Chapter 2 - Levelling Equipment

Definition 1. Level with tripod (device

The process of measuring the difference or the to gives a truly
determination of relative heights of points on the horizontal line)
surface of the Earth 2 Levelling staff (a suitably
2.
graduated staff for
readingg vertical heights)
g )
3. Chain/Tape (to enable
the points leveled to be
located relative to each
other on a map)
4 Change
4. Ch plate
l t (staff
( t ff b
base
plate)
5 Staff bubble
5.

Levelling: 1 Levelling: 2

Elements of Surveyor’s Level Elements of Surveyor’s Level

1. Telescope 2. Compensating Device in
 Diaphragm – plane glass on Automatic Level
which a series of line is
etched (cross-hairs)  The telescope need only
 Parallax – in focusing
f the real be approximately
image formed by the levelled and then a
objective lens is made to lie in compensating
p g device
the same plane as diaphragm corrects for the residual
mislevelment
Procedure of focusing:
a) Adjusting eyepiece to bring
diaphragm into sharp focus
b) Adjust focusing screw until no
parallax

Levelling: 3 Levelling: 4
Levelling Staff
1. Sectional and assembled
by slotting onto one
another vertically
2 Made of aluminium alloy
2.
3. E-shaped graduation
(reading to 1mm for
ordinary levelling)
Levelling: 5
Digital Levelling
uses electronic image
processing
i tot
evaluate the staff
reading.
di
use detector diode
array to derive signal
pattern coming from
the reflected bar-
code-type levelling
staff.
Levelling: 7
Precision Levelling Staff
1. Used for more
accurate work
(accuracy to 0.1mm in
use with precise level)
2. Spring-mounted at the
topp
3. Made of invar alloy
(iron + nickel) which
has a lower coefficient
of expansion –
unaffected by
temperature effects
Levelling: 6
Digital Levelling
 angular aperture of the
instrument is 2o
 70mm of staff being
imaged at a range of
1 80m
1.80m
 3.5m at a range of 100m.
 image converted into analogue
signal and compared with an
internal reference code.
Levelling: 8
Levelling Terminology Levelling Terminology (con’t)
1. Level line is a surface 3. Datum
which is at a constant
height relative to Mean  A level line is chosen in which the elevation of
Sea Level (MSL) and is a all points is referred
curvedd line
li
a) Mean Sea Level (MSL) is the mean of tidal
2. Horizontal line is
tangential to the level height
g over a period
p of time (>( 19 years)
y )
line at any particular b) Principal Datum Hong Kong (PDHK) – most of
point and is
perpendicular
di l to t the
th the works in HK refer to this
this. It is 1
1.230m
230m
direction of gravity. below MSL (revised in June 1984)
Over short distance
distance, the 2 c) Chart Datum (CD) is a tidal datum for marine
lines are taken to
coincide
works and navigation

Levelling: 9 Levelling: 10

Relationship among different datums

(Source: Lands Department, No Date) Levelling Terminology (con’t)
4) Bench Marks
 Points of known
elevation above PDHK
a) Bench Mark (BM) –
established on vertical
surfaces such as walls
of buildings or
substantial structures

Levelling: 11 Levelling: 12
Levelling Terminology (con’t) Levelling Terminology (con’t)
4. Bench Marks (con’t) 7. Backsight (BS) – 1st sight taken after the level has been set up. It is
b) Temporary
T B
Benchh Marks
M k also a sight taken to a point whose height above HKPD is known
(TBM) – constructed at +5.00 8. Foresight (FS) – last sight taken before moving the level. It is also a
sight taken to a point whose height is required to carry on the line
locations on site or off off levels
site, where the level of 9. Intermediate Sight (IS) – other staff readings taken between BS and
the mark is calculated FS
from PDHK 10. Change Point (CP) – the staff position at which a FS and then a BS
5. Reduced Level (RL) – TBM readings are taken
the height of a point +10 00
+10.00
relative to PDHK
6 Height
6. H i ht off C
Collimation
lli ti isi
the height of collimation
above PDHK

