0.2 0.4
3 0.3 0.9 2.7
4 0.15 0.6 2.4
5 0.15 0.75 3.75
Ex 2.55 Total 9.35
Ex^2 6.5025
Variance 2.8475
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▪ The variance for an individual apple is equal to 2 ounces. What is the overall
standard deviation of a bag of 8 apples?

Apple Variance
1 2
2 2
3 2
4 2
5 2
6 2
7 2
8 2
Total 16
Overall
4
variance

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▪ Two scenarios in Bernoulli events:

▪ Sucess, with probability = p
▪ Failure, with probability = 1-p
▪ Also expressed as q

▪ Other variables
▪ n=sample size
▪ x=numer of sucesses

n n!
B(n, p) = p( x) =   p x (1 − p) n − x = p x (1 − p) n − x
 x x!(n − x)!
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Example:
Compute the probability that of four children in a famility,
two are female

n=
x=
p=

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Solution:
Compute the probability that of four children in a famility,
two are female

n
p(x) =   p x( 1 − p)n − x
 x
p = 0.5; n = 4; x = 2
 4
p( 2 ) =   ( 0.5 )2( 1-0.5 )4- 2
 2

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▪ Variance (σ2)= npq

▪ Estimate the variance:

▪ p = 1/6, q = 5/6, n = 4

▪ Variance = (4)(1/6)(5/6)=20/36=5/9

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▪ What is the probability that you find

exactly 3 defective parts in a lot of 6 if
the historical defective proportion is
20%?
a. 0.2
b. 0.8
c. 0.08
d. 0.98

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6
𝑃(𝑋 = 3) = 0.23 0.86−3
3

𝑃(𝑋 = 3) =0.08

The best answer is c

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▪ What is the probability that you find at

most 3 defective parts in a lot of 6 if the
historical defective proportion is 20%?
a. 0.2
b. 0.8
c. 0.08
d. 0.98

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𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 3) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 0)+𝑃(𝑋 = 1)+𝑃(𝑋 = 2) +𝑃(𝑋 =

3)
The best answer is d

X P(X=x)
0 0.262
1 0.393
2 0.246
3 0.082
Total 0.983
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𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 3) = 0.983

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▪ What is the probability that you find at

least 3 defective parts in a lot of 6 if the
historical defective proportion is 20%?
a. 0.02
b. 0.099
c. 0.2
d. 0.98

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▪ At least X P(X=x)
▪ P(X=>3)=1-P(X<=2)
0 0.262
▪ 1-[P(X=0)+ P(X=1)+ P(X=2)]
1 0.393
2 0.246
P(X=>3) 0.099
▪ The correct answer is b

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𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 2) = 0.9011 𝑃 𝑋 => 3 = 1 − 0.9011 = 0.0989

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X is not normally distributed, take

subgroups of n units (n=5) and
evaluate normality of subgroups.
Usually, normally distributed
tendencies shows on sample sizes as
small as 3
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DC Montgomery – Statistical Quality Control (5th Ed)

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▪ A pharmaceutical process has a mean fill value of

3.25 mL , with standard deviation of 0.5 mL
▪ Case 1 What is the probability bottles are filled at

3mL or less?

P( fill  3) =
P( Z  ( x-mean)/ stdev)

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▪ P(fill < 3) = P(Z<(3.0-3.25)/0.5)

▪ P(fill < 3) = P(Z<-0.50)

▪ How can I obtain this probability?

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▪ P(X<-0.5)=F(-0.5)
▪ F(-0.5) = 1-F(0.5)

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▪ P(Z<-0.5)
▪ F(-0.5) = 1-F(0.5)
Check with your calculator!
▪ F(-0.5) =1-0.6915
▪ F(-0.5) =0.3085
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▪ What is the probability that fill exceeds 3 mL?

▪ P(fill > 3) = P(Z>(3.0-3.25)/0.5)

▪ P(fill > 3) = P(Z>-0.50)

▪ P(Z>-0.5)=F(0.5)

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▪ F(0.5) =0.6915
▪ Check with your calculator!

