• Aviation Fuel

• Light aircraft fuel systems

• Commercial aircraft fuel
systems
• Military aircraft fuel
systems
• Helicopter fuel systems
• In-flight re-fuelling

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• Aviation gasoline is a high
octane fuel called AVGAS
• Similar to automotive petrol
• Supplied in batches to a strict
quality control
• Various grades to suit type of
engine
• Higher grades of fuel for higher
engine compression ratios
without detonating
• Sometimes using lead additives
AVGAS is colour coded to help prevent use of wrong fuel

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 Also known as AVTUR

• Produced to an internationally standardised set of specifications

• Greater tendency to absorb water compared to AVGAS
• Straw coloured
• Based on kerosene (paraffin)
• Distinctive smell
• Specific gravity ~ 0.8

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Jet A-1
• Freezing point < −47°C • Boiling point range = (165-290)°C
• Flash point > 38°C • Auto-ignition temperature > 210°C
• Density at 15°C = (775 – 840) kg/m3 • Specific gravity ~ 0.8
• Specific energy (calorific value) = 42.8 MJ/kg
Jet A
• Similar to Jet A-1 with same flash point but higher freeze point max (-40 °C)
Jet B
• Wide-cut blend of kerosene (~65%) & gasoline (~35%)
• Higher flammability than Jet A
• Rarely used nowadays except in very cold climates

Flash point
Temperature at and above which a liquid gives off enough flammable vapor to form
a mixture with air that can be ignited by contact with a hot surface, spark, or flame.
Lower the flash point, greater the fire hazard.

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• JP-8 - military equivalent of Jet A-1 + extra thermal stability additives
It is the dominant military jet fuel grade for NATO air forces.

• JP-5 - higher flash point (~ 60°C) - safer storage & handling - used by navy
• JP-9 - high density fuel – long range air-launched cruise missiles with limited
fuel storage volume
• JP-4 (AVTAG) - general military equivalent of Jet B

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Anti-oxidants
• Prevent formation of gum deposits on fuel system components
Static dissipater additives
• Reduce hazardous effects of static electricity generated by fuel movement
through modern high flow-rate fuel transfer systems
– Bonding still needed to ensure electrical continuity between metal
components
• e.g. aircraft fuelling equipment
– Do not influence hazards from lightning strikes.
Corrosion inhibitors
• Protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, pipes & storage tanks
Icing Inhibitors
• Reduce freezing point of water precipitated from jet fuels at cold, high
altitude conditions
• Help prevent formation of ice crystals which could restrict engine fuel flow
• Do not affect freezing point of fuel itself
Biocide additives
• Combat microbiological growths in jet fuel.
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 Many aircraft engines can operate satisfactorily on standard
automotive gasoline known as MOGAS.

MOGAS
• May contain alcohol additives
• More volatile
• More prone to fuel system
vapour locks
• Operation of aircraft engines
on MOGAS requires
supplementary aircraft type
certificate

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• Possible full or partial replacement of oil based aviation fuel by:
– Biofuels
– Fuels manufactured from hydrogen
– Fuels manufactured from natural gas

Monday, October 12, 2009 - London Gatwick to Doha

• Qatar Airways Airbus A340-600 aircraft
with R-R Trent 556 engines
• World’s first commercial passenger flight
powered by fuel made from natural gas

• Current aviation fuels extensively proven for many years as being safe
& reliable over a very wide range of ambient conditions
• Any new fuel would need to be proven to behave with similar
consistency with minimal change to engine set-up

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• Specific gravity of aviation gasoline ~ 0.7
• Specific gravity of aviation kerosene ~ 0.8
• Specific gravity varies with fuel temperature
– Affects weight of fuel carried by an aircraft with
tanks containing their maximum volume of fuel

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of any substance to

the density of some other substance taken as standard, water
being the standard for liquids and solids, and hydrogen or air
being the standard for gases.