Levelling: 13 Levelling: 14

Levelling Terminology (con’t) Procedure in Levelling

FS

BS
FS 1. Height of Collimation Method
 1st find the height of the line of collimation above the datum
IS IS Height of collimation (HC) = 128.480
128 480 + 3.222
3 222 = 131.702m
131 702m PD
BS a) level at B (rise from A to B)
= height of collimation – reading at B = 131.702 – 1.414
= 130.288m PD
b) level at B (rise from A to B)
= height of collimation – reading at B = 131.702 – 3.484
= 128.218m PD
Levelling: 15 Levelling: 16
Procedure in Levelling Booking and Calculation
1) Rise and Fall Method – each reading is entered on a different line in the
appropriate column, except at a change point, where a FS and BS occupy the
same line. To check, BS - FS = Rise - Fall = Last RL – First RL
BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remarks
0.663 98.760 BM
1.946 1.283 97.477 A
2. Rise and Fall Method 1.008 0.938 98.415 B
 Rise – 2nd reading < 1st reading 1.153 0.145 98.270 C
 Fall - 2nd reading > 1st reading 2.787 1.585 0.432 97.838 D (CP)
a) from A to B b) from A to B 2.270 0.517 98.355 E
1st reading – 2nd
reading 1st reading – 2nd reading 1.218 1.052 99.407 F
= 3.222
3 222 – 1.414
1 414 = 11.808
808 (rise) = 3.222 – 3.484 = -0.262
0.262 (fall)
0 646
0.646 0 572
0.572 99 979
99.979 G
level at B (rise from A to B) level at B (fall from A to B)
= level at A - fall 3.450 2.231 3.079 1.860 99.979
= level at A + rise
= 128.480 + 1.808 = 128.480
128 480 + 0.262
0 262 2 231
2.231 1 860
1.860 98 760
98.760
= 130.288mPD = 128.218mPD 1.219 1.219 1.219
Levelling: 17 Levelling: 18

Booking and Calculation (con’t) Comparison

2) Height of Collimation Method – the collimation height is obtained by
adding the staff reading, which must be a BS, to the known RL of the point on Rise and Fall Method
which the staff stands. To check, BS - FS = Last RL – First RL
 More accurate
BS IS FS Collimation RL Remarks  More calculation
0.663 99.423 98.760 BM  Intermediate RLs are known
1.946 97.477 A
1 008
1.008 98 415
98.415 B
Height of Collimation Method
1.153 98.270 C  Quicker
2.787 1.585 100.625 97.838 D (CP)  Good for a lot of ISs
2.270 98.355 E
1.218 99.407 F
0.646 99.979 G
3.450 2.231 99.979
2 231
2.231 98 760
98.760
1.219 1.219
Levelling: 19 Levelling: 20
Accuracy in Levelling Summary of Levelling Fieldwork

For normal engineering works and site surveys  For levelling fieldwork, the following practice should be
adhered to in order to improve the accuracy of the
Allowable misclosure = ± 5  n mm levelling works.
where n = no. of instrument positions 1. Levelling should always start and finish at points of
OR known RL so that misclosure can be detected
Allowable misclosure = ± 12  k mm 2. Where possible, all sight lengths should be below 60 m
3 The
3. Th staff
t ff mustt b
be held
h ld vertically
ti ll byb suitable
it bl use off a
where k = length of levelling circuit in km
bracket bubble
If actual misclosure > allowable misclosure, 4 BS  FS Lengths
4.
levelling should be repeated 5. Reading should be booked immediately after they
If actual misclosure < allowable misclosure
misclosure, are observed. Important
p readings,
g , particularly
p y readings
g
at change points, should be checked
misclosure should be equally distributed equally 6. The rise and fall method of reduction should be used if
between the instrument positions possible especially for control works
possible,

Levelling: 21 Levelling: 22

Collimation Error Permanent Adjustment – Two Peg Test

if level is set up, levelled and the line of sight or 1. On fairly level ground, set 2 points A and B, a maximum of 60m
apart. Let this distance be L metres
collimation is not truly horizontal,
horizontal it will sweep out a 2. Set up the level exactly midway between the points at point C and
cone as it is rotated. level carefully
3. Place a levelling staff at each peg in turn and obtain readings S1
this cone will be either above or below the horizontal and S2
plane S1 – S2 = (S1’ + x ) – (S2’ + x) = S1’ – S2’
= true difference on height between A and B
X is the error due to collimation error (inclination of the collimation line by
Staff angle 

o o
Horizontal Linee Level

Line of Sight

Levelling: 23 Levelling: 24
Permanent Adjustment – Two Peg Test Permanent Adjustment – Two Peg Test