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Function Probabili
Case Probability Z
table ty Value
2 P(X<3.20)
3 P(X>3.20)
P(3.20<X<3.30) Check individual calculations
4 P(X<3.30)
P(X<3.20)
5 P(X>3.75)
6 P(X<2.25)

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Function Probability
Case Probability Z
table Value
2 P(X<3.20) -0.1 1-F(0.1) 0.4602
3 P(X>3.20) -0.1 1-R(0.1) 0.5398
P(3.20<X<3.30
Check individual calculations
)
4
P(X<3.30) 0.1
2Rx(0.1) 0.0797
P(X<3.20) -0.1
5 P(X>3.75) 1 R(1) 0.1587

6 P(X<2.25) -2 1-F(2) 0.0228

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▪ https://www.casioeducation.com/resource/pdfs/fx115ms_training_guide.pdf 92

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https://www.support.casio-europe.com/es/download/manuals/calc/fx-115ES_991ES_Sp.pdf

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https://www.manualslib.com/manual/358108/Casio-Fx-115es-Plus.html?page=48

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▪ The equation of a straight line is:

y =  0 + 1 x + 
where β0 is the y intercept when x = 0 and β1 is the
slope of the line

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Regression Example
Hydrocarbon - X Purity - Y
0.99 90.01
1.02 89.05
1.15 91.43 Solve using your calculator
1.29 93.74
1.46 96.73
1.36 94.45
0.87 87.59
1.23 91.77
1.55 99.42
1.40 93.65
1.19 93.54
1.15 92.52
0.98 90.56
1.01 89.54
1.11 89.85
1.20 90.39
1.26 93.25
1.31 93.41
1.43 94.98
0.95 87.33 99

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▪ Calculator steps

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What can you see?

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1. Positive slope – direct relation of x and y

2. Intercept > 70
3. Let’s perform the regression analysis

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Intercept slope

Use R-sq to
determine
Percentage of
variation
explained by
regression
These should be
> 65%

Appears to be a
good
regression model

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▪ Predict Y when X=2

▪ Y=74.25+14.98(2)

▪ =104.2

▪ Careful with regression, do not predict extreme values of X as

these where not considered in initial value set

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▪ Residuals are the difference between the actual Y and the

estimated Y (Yhat)
Hydrocarbon - X Purity - Y Predicted - Fit Residual
0.99 90.01 89.0802 0.9298
1.02 89.05 89.5296 -0.4796
1.15 91.43 91.477 -0.047
1.29 93.74 93.5742 0.1658
1.46 96.73 96.1208 0.6092
1.36 94.45 94.6228 -0.1728
0.87 87.59 87.2826 0.3074
1.23 91.77 92.6754 -0.9054
1.55 99.42 97.469 1.951
1.4 93.65 95.222 -1.572
1.19 93.54 92.0762 1.4638
1.15 92.52 91.477 1.043
0.98 90.56 88.9304 1.6296
1.01 89.54 89.3798 0.1602
1.11 89.85 90.8778 -1.0278
1.2 90.39 92.226 -1.836
1.26 93.25 93.1248 0.1252
1.31 93.41 93.8738 -0.4638
1.43 94.98 95.6714 -0.6914 105
0.95 87.33 88.481 -1.151

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▪ Need to be:
▪ Normally distributed
▪ Random

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HTTPS://WWW.CASIOEDUCATION.COM/RESOURCE/PDFS/FX115
MS_TRAINING_GUIDE.PDF

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DETERMINING CORRELATION
▪ Related to regression
▪ Shows strength in the relationship of two variables
▪ If slope in regression > 0, correlation is positive
▪ Direct relation: if x increases, y increases
▪ If slope in regression < 0, correlation is negative
▪ Inverse relation: if x increases, y decreases

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DETERMINING CORRELATION
▪ Linear relationship between two
variables:
▪ Can range from:
▪1 – directly proportional
▪ -1- inversely proportional
▪ 0 – no linear relationship

▪ Good to see the relationship on

Graphs, we’ll do it soon

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CORRELATION

Use before computing correlation or performing regression analysis

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CORRELATION
18

• What is your conclusion?