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Prime Function
• Provide reliable supply of fuel to engines & auxiliary power unit
• World consumption of jet fuel ~ 200 million gallons per day

System Components
• Tanks
• Pumps
• Valves
• Pipes
• Fuel Drains
• Heaters
• Filters
• Measurement Devices
– Rate of flow delivered
– Quantity of fuel stored

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• The purpose of an aircraft fuel system is to store and deliver the
proper amount of clean fuel at the correct pressure to the engine
• Fuel systems should provide positive and reliable fuel flow
through all phases of flight including:
➢ Changes in altitude
➢ Violent maneuvers
➢ Sudden acceleration and deceleration
• Fuel systems should also continuously monitor system operation
such as:
– Fuel pressure
– Fuel flow
– Warning signals
– Tank quantity

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Fuel systems can be classified in two broad categories:

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• The gravity-feed system utilizes
the force of gravity to transfer
the fuel from the tanks to the
engine.
• On high-wing airplanes, the fuel
tanks are installed in the wings.
• Fuel tanks are placed above the
carburetor, and the fuel is
gravity fed through the system
and into the carburetor.

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• Pressure-Feed Systems require the use
of a fuel pump to provide fuel-pressure
to the engine’s fuel-control component
• There are two main reasons these
systems are necessary:
– The fuel tanks are too low to provide
enough pressure from gravity
– The fuel tanks are a great distance from
the engine
• Also, most large aircraft with higher
powered engines require a pressure
system regardless of the fuel tank
location because of the large volume
of fuel used by the engines

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• The higher the viscosity of the fuel, the greater
it’s ability to hold contaminants in suspension
• This is why jet fuels, which have a higher
viscosity than avgas, are also more susceptible
to contamination than avgas
• The main contaminants that reduce the
quality of fuel are:
– Other petroleum products
– Water : Cause Icing in the Fuel System
– Rust : Can cause Clogged filters
– Scale, Dirt : Cause Flow Restriction and
Blockage
– Microbial Growth in Fuel Lines Interfere
with fuel flow and quantity indications,
Start electrolytic corrosive action

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• Fuel systems on different aircraft may use several types of fuel tanks
• The three basic types of fuel tanks used on aircraft are:
– Integral
– Rigid Removable
– Bladder

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• Integral Fuel Tanks are commonly located in the aircraft’s wings or
fuselage
• These tanks are ones that are built into the structure of the aircraft
and generally can not be removed
• Integral Fuel Tanks are formed by the actual structure of the aircraft
• The seams are sealed, usually with synthetic rubber, to produce an
area inside the aircraft structure which will contain the fuel
• This type of tank is used in some light aircraft and turbine-powered
transports

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• Rigid removable fuel tanks are
often made of aluminum
components that are welded
together
• These tanks are installed in
compartments specifically made
for the tank
• The tanks may be held in place
with padded straps
• This type of tank is often found
on more expensive light aircraft
and reciprocating-engine-
powered transports

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• Bladder type fuel tanks are basically a reinforced
rubberized bag
• These tanks are installed in compartments which support
the weight of the fuel
• The tank is held in place with buttons or snaps on the
bottom and sides of the tank
• This type of tank is usually found on light aircraft and
some turboprop and turbine-powered aircraft

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• 20 – 100 gallons of fuel in tanks often located in aircraft wings
• Tanks contain baffles to stop fuel sloshing about during flight
• Fuel pick-up pipe sited away from bottom of fuel tank to
prevent any impurities which have collected there being drawn
into engine
– Small amount of unusable fuel in fuel tanks
• Top of fuel tank vented to atmosphere
– Prevents any changes in atmospheric pressure with altitude causing
engine fuel starvation or tank distortion
• Overflow drain
– Prevents build up of excessive pressures caused by solar heating of full
fuel tank

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High wing aircraft
• Gravity may be sufficient to feed fuel to carburettor
• Electric fuel pumps needed for engines with fuel injection systems

Low wing aircraft

• Fuel tanks lower than engines
• Fuel pump lifts fuel into carburettor
• Prior to engine start
– Electric fuel pump primes fuel lines and remove any vapour from them
• After engine is started
– Engine-driven mechanical fuel pump transfers fuel from tank to engine
– Electric fuel pump usually left switched on for take-off, landing and
critical manoeuvres to insure against possibility of mechanical fuel
pump failure

