PROGRAM SAINS FORENSIK

FAKULTI SAINS KESIHATAN

UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA

NNNX2132
BUKTI SUHRI

EXPERIMENT 4:
GLASS

NAME:
ADNEERA HEW ANN LIE (A195562)

DATE:
28 DECEMBER 2023
INTRODUCTION

Glass, in its most common form, is a solid material characterised by its non-crystalline or
amorphous structure. Unlike crystalline solids with a well-ordered arrangement of atoms,
amorphous solids like glass exhibit a random and disordered atomic arrangement. Another
distinctive property of glass is its unique behaviour during heating – rather than melting sharply
at a specific temperature, glass softens over a broad temperature range.

Soda-lime glass, widely used in windows and bottles, is composed of 70% silicon dioxide
(SiO2), 15% sodium oxide (Na2O), 10% calcium oxide (CaO), and 5% other oxides. The
manufacturing process involves heating sodium carbonate (baking powder), calcium oxide (lime
or limestone), and silicon dioxide (sand). This type of glass is recognizable by its green to yellow
tint, attributed to an iron impurity present in the sand. Notably, soda-lime glass starts to soften at
temperatures exceeding 650°C, a characteristic that proves useful in fire investigations.
Deformed or melted windows in a burned structure indicate that the fire reached temperatures
surpassing 650°C. Additionally, common window glass tends to fracture when subjected to
tension on its surfaces or edges, often resulting in visible cracks.

To impart unique appearances to glass, various metal oxides can be incorporated into the basic
composition. For instance, adding lead oxide (PbO) enhances internal light reflection, giving rise
to high brilliance, and is utilised in expensive crystal dinnerware known as lead glass.
Introducing cobalt oxides produces a blue hue, manganese oxide imparts a purple colour,
chromium oxide yields a green shade, and copper oxide creates red or blue-green hues.

In 1912, the Corning Glass Company discovered that incorporating 10% to 15% boron oxide
(B2O3) into glass enhanced its resistance to shock and heat. This borosilicate glass,
commercially known as Pyrex®, proved to be highly durable, resisting the effects of almost all
chemicals, except for hydrofluoric acid (HF), which has the ability to etch its surface.

Glass analysis in forensic science is a comprehensive and intricate process that plays a crucial
role in criminal investigations. The examination of glass fragments found at crime scenes or on
individuals involves a meticulous study of their physical and chemical properties. Physical
attributes such as colour, thickness, and any distinctive features are carefully scrutinised, while
chemical properties, including the elemental composition of the glass, provide additional
insights. These characteristics serve as the foundation for the comparative analysis that is at the
heart of forensic glass examination.

One of the primary techniques employed in glass analysis is the determination of refractive
index. This method involves measuring how much light is bent as it passes through a glass
fragment. By comparing the refractive index of questioned glass with that of known samples,
forensic analysts can discern whether the fragments share a common source. This process is
particularly effective in differentiating between different types of glass, aiding in the critical task
of source identification.
Density measurements are another facet of glass analysis. Variations in density, influenced by
factors such as composition and manufacturing processes, can be crucial in distinguishing
between different sources of glass. The meticulous examination of colour and thickness further
enhances the comparative analysis, as these characteristics can vary significantly based on the
manufacturing methods and additives used. Consistency or disparity in these features
contributes to the overall assessment of a potential match.

Fracture pattern analysis is a pivotal aspect of glass examination. When glass breaks, it exhibits
characteristic radial and concentric fracture patterns. Forensic experts leverage these patterns
to determine the direction of impact and sequence of events leading to the glass breakage. This
information aids in the reconstruction of the dynamics of a crime scene, providing investigators
with valuable insights into the circumstances surrounding the glass fragments.

In cases involving laminated glass, which is commonly found in vehicles and architectural
structures, forensic analysts focus on the layers within the glass structure. Laminated glass
consists of layers bonded with an interlayer of plastic, and detailed examination of these layers
can offer insights into the type of laminated glass used. This, in turn, aids in establishing
connections between crime scenes and potential sources of evidence.

On June 24, 1995, a report was made to the police on Providenciales Island in the Turks and
Caicos Islands, indicating the discovery of a woman's body alongside the Leeward Highway.
The police arrived to find the lifeless body of a 42-year-old woman in a face-down position. After
a thorough investigation, authorities determined that the victim had been hit by a car after
midnight while walking home from her job as a waitress.