– Rain decreases as Temperature increases
• Correlation is not that strong,
• Stong direct correlation – index is >0.5
• Stong inverse correlation – index is <-0.5

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Regression Example
Hydrocarbon - X Purity - Y
0.99 90.01
1.02 89.05
1.15 91.43 Compute correlation coefficient
1.29 93.74 using your calculator
1.46 96.73
1.36 94.45
0.87 87.59
1.23 91.77
1.55 99.42
1.40 93.65
1.19 93.54
1.15 92.52
0.98 90.56
1.01 89.54
1.11 89.85
1.20 90.39
1.26 93.25
1.31 93.41
1.43 94.98
0.95 87.33 114

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Is the correlation positive or negative? Why?

Is it strong or weak? Why? 116

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▪ P-value is the probability of getting a value of the sample test

statistic that is at least as extreme as the one found from the
sample data

▪ The approach to hypothesis testing compares a test statistics to

a predetermined critical probability values known as alpha (α)

▪ A small p-value is an indication that the null hypothesis is false

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α or p-value Remarks
p > 5% Significant difference is not proven

1% < p < 5% A statically significant difference

p ≤ 1% A highly significant statistical difference

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▪ Null hypothesis:
▪ The hypothesis to be tested
▪ Directly stems from the problem statement
▪ Denoted as H0
▪ Can only be rejected, or fail to be rejected (it can’t be accepted
because of a lack of evidence to reject it)

▪ If the means of two populations are different, the null

hypothesis of equality can be rejected if enough data is
collected

▪ When rejecting the null hypothesis, the alternate hypothesis

must be accepted

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▪ Type I Error:
▪ Occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is, in fact, true
▪ The probability of making type I error is called alpha (α) and is
referred to as the producer’s risk
▪ Example: a good item is rejected from a false criteria

▪ Type II Error:
▪ Occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it should be
rejected
▪ The error is called the consumer’s risk and denoted as beta (β)
▪ Example: a bad item is accepted as good when it has a defect

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Null Hypothesis

True False
p=1–α
Fail to Reject
Correct p=β
The H0
Decision
Decision
Made p=1–β
Reject p=α
Correct
H0 Type I Error
Decision

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▪ Calculation made from a sample information in order

to test a null hypothesis
▪ A decision can then be made to reject or fail to reject

http://labs.geog.uvic.ca/ 124
geog226/frLab7.html

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Reject Ho Do not reject Ho Reject Ho

Zα/2 Z1-α/2

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Reject Ho Do not reject Ho

Zα

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Do not reject Ho Reject Ho

Z1-α

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Reject Ho Do not reject Ho Reject Ho

Zα/2 Z1-α/2

Define the acceptance / rejection area for a level of significance equal to 5%

α=0.05
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Reject Ho Do not reject Ho Reject Ho

Zα/2 Z1-α/2

Define the acceptance / rejection area for a level of significance equal to 5%,
α=0.05
Level α is split on two tails 129
Z α/2 and Z (1- α/2)

129

Reject Ho Do not reject Ho Reject Ho

Zα/2 Z1-α/2

Z α/2 = Z0.025 =
Z (1- α/2)= Z0.975=
130

130

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▪ Z0.975=1.96 and Z0.025=-1.96

▪ Remember symmetry of gauss bell

131

131

▪ Z0.05=-1.645 or Z0.95=1. 645

132

132

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▪ Use this for two sided tests and confidence intervals

133

133

▪ It applies if:
▪ The population follows a normal distribution
▪ The population standard deviation (σx) is known
▪ Process has been stable for a long time

134

134

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▪ The student’s t distribution applies to samples drawn from a normally

distributed population
▪ It is used for making inferences about a population mean when the
population variance is unknown, and the sample size n is small
▪ The test statistic formula is:

135

135

136

136

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▪ Compute test statistic and draw conclusion based on the

following values:

137

137

▪ Solution: Two tail test, assume α=0.05

138

138

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Reject Ho Do not reject Ho Reject Ho