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• In some aircraft, a
selector valve in
cockpit allows pilot to
select tank which will
supply fuel to engine

• Each fuel tank fitted

with its own fuel gauge

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• Large commercial aircraft consume fuel at very high rates
• Considerable amount of fuel stored for ultra-long distance flights

During take off & initial climb During cruise

~ 200 gallons per minute ~ 4 gallons per mile (0.25 mpg)

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Up to 45000 gallons (163,000 kg) of
fuel stored in sealed compartments at
various places around aircraft
Fuel stored in:
• Wings
• Centre tank in fuselage section between
wings
• (Tail fin or horizontal stabiliser)
• Pressurised fuel tank to prevent
vaporisation at high altitude
• Each tank contains AC powered boost
pumps
• Main tanks contain jettison pumps
• Any engine can be supplied from any
main tank or centre wing tank

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• Pump inlets positioned to provide
maximum usable fuel & avoid air
ingestion throughout range of flight
attitudes
• Each tank vented via vent surge tanks -
return any fuel to main tanks
• Outlets of vent tanks are ram air scoops
to help pressurise system
• Aircraft have one or more fuelling
stations which can each accept fuel at
rates ~ 2000 gallons per minute

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• Max fuel capacity 47,700 imp gallons (216,840 litre) [173 tonnes]
• Contributes ~ 43% of 400 tonne aircraft MTOW
• Fuel normally stored in 7 tanks

Quantities of fuel delivered to each of the 4 engines

• 800 gallons per hour during cruise
• 47 gallons per minute during take off
• (~ 100 gallons per mile per aircraft during take-off run)

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 Vent Surge Tank
Vent Surge Tank
No. 3 Reserve Tank
1101 Imp Gallons
No. 4 Main Tank Horizontal Stabiliser
3732 Imp Gallons Tank (optional)
2748 Imp Gallons

No. 3 Main Tank No. 2 Reserve Tank

10447 Imp Gallons 1101 Imp Gallons
Centre Wing Tank
14292 Imp Gallons

No. 2 Main Tank Vent Surge

No. 1 Main Tank
10447 Imp Gallons Tank
3732 Imp Gallons

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• All jet fuels have similar calorific value (stored energy per unit
mass)
• Range of aircraft dictated by mass of fuel on board - NOT
volume
• Aircraft fuel gauges register fuel
contents in units of weight
(1000’s of kg or lb)
• Amount of fuel carried by aircraft relates to:
– Length & profile of flight
– Reserves for:
• Adverse weather conditions
• Any flight diversions or holds
• Amount of fuel stored in an aircraft limited by:
– Fuel weight
– Total volume of fuel tanks
– Relationship between mass & volume of fuel depends on fuel temp

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• Most of fuel stored in wings in ‘wet wing’ arrangement
• Maximises fuel storage volume
• Fuel contained in sealed areas
integral with wing structure
• Panels for internal tank inspection
repair & servicing
• Fuel weight helps offset
wing lift bending moments
Fuel Sloshing
• Could adversely affect dynamic stability
• Could prevent fuel reaching feed tanks - especially during
turbulence
• Prevented by internal chord-wise ribs & span-wise spars in main
wet wing fuel tanks
Drains
• Fuel sump drain valves installed at low points in tanks
• Enables any water to be removed
• Enables tanks to be fully emptied for maintenance purposes
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• Fuel stored in fuselage as well as in wings
– Restrictions on aircraft size
– Need to carry large quantities of
armaments & avionics
– Limited space available for fuel
• Several smaller tanks which fit around aircraft
structural members
• Complex distribution system
• Active centre of gravity control by transferring
fuel between tanks

Extra fuel carried in external drop tanks

• Increased range or endurance
• Normally mounted under wing
• Can be jettisoned in an emergency or in
combat