The local constable meticulously documented the area surrounding the body, noting various
items scattered nearby, including earrings, a watch, a pendant and chain, eyeglasses, debris
from a vehicle's undercoating, and nine large glass fragments. Detailed documentation involved
photographing the items in their original positions, measuring distances from the body to the
objects, and collecting soil samples from the surroundings. All these items were carefully
packaged and dispatched to the Miami-Dade Police Crime Laboratory in Florida for further
analysis.

Approximately eleven days later, a suspect emerged as neighbours reported the absence of a
headlight on his car. The suspect, upon identification, denied any involvement in the incident
and insisted on having legal representation during subsequent questioning. Upon inspecting the
suspect's vehicle, authorities discovered significant damage to the driver-side front fender, along
with a missing headlight on that side. Despite a thorough washing of the car, no biological
material was found. However, glass fragments were discovered lodged in the bumper and inside
the lamp assembly of the missing headlight. The constable collected these fragments and
debris samples from the car's undercarriage for additional analysis.

The Miami-Dade Police Crime Laboratory, in particular, focused on analysing the glass
fragments to establish a potential link between those found at the crime scene and those
recovered from the suspect's vehicle. Visual inspections for fracture matches did not yield any
results initially. However, further analysis revealed that glass fragments bearing the markings
"e-a-l-e-d," recovered from the crime scene, were a match to those obtained from the suspect's
car. Utilising a GRIM2 refractive index measurement apparatus, the police lab determined that
nine of the crime scene fragments shared statistically significant similarities with those from the
suspected vehicle. Furthermore, the lab employed elemental analysis with an inductively
coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) to affirm that all the fragments
originated from a common source.

When an external force is applied to a glass object, it undergoes deformation until it reaches its
elastic limit. Beyond this point, the force causes fractures and breaks in the glass. The initial
challenge in forensic analysis is determining the nature of the object that caused the damage.
Examination of any resulting hole is crucial in discerning whether the object was a low or
high-velocity projectile. High-velocity projectiles, such as bullets, typically produce exit holes
wider than entry holes. In contrast, low-velocity bullet holes exhibit more shattering around the
hole, leading to irregular shapes. Stones ejected at high speed, for instance, from a tire, can
also create glass damage resembling bullet fracture patterns. Therefore, a meticulous search of
the crime scene is essential to identify other evidence that can shed light on the cause of the
glass breakage. Additionally, testing the window for gunshot residue or metal residue aids in the
investigative process.

Conchoidal fracture patterns in glass result from stress and breakage due to applied forces.
These fractures manifest as either radial or concentric patterns. Radial fractures extend outward
in a straight line from the point where the force was applied, while concentric fractures create
circular patterns around the force's point of origin.

Observing the edge of a fractured glass piece reveals the conchoidal pattern, and using a hand
lens or stereoscope allows for the examination of stress lines. On one side of the glass, these
lines intersect at right angles, while on the other side, they intersect obliquely. Differentiating
between radial and concentric fractures helps investigators determine the direction of the force
impact. In cases of radial fractures, the lines intersect the surface at right angles on the side
opposite to where the force was applied. In concentric fractures, the force of impact aligns with
the side where the lines intersect the surface at right angles.

Analyzing multiple fracture patterns in a single glass piece enables investigators to establish the
sequence of events. A fracture pattern stops when it intersects an existing fracture line,
providing valuable insights into the chronological order of the glass fractures. This detailed
examination of glass fracture patterns is pivotal in reconstructing events and determining the
dynamics of the force applied to the glass in forensic investigations.

When an opposing force acts in the opposite direction, it induces secondary fractures in glass
known as concentric fractures. These fractures form broken circles or arcs around the point of
impact, contrasting with the primary radial fractures. The mechanism of concentric fractures
involves the glass bending on the opposite side from the original blow, stretching, and
subsequently breaking on the side where the initial force was applied. These fractures extend
from one radial fracture to another, creating a distinctive pattern.