Mean 119.546
St dev 2
Test Mean 30
N 100
Test Statistic 447.73

Zα/2 Z1-α/2 Fo=447.73

-1.96 +1.96

Reject Ho, mean is not

equal to 30
139

139

P-value<0.05
Reject Ho,
Average distance
is different than 30
140

140

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▪ Compute test statistic and draw conclusion considering

unknown standard deviation at 95% confidence level

141

141

142

142

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143

143

▪ Test statistic is outside acceptance/

P-value<0.05
Rejection area, thus, reject Ho Reject Ho,
Average distance
is different than 105
144

144

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Confidence interval shows the location of the population parameter,

considering the current sample

145

145

▪ The 95% two-sided confidence interval of the mean for a

process where the standard deviation is known and equal to 10 :

µ 200
σ 10
n 150
95% CI

146

146

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µ 200
σ 10
n 150
95% CI

Width 1.6
Upper 201.6
Lower 198.4

198.4 ≤ 𝜇 ≤ 201.6

147

147

▪ The upper bound for a 95% CI

with the values on table is close
to:
a. 30
b. 30.6 µ 31.2
c. 30.7 σ 1.2
d. 32.4 n 16
95% CI

148

148

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▪ The correct answer is b

µ 31.2
σ 1.2
n 16
95% CI

Width 0.6
Upper 31.8
Lower 30.6

149

149

▪ Compute a 95% two-sided t confidence interval considering:

N 20
9.26146
Mean

St Dev 0.022789

150

150

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151

151

N 20
Mean 9.261
St Dev 0.023
t 2.093
Upper 9.272
Lower 9.251

152

152

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▪ The standardized test statistic is called the chi-square test

▪ Population variances are distributed according to the chi-

square distribution

▪ The chi-square test is widely used in:

▪ Comparing variances when the variance of the population is known

▪ Comparing observed and expected frequencies of test outcomes

when there is no defined population variance (attribute data)

153

153

▪ Compute test statistic and draw conclusion using these values

154

154

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155

155

P-value<0.05
Reject Ho,
Variance is not equal to 1

156

156

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Reject Ho since test statistic is outside

acceptance area

157

157

158

158

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▪ Compute a two sided 95% CI for variance considering these

values
5 4.2 4 4.2 4.4 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.9 6
5.1 5.3 5.4 5.9 6 5.5 5.3 5.9 4.6 4.9

159

159

160

160

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▪ Solution
N 20 Upper 0.845
stdev 0.629 Lower 0.229
var 0.396
Chi 0.025 8.907
Chi 0.975 32.852

5 4.2 4 4.2 4.4 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.9 6

5.1 5.3 5.4 5.9 6 5.5 5.3 5.9 4.6 4.9

161

161

▪ Compute test statistic and make conclusion considering the

following values. Assume variances are equal and unknown

162

162

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▪ Solution

P-value>0.05
DO NOT Reject Ho,
Average distances from the
two samples are
statistically 163
similar

163

164

164

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165

165

166

166

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167

167

Score 1 Score 2
▪ H0: σ1 = σ2
20 25
▪ H1: σ1 < σ2
23 46
▪ Use α=0.05 32 56
24 45
25 46
28 51
27.5 34
47.5

168

168

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F1-α,u,v=1/Fα,v,u
F1-.05,6,7=1/F0.05,7,6
F1-.05,6,7=1/4.21
F1-.05,6,7=0.238

169

169

170

170

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Variances
10
10
▪ Is the process variance greater than 2?
10
6
7
12
11
12
10
10
7
14
8
9

171

171

▪ Ho: σ=σ0, Ho: σ=2

▪ Ho: σ>σ0, Ho: σ>2

172

172

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173

173

174

174

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▪ https://www.colorado.edu/ceae/sites/default/files/attached-
files/2014-FE-Review-ProbStat.pdf
▪ https://engineering.purdue.edu/~xe/Forms%20For%20Websit
e/FE%20Review/Slides/ProblemsandSolution1/Prob&Stats_Sol
utions.pdf

175

175

▪ https://ceprofs.civil.tamu.edu/llowery/FEdownloads/Ethics.PD
F

176

176

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▪ MATH
▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDaAM1NwH-
8&list=PLCV9OyAY5K-VOJjVCbvlDpvni2n3dG7jl&index=12&t=0s
▪ Prob and Stat and many others
▪ https://www.youtube.com/user/EngineerInTrainingTV

177

177

178

178

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179

179

180

180

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▪ Complemento:
▪ La parte que falta para completar el todo.
▪ A nivel probabilístico se conoce como P(A’)
▪ P(A) es la probabilidad de que ocurra el evento A
▪ P(A’) es la probabilidad de que este evento A NO ocurra.
▪ Si sumamos P(A) + P(A’) = 1
▪ Esta es la probabilidad del espacio muestral.
▪ Con esta probabilidad cobijamos todos los posibles eventos.