4. Move the level so that it is L/10 metres from point B at 5. Any error e of the level should be adjusted using the
D Take readings S3 and S4
D. adjusting screw with the collimation line altered to the
Apparent difference in height between A and B = S3 – S4 correct staff reading
If there is any difference between the apparent and true value, For example, to adjust the level with instrument at D
e = (S1 – S2) – (S3 – S4) m per L metres and staff at A,
(e should be less than ±0.5mm per 10 m for average precision) S4’ = S4 – e(L/10 + L) / L
6 The
6. Th test
t t should
h ld beb repeated
t d to
t ensure that
th t th
the
adjustment has been successful

Levelling: 25 Levelling: 26

Two Peg Test - Example Two Peg Test - Example

 The reading obtained from a two-peg test Two-Peg Test Computation

carried out on an automatic level with a single True Difference in Height AB (1St Setup)
levelling staff set up alternately at 2 pegs A and B1 – A1 = 0.860 – 1.283 = - 0.423
B placed 60m apart are as follows: Relative Difference in Height AB (2nd Setup)
B2 – A2 = 1.219 – 1.612 = - 0.393
1. With the level midway between A and B
Staff reading at A = 1.283m Collimation Error
Staff reading at B = 0.860m = [(B2 – A2 ) – (B1 – A1 )] / 50
= [(0.393 – 0.423)] / 50 = - 0.0006m / m
2. With the level p
positioned 5 m from peg
p g B on
the line produced from AB Corrections
Staff reading at A = 1.612m A3= 1.612 + 0.0006 * (50+3) = 1.644
St ff reading
Staff di att B = 11.219m
219 B3 = 1
1.219
219 + 0.0006
0 0006 * 3 = 1.221
1 221

Find the collimation error (e) and corrected B3 - A3 = 1.221-1.644 = -0.423 (Checked)
staff reading (S4’)?
(S4 )?
Levelling: 27 Levelling: 28
Errors in Levelling Errors in Levelling (con’t)

 Errors in Equipment  Field Errors

1 Collimation
1. C lli ti Error
E 1 Staff
1. St ff nott vertical
ti l
 Keep sight distance roughly equal  Staff is held vertical with aid of a bracket bubble
 Check by two peg test regularly 2 Unstable ground
2.
2. Parallax Error  A change plate should be used
 Move eye with respect to eyepiece, see if any relative movement 3. Instrument not level
between target & cross-hairs, if so adjust eyepiece
 Ensure that the circular bubble is centered before and after a
3. Defects of Staff reading is taken
 Zero error
error, check by tape
tape, does not affect height difference if one 4 Weather
4. W th condition
diti
staff is used
 Avoid windy condition
 3-section staff should be properly extended
 Avoid line of collimation close to the ground in hot weather
4. Tripod
5. Checking
 Robust, properly tightened
 Start and finish at points of known height
 On soft ground
ground, force it firmly into the ground
 Run a loop

Levelling: 29 Levelling: 30

Errors in Levelling (con’t) Error adjustments in levelling calculations

 Reading and Booking Errors 1. Rise and Fall Method

1. Misreading of the staff graduation BS IS FS Rise Fall

Provisional
RL Correction
Corrected
RL Remarks
 Keep sight distance < 60 m, otherwise it becomes
1.944 32.640 - 32.640 BM
i
impossible
ibl to
t take
t k accurate
t readings
di
1.691 0.253 32.893 0.003 32.896 CH0
2. Erroneous Booking 2.009 0.318 32.575 0.003 32.578 CH20
 Carefully
C f ll entered
t d the
th reading
di into
i t the
th fieldbook
fi ldb k
0.367 2.842 0.833 31.742 0.003 31.745 CH40
 always read the staff, book the observation and then
1.223 0.856 30.886 0.005 30.891 CH60
check that the recorded entry y agrees
g with a second
reading through the telescope. 1.347 0.124 30.762 0.005 30.767 CH80