The edges of broken glass pieces exhibit curved lines known as stress lines. These lines are
nearly parallel to one side of the glass and perpendicular to the other. Stress lines, often visible
to the naked eye, signify the buildup of stress in the glass until it eventually breaks. They are
always perpendicular to the side that breaks first. In radial fractures, stress lines are
perpendicular to the side opposite from where the blow was struck, while in concentric fractures,
stress lines are perpendicular to the side where the blow originated.

The 3-R rule, derived from these observations, states that in radial fractures, the stress lines are
at right angles to the rear surface. This rule aids examiners in determining the direction of the
force applied when analyzing fracture patterns. However, examining a single piece of broken
glass is usually insufficient to ascertain the direction of the blow. For a conclusive determination,
enough glass fractures must be assembled to identify the radial edges.

The process of determining the outside and inside of the glass involves examining the surface,
noting dirt accumulation, putty marks, and other indicators that aid in restoring the pane to its
original form. Once enough pieces are reassembled to identify radial and concentric fractures,
the stress lines on the edges are scrutinized to determine the direction of the force.

In criminal investigations involving explosives or inflammables, glass and glass fragments at the
crime scene can offer valuable information. Broken door or windowpanes, whether broken
inwardly or outwardly, may suggest means of entry or indicate exposure to heat. Glass
fragments, especially from bottles or jars, could carry odors or chemical traces of explosive or
inflammable agents. These traces may be identifiable on-site or subjected to laboratory analysis
for further identification, aiding investigators in reconstructing events and understanding the
circumstances of the crime.

Concentric and radial are terms used to describe two distinct types of fracture patterns observed
in glass, each providing valuable information for forensic investigators and analysts. These
patterns are crucial in reconstructing events related to crimes involving glass breakage, such as
accidents, burglaries, or acts of vandalism.

**Concentric Glass Fractures:**

Concentric fractures in glass are characterized by circular or ring-like patterns that radiate
outward from the point of impact or stress. These fractures occur when an external force is
applied to the glass, causing it to break in a manner that forms concentric circles around the
impact point. This type of fracture is commonly associated with blunt force, where an object
strikes the glass surface. The concentric rings expand outward, creating a pattern that
resembles ripples on water. Forensic analysts carefully examine the concentric fractures to
determine the direction and force of the impact, aiding in the reconstruction of events.

**Radial Glass Fractures:**

In contrast, radial fractures in glass extend outward from a single point of impact in straight lines
or rays. These fractures result from a force applied perpendicular to the glass surface, causing
cracks to radiate outward like spokes on a wheel. Radial fractures are often observed when a
bullet penetrates a glass surface or when a sharp object, such as a pointed tool, is used to
create an impact. The lines move away from the point of impact, and the length and direction of
these lines can help analysts establish the trajectory and nature of the force applied.

**Forensic Significance:**
Both concentric and radial fractures play a crucial role in forensic glass analysis. Analyzing
these fracture patterns allows forensic experts to determine the sequence of events leading to
glass breakage, the direction of force applied, and the nature of the impacting object. This
information is invaluable in crime scene reconstruction, helping investigators understand the
dynamics of incidents involving glass breakage. Additionally, the examination of fracture
patterns assists in differentiating accidental breakage from intentional acts, aiding law
enforcement in their investigative efforts.

In conclusion, concentric and radial glass fractures represent distinct patterns resulting from
different types of forces applied to glass surfaces. The careful examination of these fracture
patterns is a vital aspect of forensic glass analysis, providing critical insights into the
circumstances surrounding incidents and contributing to the overall understanding of criminal
events.
Forensic laboratories maintain extensive databases of known glass samples, compiled from
various sources such as vehicles, architectural structures, and household items. Comparative
analysis involves matching questioned glass fragments with samples from the database. The
goal is to identify common characteristics and establish the likelihood of a shared source.
Results from glass analysis often form the basis of expert testimony in court, where forensic
experts explain their methodologies, the significance of their findings, and the probability of a
match between questioned and known samples. This expert testimony provides the court with
scientifically valid and reliable evidence, contributing to the overall investigative process. Glass
analysis, therefore, stands as a powerful tool in forensic science, aiding in the reconstruction of
events, linking suspects to crime scenes, and providing crucial evidence in the pursuit of justice.
RESULTS
DISCUSSIONS

1. The analysis of IR4, referring to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, plays an

increasingly crucial role in forensic investigations. Several factors influence the
effectiveness and overall implementation of IR4 analysis in forensic
investigations:

The analysis of IR4, denoting the Fourth Industrial Revolution, is becoming increasingly
integral to forensic investigations. Several factors shape the efficacy and overall implementation
of IR4 analysis in this context.