181

181

▪ Intersección (Símbolo ∩)
▪ Evento que ocurre cuando listo todos los elementos comunes de
dos o mas eventos.
▪ A = {1, 2, 3}
▪ B = {2, 4, 6}
▪ A ∩ B = {2}

▪ Eventos mutuamente excluyentes

▪ No tienen elementos en común en el espacio muestral.
▪ A ∩ B =ø

182

182

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▪ Unión (Símbolo U)
▪ Evento que ocurre cuando listo todos los elementos que se
encuentran en dos o mas eventos (sean únicos para un evento o
comunes para dos o mas eventos).
▪ A = {1, 2, 3}
▪ B = {2, 4, 6}
▪ A U B = {1,2, 3, 4, 6}

183

183

▪ Práctica – Indique el resultado para cada uno de los siguientes

enunciados:
▪ A∩ø
▪ AUø
▪ A ∩ A’
▪ A U A’
▪ S’
▪ (A ∩ B)’
▪ (A U B)’

184

184

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▪ Solución – Indique el resultado para cada uno de los siguientes

enunciados:
▪ A ∩ ø =ø
▪ A U ø =A
▪ A ∩ A’ =ø
▪ A U A’ = S
▪ S’ = ø
▪ (A ∩ B)’ = A’ U B’
▪ (A U B)’ = A’ ∩ B’

185

185

▪Consider n object where n1, n2,…

nr, are distinct. The total results in
the sample space is:
▪ n!/(n1! x n2! x … x nr!)

186

186

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▪ Ejemplo:
▪ You need volunteers to assist on a Quality Audit, each will
work one hour, starting at 8am.
▪ They work in different departments
▪ 1 in A
▪ 2 in B
▪ 4 in C
▪ 3 in D
▪ How many arranges for departments can I make?
▪ Solution = ________________________

187

187

▪Total volunteers
▪n=n1+n2+…+nr
▪n=1+2+4+3=10
▪Combinations for department
▪ n!/(n1! x n2! x … x nr!)
▪ 10!/(1!x2!x4!x3!)=12,600

188

188

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▪ De un total de 16 bolas de billar deseamos sacar 3:

▪ Si no nos preocupa el orden,
▪ ¿Cuántos diferentes arreglos de 3 bolas podemos obtener?
▪ C(16,3)=16!/(3!(16-3)!)
▪ C(16,3)=560

189

189

▪ Regla de Multiplicación Generalizada:

▪ Si tenemos un total de m etapas y
cada una de estas etapas se puede
realizar de n maneras, el total de
resultados en el espacio muestral
será:
▪ Total de resultados en S=
▪ n1 x n2 x n3 x … x nm-2 x nm-1 x nm

190

190

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▪ The chi-squared distribution is a special case of the gamma

distribution with
▪ λ = 1/2
▪ r = ν/2 where ν (nu) = 1, 2, 3, …
▪ ν is called the “degrees of freedom”.

191

191

▪ Walpole and Myers – Probability and Statistics

▪ http://www.disfrutalasmatematicas.com/combinatoria/combinaciones
-permutaciones.html
▪ http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=evento%20bernulli&sourc
e=web&cd=1&ved=0CCsQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dmae.up
m.es%2FWebpersonalBartolo%2FProbabilidad%2F5_DistribucionesD
iscretas_total.ppt&ei=HTReT-
TeA43VgAfWlY2iCw&usg=AFQjCNFO_9uWAHJnI-
Z4N7k7xlMKCA9ANg&cad=rja

192

192

96