2.114 0.775 0.572 31.334 0.005 31.339 CH100

0.816 1.298 32.632 0.008 32.640 BM

4.425 4.433 2.123 2.131 32.632

4 433
4.433 2 131
2.131 32 640
32.640

-0.008 -0.008 -0.008

Levelling: 31 Levelling: 32
Error adjustments in levelling calculations Error adjustments in levelling calculations
2. Height of Collimation Method
Note:
BS IS FS Collimation Provisional RL Correction
Corrected
RL Remarks
 Misclosures = -0.008m
1.944 34.584 32.640 - 32.640 BM
 No. of instrument station = 3
1.691 32.893 0.003 32.896 CH0  Correction is +0.0027m and is added to the RL found
2.009 32.575 0.003 32.578 CH20 from each instrument station
0.367 2.842 32.109 31.742 0.003 31.745 CH40  No adjustment
d is applied
l d to the
h initiall BM, since this
h
1.223 30.886 0.005 30.891 CH60 level cannot be altered.
1.347 30.762 0.005 30.767 CH80

2.114 0.775 33.448 31.334 0.005 31.339 CH100

0 816
0.816 32 632
32.632 0 008
0.008 32 640
32.640 BM

4.425 4.433 32.632

4 433
4.433 32 640
32.640

-0.008 -0.008
Levelling: 33 Levelling: 34

Additional Levelling Methods Example

1. Inverted Staff BS IS FS Collimation RL Remarks

 Used to determine the RL of 1.432 31.432 30.000 TBM A

points, such as the soffit of a -0.874 -1.235 31.793 32.667 Top of wall
bridge, underpass or canopy -1.107 32.900 Arch soffit
 The inverted staff reading is 1 383
1.383 30 410
30.410 B
booked with a negative sign 0.558 0.148 30.410
0.148 30.000
BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remarks 0.410 0.410
1.750 72.300 BM BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remarks
-3.100 4.850 77.150 A)) Frame ((lift-shaft)) 1 432
1.432 30 000
30.000 TBM A
1.490 4.590 72.560 B) Floor Level
-0.874 -1.235 2.667 32.667 Top of wall
-4.210 -2.560 4.050 76.610 C) Canopy
4 200
4.200 8 410
8.410 68 200
68.200 D) Kerb -1.107 0.233 32.900 Arch soffit
-2.460 1.640 8.900 13.000 68.200 1.383 2.490 30.410 B
1.640 13.000 72.300 0.558 0.148 2.900 2.490 30.410
-4.100
4 100 -4.100
4 100 -4.100
4 100 0 148
0.148 2 490
2.490 30 000
30.000
0.410 0.410 0.410

Levelling: 35 Levelling: 36
Additional Levelling Methods Effects of Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction

2. Reciprocal Levelling A. Earth’s Curvature

 By means of reciprocal levelling
levelling, the need for applying In ,

curvature and refraction corrections may be avoided L2 + R2 = (R + c)2
 2 similar instruments in correct adjustment
j are required
q L2 = (R + c)2 - R2
H = ((a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2)) / 2
L2 = 2cR + c2
L2  2cR
c  L2 / 2R (km)
= 0.0785 L2 (m)
( )
where
radius of the Earth,
R  6370 km
and L in km

Levelling: 37 Levelling: 38

Effects of Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction References

Refraction  Allan, A.L. (1997). Practical Surveying and Computations. 2nd

Ed., Butterworth
Butterworth- Heinemann.
 Line of sight is not really horizontal and bent  Bannister, A., Raymond, S. and Baker, R. (1998). Surveying. 7th
downwards towards the Earth Ed., Longman.
 Value
V l nott constant,
t t affected
ff t d b by pressure, ttemperature,
t  Irvine, W. & Maclennan F. (2006). Surveying forf Construction.
latitude, humidity etc. 5th Ed., McGraw Hill.
 Kavanagh, Barry F. & Bird, Glenn S.J. (2000). Surveying
 Usually taken as 1/7 and opposite of the correction of
Principles and Applications. 5th Ed., Prentice Hall.
curvature
 Leick, A. (2004). GPS Satellite Surveying. 3rd Ed., John Wiley &
Combined correction Sons.
Sons
= 0.0785 L2 * (6/7) = 0.0673 L2 (m)  Petrie, G. & Kennie, T.J. (1994). Engineering Surveying
Technology. J. Wiley & Sons.
where L in km
 Schofield W. & Breach M. (2007). Engineering Surveying. 6th
If L = 120m, c = -0.00097m  0.001m  1mm Ed., Butterworth- Heinemann.
The effect is negligible for ordinary levelling

Levelling: 39 Levelling: 40