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• Extra demands on design & operation of fuel system
• Aircraft are as small as possible
• Slender profile for minimum aerodynamic drag in high speed flight
• Fuel stored in any available space around aircraft
• Many small, irregular-shaped, interconnected tanks
• Active C of G control by transferring fuel between different tanks
– Variable sweep wings
– High fuel flows during afterburner use

Eurofighter Typhoon
• Centre fuselage tanks
• Wings tanks
• External underwing drop tanks

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• Increased range or endurance
• Normally mounted under wing
• Occupy external weapons hardpoints
• Increased radar signature
• Can be jettisoned in an emergency or in combat
– Avoid aerodynamic performance penalties
& high g-load structure limitations

F16 with 370 gallon drop tanks

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• Fitted closely to aircraft profile
• Securely plumbed in to engine fuel systems
• Extend aircraft range
• Much less aerodynamic penalty than external drop tanks
• Do not occupy a stores pylon
• Cannot be dropped when empty

F-16 Conformal Tanks

~ 3,000 lbs of extra fuel

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• High possibility of aircraft fuel tank being penetrated by a projectile during air to
air or air to ground combat
• Military aircraft are fitted with self-sealing fuel tanks
– 2 layers of rubber, 1 vulcanised & 1 untreated
• If fuel tank is punctured
– Fuel spill causes untreated layer to expand & seal puncture

• Fuel tanks in aircraft operating at high altitudes are pressurised

• Self-sealing more difficult
• Tanks filled with open cell polyurethane foam
• Soaks up fuel
• Divides gas space above remaining fuel
into 1000’s of small spaces none of which
contain sufficient vapour to support combustion

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• During typical high altitude flight ambient temp
could be -56C
• At typical cruising speeds, friction heating of wing
structure normally maintains fuel at temperature
> –35C
– Fuel can become gelled
– Any water in fuel turns to ice
• Heat added to fuel from hydraulic system &
engine oil heat exchangers
• On hot days, fuel temperature in tanks can reach
+55C
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 Single Point Pressure Refuelling Systems
• Used on most modern large turbofan powered aircraft
• Fuel hose positively connected to aircraft
• Higher pressure than gravity-fed over-wing refuelling
• Reduces refuelling time
• Automatically transfers fuel to any fuselage tank
without assistance from aircraft fuel pumps
• Automatically stops refuelling process when aircraft
tanks are full

For very large aircraft

• Fuel can be delivered to both wing tank positions simultaneously
• Isolation valve in main distribution system
– Separates system into left & right sections
– Prevents cross flow from unequal fuelling source pressures
• Boeing 747-400 can accepted fuel through two filling ports at a total rate of
up to 2000 US gallons per minute (7570 litre minute)

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• Lowest temps during flight: TAT -45°C, left main tank fuel temp -34°C
• Alt 1200ft - Aircraft stabilised on LHR ILS, autopilot/auto-throttle engaged
• Fuel temp -22°C, Flaps 30º, approach airspeed 135 kt
• 4 auto-throttle additional thrust commands to stabilise airspeed
• Alt ~ 700 ft. Both engines reduced fuel flow, thrust > flight idle
• Auto-throttle & crew command additional thrust - No response from either engine
• Alt 240ft. Flaps 25º to reduce drag. Airspeed 108kt, stick shaker activated
• Pitch down control input
• Aircraft landed (2.9g) on grass ~ 300 m short of runway 27L
• Aircraft bounced then ground slide
• Minimal injuries - aircraft written off
• Nose gear collapsed
• Right main gear penetrated central fuel tank
• Left main gear pushed up through wing
• Significant fuel leak but no fire
Fire extinguisher handles manually deployed before fuel
shut-off switches – contrary to procedures
Cuts off power to fuel switches - fuel flow may continue
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• Aircraft operated within certified operational envelope at all times
• Low fuel flows + unusually cold environment
• Ice formed from water occurring naturally in fuel
• Ice crystals clogged fuel-oil heat exchanger of both Trent 800 engines
• Restricted fuel flow to both engines for final approach extra thrust demand
• Cavitation damage to both engine HP fuel pumps - indicated abnormally low
pressure at pump inlets