Firstly, advancements in sensor technology and equipment form a pivotal factor. Tools
such as infrared sensors, Internet of Things (IoT) devices, and artificial intelligence systems
contribute to the swift and efficient collection and analysis of substantial data volumes. The
effectiveness of IR4 analysis hinges on the precision and relevance of data obtained through
these sophisticated tools.

Data security and privacy emerge as critical considerations in the application of IR4
technology to forensic investigations. Given the exchange and storage of large and sensitive
data, ensuring robust data protection measures and compliance with privacy laws becomes
imperative for maintaining the integrity of the investigative process.

The capability to handle and analyze big data swiftly constitutes another essential factor.
Forensic investigations involve diverse data sources such as images, digital records, and
sensor data. The ability of IR4 analysis algorithms to discern patterns, relationships, and
pertinent evidence from extensive datasets significantly influences the overall effectiveness of
forensic investigations.

The competence and training of forensic personnel represent a foundational factor in the
success of IR4 analysis. Professionals need to be adept in utilizing cutting-edge technology,
understanding intricate algorithms, and interpreting analysis results accurately. The proficiency
of personnel is paramount to ensuring the reliability of IR4 analysis outcomes.

Collaboration and standardization also play pivotal roles in the adoption of IR4 analysis
in forensic investigations. Effective collaboration between forensic agencies, technology
providers, and the private sector is essential. Standardizing procedures and protocols across
the industry enhances the reliability and consistency of results obtained through IR4 analysis.

Additionally, the security capabilities and recovery mechanisms of systems used in IR4
analysis impact the reliability of results. Risks such as data leaks or cyber-attacks can
compromise the forensic investigation process. Thus, cybersecurity measures and robust
system recovery mechanisms are crucial considerations in the successful implementation of IR4
analysis.
 In conclusion, while the application of IR4 analysis technology offers substantial
advantages in forensic investigations, a comprehensive understanding of these influencing
factors is essential. By addressing issues related to sensor technology, data security, personnel
training, collaboration, and system security, forensic investigators can harness the full potential
of IR4 analysis for accurate and reliable investigative outcomes.
CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the forensic experiment focusing on glass analysis provides valuable

insights into the intricate methods employed in the examination and comparison of glass
fragments. The multifaceted nature of the experiment, encompassing physical, chemical, and
optical analyses, underscores the importance of a comprehensive approach in forensic science.

The utilization of techniques such as refractive index analysis, density measurements,

and the study of fracture patterns allows forensic experts to establish connections between
questioned and known glass samples. The meticulous examination of color, thickness, and
laminated glass structures further contributes to the discrimination of sources, enhancing the
investigative process.

The experiment highlights the significance of databases containing known glass

samples, facilitating comparative analyses that aid in the identification of a common source.
Expert testimony, a critical aspect of the forensic process, draws upon the results of glass
analysis to provide the court with scientifically sound and reliable evidence.

Moreover, the experiment underscores the role of technological advancements, such as

refractive index measurement apparatus and elemental analysis tools, in enhancing the
precision and efficiency of glass analysis. The ability to discern unique characteristics and
associations between questioned and known samples is crucial in reconstructing crime scenes
and establishing links between evidence and potential sources.

In essence, the glass analysis forensic experiment not only showcases the meticulous
methodologies employed in forensic science but also underscores the pivotal role of
interdisciplinary approaches in unraveling complex criminal investigations. The findings
contribute not only to the scientific understanding of glass properties but also play a key role in
the pursuit of justice through the application of reliable and robust forensic evidence.
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https://www.cellmarkforensics.co.uk/services/forensic-casework/glass/

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https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/232134.pdf

3. Forensic glass analysis. (2023, January 30). Wikipedia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_glass_analysis

4. Investigator Examination. (n.d.). Www.tpub.com. Retrieved January 1, 2024, from

https://www.tpub.com/maa/189.htm

5. Fractured Glass Lab. (n.d.). Mr. C’s Biology Homepage.

http://mrcatlee.weebly.com/fractured-glass-lab.html