INTEGRATED SCIENCE 2 - CHEMISTRY
them into sets of three or triads.
SLG 16.1 - DEVELOPMENT OF PERIODIC TABLE
OF ELEMENTS
Elements
Are chemically the simplest substances which make
up matter
Cannot be broken down using chemical reactions
Exist physically as atoms, the smallest unit of matter
with a nucleus, enclosing the positively charged
particles (protons) and no charged particles
(electrons) that move around the nucleus.
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Atomic Mass
The sum of the mass of constituent protons and
neutrons (and electrons, in an infinitesimal amount)
Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
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Antoine Lavoisier (1789)
The first to work on organizing the known elements
First to say “element”
In 1789, he published a chemistry textbook
containing the list of “simple substances”, as he called
the elements.
Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1829)
made the first earliest attempt of classifying the
elements.
classified according to their chemical properties, fitting
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K)
calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), and barium (Ba)
chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I)
John Alexander Reina Newlands (1866)
Law of octaves
arranging the elements of increasing atomic weights
Naming the periods
Dmitri Mendeleev (1869)
Elements in a row are arranged by increasing atomic
Arranged the known elements horizontally by number, from left to right.
increasing atomic weights while placing elements with
Their inclusion in the same raw also means that they
similar properties in a column.
have the same number occupied electron shells
Law of periodicity / periodic Law signified by their row number (from 1-7)
Henry Gwyn Jeffrey’s Moseley (ex: Hydrogen and Helium, both in the first row, have
1 electron shell)
Adapted Mendeleev’s format but instead used the
atomic number of elements in arranging them
Modern Periodic Law
“the physical and chemical properties of the elements
are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers”
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A you go down the periodic table, the number of
LABELING PERIODS AND GROUPS & FAMILIES elements for each period increases. The first period
has 2 elements; the second and third periods have 8
elements each; the fourth and fifth periods have 18
Elements are placed on a grid with 7 rows, called elements each.
periods, and 18 columns, called groups or families.
To fit the periodic table in a single page, most periodic
tables are shown to have 2 extra rows (the lanthanide
and actinide series) at the bottom composed of 14
elements each, which are actually part of the sixth
and seventh periods, bringing up the total number of
elements in these periods to 32 each.
NAMING THE GROUPS or FAMILIES
An international standard for naming the groups was
established by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), wherein groups are
labelled using numbers 1 to 18.
Previous naming schemes, such as the traditional
(using Roman numerals and letters A and B; e.g., IA,
IB) and the American naming scheme (using numbers
and letters A and B; e.g., 1A, 1B) are still used. The
lanthanides nor actinides are labeled; however, they
bring up the total number of groups to 32.
Groups contain varying numbers of elements.
The 2 leftmost and 6 rightmost groups, which contain
the most elements per group, are called the main
groups. Elements in these groups are usually present
in life forms, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus.
The remaining 10 groups in between the main groups
are called the transition metal groups, which contain
most metals that you may be familiar with, such as
iron, copper, zinc, gold, and silver. Lastly, the
lanthanides and actinides are called the inner
transition metal groups, which have known uses for
their radioactive properties.
Mendeleev’s initiative to place elements in groups for
having similar physical and chemical properties have
paid off in discovering new elements and predicting
their unknown properties. Over the years, some of
these groups were given distinguishing names in
relation to their properties. For this discussion, we will
be focusing on four groups – Group 1, 2, 17, and 18 –
and the different properties that group them together.
Group 1: Alkali Metals
This group consists of lithium (Li), sodium (Na),
potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and the
less known francium (Fr). All these elements are soft,
silvery metals.
These metals react rapidly (and usually violently) with
water, the product of the reaction being highly alkaline
or basic, hence the name alkali metals.
They are highly reactive and will form compounds
readily in the presence of other elements. Because of
this, they are usually not found in nature in their pure
state.
Group 2: Alkaline-earth Metals
This group consists of beryllium (Be), magnesium
(Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and
radium (Ra). They are also lustrous, silvery metals.