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Pumps contained within fuel tanks deliver fuel to engines

Twin Engine Aircraft

• Each main wing fuel tank normally feeds its associated engine
• Centre tank fuel used first to reduce emergency landing risks
• Fuselage centre tank may consolidate fuel before supplying
engines
• Any engine can be supplied from any main tank to allow for:
– Failed pump or valve
– Locally contaminated fuel
• Sub-systems of cross-feed pipelines controlled by valves

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Each tank to engine feed
• 2 AC centrifugal boost pumps controlled by separate power
supplies
– Ensures system operation if a pump or power source fails
• Pumps deliver fuel to engines at a pressure high enough to avoid
fuel vaporisation & minimise aeration
• Pumps positioned in tanks such that fuel
always flows into them irrespective of
aircraft operating attitudes or g-loads
• Boost pump feeds rear-positioned APU
via pipe in main cabin floor beam

Submersible Fuel Boost Pump

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Fuel stored in wings fed to engines mounted on tail

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• Fuel transfer between various tanks influences aircraft C of G
• Can be used to help maintain aircraft pitch & roll trim
• Tailplane tank fuel transferred to centre tank for distribution to
engines

Boeing 747
• Fuel from reserve tanks gravity fed to inboard main tanks

Boeing 737
Right centre tank fuel pump
on forward wall of wheel well

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For large aircraft
• Fuel in inner wing tanks generally used before fuel
in outer tanks
– Helps reduce wing bending moments
– Improves wing structure fatigue life

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• Vent valves release air from tanks
• During refuelling
• During flight due to thermal expansion of fuel
• Each wing tank vented into vent surge tank
• Vent surge tank vented overboard via scoops near wingtips
• Scoops point forward to capture ram air
• Creates positive pressure on fuel in tanks
• Minimises fuel boiling at low ambient pressures at high
altitudes
• Any fuel in vent system temporarily stored in vent surge
tanks
• Some aircraft pressurise fuel in tanks using engine LP air
feed

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• Very wide speed range
• Substantial movement of centre of lift between sub & supersonic flight
• Subsonic aircraft C of G change counteracted by trim adjustment
• Unacceptable increase in Concorde high speed aerodynamic drag
Concorde Trim Control System
• Fuel pumped between forward & rear trim tanks
• Trim tanks contained ~ 33 tons out of total 95 tons fuel load (17 tanks)

Complex fuel movement

system to control aircraft
C of G during all phases
of flight coordinated by
flight engineer

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More fuel stored in forward tanks to correctly balance aircraft

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Low speed flight (Take-off, climb, decent & landing)
• Fuel pumped rearwards to produce tail-heavy configuration
• Compensatory downward elevon deployment
• Increased camber
• Higher wing lift coefficient

Acceleration to Mach 2 cruise condition

• ~ 20 tons of fuel pumped from forward to rear trim tanks &
wing collector tanks
• Produced 2m rearward shift in aircraft C of G
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Deceleration from high speed cruise
• Fuel pumped forward to wing
transfer & forward trim tanks
• Moves C of G forward again as
centre of lift moves rearward

Lateral movement of fuel

between tanks 1 & 4
provided roll trim without
need for elevon movement

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• Concorde tyre rolls over Ti strip (Continental DC10) on runway
• Tyre disintegrates during take-off run

• Large piece of tyre hits wing skin just forward of left main landing gear strut
• Pressure from resulting shock wave in kerosene ruptured No. 5 fuel tank
• Fuel released at around 60 litres/sec
• Ignition source from damaged undercarriage wiring ignites fuel into major fire
• Engine ingestion of large quantities of burnt & unburnt kerosene
• Loss of thrust from engines 1 & 2
• Landing gear could not be retracted
• Crippled aircraft flew for ~ 1minute
at 200 knots & altitude of 200 feet
• Unable to gain height or speed
• Crashed onto a hotel
• Fatalities:
– 100 pax, 9 crew, 4 on ground