They have lesser reactivity with other elements and
compounds, including water (the reaction of which
also results in the formation of alkaline products).
Group 17: Halogens
This group consists of fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl),
bromine (Br), iodine (I), and the less known astatine
(At).
These nonmetal elements range from being solids to
liquids to gases in their pure state, most of which are
corrosive.
halogen was derived from the Greek word hals,
meaning “salt”, because these elements usually have
reactivity with metals to form salt (such as in sodium
chloride (NaCl) or table salt).
Group 18: Noble Gases
This group consists of helium (He), neon (Ne), argon
(Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn). All
these elements are colorless gases.
They are also called inert gases because they have
little to no reactivity.
“noble” because they do not “react” with anything.
Apparently, back then, choosing not react with
anything was a noble trait in humans!
SLG 16.2.2 - PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS PT 2
Periodic Trends
The 118 elements are arranged into periods and
groups (or family) based on their atomic number. This
organization revealed repeating patterns of physical,
chemical, and electronic properties that we call
periodic trends.
The net charge of the nucleus “felt” by the electrons
on the outermost shell of an atom is the effective
nuclear charge.
The interaction of an atom’s nucleus and the
electrons as well as the interaction among its
electrons define atomic radius, electronegativity, and
other properties of an element.
Periodic behavior of physical and chemical attributes
of elements are a function of its atomic number
(number of protons in the nucleus). This principle is
known as the periodic law.
Metallic Properties
Metallic properties of elements such as luster, Atomic Radius
conductivity, ductility, and malleability vary across the
Atomic radius decreases from left to right across a
periodic table.
period and increases from top to bottom in a group.
Metallic elements are usually shiny (metallic luster)
The distance from an atom’s nucleus to the outermost
and good conductors. They are also reshaped easily
electron shell.
into thin sheets or drawn as thin wires.
The effective nuclear charge affects atomic radii of
Nonmetallic elements have dull or earthy lusters.
elements.
They are poor conductors and usually brittle in their
solid form. Most nonmetallic elements are gases at Higher effective nuclear charge pulls electrons closer
standard temperature and pressure (STP). to the nucleus thus decreasing atomic radius. The
repulsion between electrons also affects atomic
Metallic properties become more evident from right to
radius. This is the reason why you should expect
left across a period and top to bottom in a group.
larger atomic radius down a period with an increasing
Hydrogen (H) is an exemption from this trend being number of electrons.
the only nonmetal in Group I.
Nonmetallic property increases in the opposite
direction. This trend in physical attributes is caused by
other periodic trends such as electronegativity,
ionization energy, and electron affinity.
Elements boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge),
arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), and
polonium (Po) are metalloids. Metalloids exhibit
metallic and nonmetallic properties. Semiconductors
Ionic Radius
such as silicon found in electronic gadgets exploit
unique properties of metalloids. The distance from the nucleus to the outermost shell
as an atom accepts or donates an electron.
Element radii increases from right to left across a
period and decreases down a group for both metals
and nonmetals.
Elements that lose electrons called cations have
smaller ionic radii as the remaining electrons are
pulled closer to the nucleus.
Anions, on the other hand, have higher radii as the
element accepts electrons caused by increased
repulsive forces among electrons.
It increases from left to right across a period and
bottom to top within a period.
Since metals have lower electronegativity than
nonmetals. They tend to lose electrons during
chemical reactions while nonmetals usually accept
them. However, Group 18 (Noble Gases) elements
neither accept nor donates electrons because of their
stability.

Ionization Energy
It requires a certain amount of energy to kick off the
electron on the outermost shell. This is called the
atom’s ionization energy.
Ionization energy increases from left to right across a
period and from bottom to top of a group.
As the effective nuclear charge increases across a
period, electrons become more attracted to the
nucleus and difficult to remove.
Outermost electrons are located farther from the
nucleus making the attractive force lower thus
requiring less energy to kick the electron out of the
atom. Reduced metallic property as ionization energy
increases will be observed.
Electroneggativity
Electronegativity measures the ability of atoms to
attract electrons during chemical bonding.