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• Must satisfy certificating authorities that such an event could not be
repeated
Modifications made to Concorde
• Moulded Kevlar liners fitted to all or
part of tanks 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8
– Tanks most at risk from being hit
by debris from a tyre burst or
thrown up from landing gear
• If tank ruptured
– Liners sucked into hole
– leakage flow rate ~ 0.4 litre/sec

• Extra damage-resistant shielding fitted

to undercarriage wiring to prevent
arcing which could ignite a fuel leak

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 Small Piston-Engine Helicopter Fuel Storage
• Fuel is stored in tanks either side of main rotor mast
• Minimal effect on lateral & longitudinal trim as fuel is used up
• Fuel is gravity fed to engines

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• Low altitude/low speed operations
• Vulnerable to fuel tank damage from small arms fire
• Armoured fuel tanks = Prohibitive weight penalty

Self-Sealing Fuel Tanks

• Untreated rubber swells when it comes into contact
with fuel
• Provides self sealing capabilities

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• Helicopters generally operate at relatively low altitudes.
• Forced or crash landings are survivable
• Fuel tanks under helicopter cabin floor would probably hit ground first
• Impact could cause rupture to fuel tanks & engine fuel feed pipes
• Spilt fuel + ignition source = major fire
• Crashworthy fuel tanks
• High tensile strength nylon or Kevlar matrix coated with rubber
• Dissipates impact loads & prevents fuel spillage
• Lighter weight solution
• Nylon fabric only for shape retention
• Allows predominantly rubber tank to expand & absorb impact forces

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Some aircraft fuel subsystems allow for fuel:
• Jettison
– The fuel jettison system comprises a combination of fuel lines,
valves, and pumps provided to dump fuel overboard during an in-
flight emergency
– This will reduce the weight of the aircraft so an emergency landing
is possible
• Heating
– To thaw ice particles in the fuel that would otherwise clog the filters
– Fuel is routed through a heat exchanger that uses either engine oil
or compressor bleed air to bring the fuel up to an acceptable
temperature
• Cross-Feeding
– Engine failure
– Problem with one or more fuel tanks
– Redistribute fuel for weight and balance purposes

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• Fuel jettison valves positioned at wing tips
• Emergency overboard fuel dump to reduce aircraft weight
for landing
• Fuel released at a rate to reduce aircraft total weight from
MTOW to MLW in < 15 minutes
• Fuel dump rates ~ several hundred gallons per minute
• Released fuel:
– Initially trails behind aircraft
– Rapidly evaporates in atmosphere
– Very little reaches surface of earth
in liquid form
• FAA rules on fuel dumping:
– Above 2,000 ft
– At least 5 miles from any other aircraft
– Away from populated areas & large bodies of water
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• Important procedure for military aircraft
• Extends operational distances & time in the air
• Strike aircraft can take-off with greater weapons payload &
then top up with fuel once airborne
• 2 methods of in-flight refuelling in widespread use
– Probe & Drogue
– Boom & Receptacle

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• Tanker trails refuelling hose with large drogue attached behind aircraft
• Receiving aircraft has responsibility to insert its probe (fixed or retracting)
into drogue
• Fuel transfer starts when positive contact is established
• Fuel transfer quantity monitored by both aircraft
• Tanker normally operates with one drogue from aircraft centre line and one
from each wing pod.

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 Tornado

Retractable Probe

Prowler
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• Tanker responsible for flying boom &
inserting it into receptacle on upper
surface of receiving aircraft
• Tanker normally operates with a single
boom extended from rear lower centre-
line of aircraft

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 Multi-Point Refuelling System
• Some tankers can refuel both
probe/drogue & boom/receptacle
aircraft
• Refuelling demands of international
combined military operations
KC-10
• Both systems installed on fuselage tail
• Only one system can be used at a time
KC-135 Stratotanker

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• Some Helicopters
– Refuelled by a tanker
aircraft
– Refuel from a surface ship
whilst hovering

CH-53

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