XI SPECIAL BATCH 2022

Classification of elements and

ULLOOR, MC P.O., TVPM-11
periodicity in properties
Ph: 0471-2441488 www.uniquetvm.com

Lavoisier’s Classification
 He classified the elements into metals and non metals.
 Metals have tendency to lose electrons.
 Non metals have tendency to gain electrons.
Prout’s hypothesis
 Elements are made up of hydrogen.
 Classification is based on atomic weight.
 Atomic weight of element = n× atomic weight of hydrogen.
Dobereiner’s Triads
 In 1817 a German chemist Dobereiner identified certain groups of three elements.
 These groups of three elements having similar properties was called triads.
 When three elements were arranged in order of their increasing atomic masses, the atomic mass of the
middle element is the mean of the atomic masses of the other two elements.
 Eg (Li, Na, K), (Ca, Sr, Ba), (Cl,Br,I), (S,Se,Te) etc
A.E.B. de Chancourtois cylindrical table of elements
 First real classification.
 A helix is drawn at 450 to the axis of cylinder. The elements arranged in
order of increasing atomic weights.
 He Can arrange only two series of elements.
 Elements having similar properties are appear at the same position of
rotation of helix.
New Lands Law of octaves:
 When elements were arranged in order of their increasing relative atomic
masses, the properties of every eighth elements were similar to the first one.
 It is like the repetition of eighth note of a musical scale, called law of octaves.
 He can classify the elements only upto Ca.
Lother Meyer’ atomic volume curve
 When elements are arranged in the increasing order of
their atomic weights, similarities appear in physical and
chemical properties at regular intervals.
 He plotted the physical properties such as atomic volume,
melting point and boiling point against atomic weight.
 The following are the salient features of Lothar Meyer
arrangement.
 The highly electropositive alkali metals occupy the peaks on
the curve.
 The lesser electropositive alkaline earth metals occupy the
descending
positions on the curve
 Most electro negative halogens occupy on the ascending position on the curve.
 Transition elements are the trough of curves.

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 Mendeleev’s periodic table

 The elements are arranged in the order of their increasing atomic weights.
 He can arrange almost 63 elements known.
 Elements are arranged in horizontal rows (periods) and vertical columns (groups) in such a way that the
elements with similar properties occupied in the same group.
 There were 7 periods (include 10 rows called series ie, 3,2,2,2,2,1) and 9 groups (8gp + 0 gp)
 Each group from I to VII is divided into sub groups as A and B.
 Group A are normal elements and group B are transition elements.
 Later discovered noble gases are placed in zero groups.
 The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses called
Mendeleev's Periodic Law.
 1A – alkali metals, 1B – coinage metals, llA – alkaline earth metals.
Merits of mendeleev's classification
 Mendeleev's periodic law predicted the existence of some elements that had not been discovered at that
time.
 Left vacant columns for newly discovered elements and predict their properties.
 Eg. Eka aluminium (Ga), eka silicon (Ge), eka boron (Sc), eka manganese (Tc)
 Group no. gives the no. of valence electrons.
 Could correct the atomic masses some elements. Eg; atomic mass Be is corrected from 13.5 to 9 and also
corrected the atomic masses of Au, Pt, In etc.
 Could accommodate noble gases when they were discovered.
Limitations of mendeleev's classification
 The correct position could not be assigned to the hydrogen, lanthanides and actinides in the periodic
table.
 Increasing order of the atomic masses of some elements not strictly obeyed.
Eg; Ar (39.9) is placed before Kr (39.1)
Co (58.9) is placed before Ni(58.7)
Te (127.6) is placed before I (126.9)
Th (232) is placed before Pa(231.09)
 The position of isotopes could not be explained.
 Dissimilar elements were placed in similar group.
Eg; alkali metals and coinage metals belongs to lB group.
Alkaline earth metals and pseudo transition metals belongs to llB group.
 Uncertainty in prediction of new elements was there.

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 Modern periodic table/ Mosly’s periodic table/ long form periodic table/ Bohr’s periodic table

 Henry Moseley plot a graph of √ν (where ν is frequency of X-rays

emitted) against atomic number (Z ) gave a straight line and
reveals that the atomic number is a more fundamental property
of an element than its atomic mass.
 = a(Z-b) is called Moseley’s equation.
Where ν = frequency fo x ray emitted
Z = atomic number
a = proportionality constant.
b = is a constant for all lines in a series of x-rays

 Modern Periodic Law stated as : “The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers.”
 Long form of periodic table was suggested by Rang and Werner.
 It is also known as Bohr’s table, because it follows Bohr’s theory of electronic arrangement. Ie, the
arrangement follows the configuration of 2,8,18,32,50 by Bohr.
 It includes 18 groups, 7 periods and 4 blocks.
Periodicity
 Repetition of elements with similar properties after certain regular intervals when the elements are
arranged in the order of atomic nois called periodicity.
 The cause of periodicity is similar electronic configuration
Groups
 1st group – alkali metals
 2nd group – alkaline earth metals
 3rd to 12th group – transition elements

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  11th group – coinage metals (Cu, Ag & Au)
 12th group – pseudo transition elements
 13th group – boron family
 14th group – carbon family
 15th group – pnicogens (foul smell forming)
 16th group – chalcogens (ore forming)
 17th group – halogens (salt forming)
 18th group – aerogens/ inert gases/ noble gases
Periods
 There are altogether seven periods. The period number corresponds to the highest principal quantum
number (n) of the elements in the period.
 1st period contains 2 elements, called shortest period (1s)
nd
 2 period contains 8 elements, called first short period. (2s,2p)
rd
 3 period contains 8 elements, called second short period. (3s,3p)
th
 4 period contains 18 elements, called first long period. (4s,3d,4p)
th
 5 period contains 18 elements, called second long period. (5s,4d,5p)
th
 6 period contains 32 elements, called first longest period. (6s,4f,5d,6p)
th
 7 period contains 32 elements, called second longest period (7s,5f,6d,7p)
 14 elements of both sixth and seventh periods (lanthanoids and actinoids, respectively) are placed in
separate panels at the bottom it is because both belongs to same group (3rd group).
 the number of elements in each period is twice the number of atomic orbitals available in the energy level
that is being filled.
Magic numbers
When elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic numbers it is observed that the properties
of elements repeated (periodicity occurring) after certain regular intervals of 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32. These numbers
2, 8, 18 and 32 are known as Magic numbers.

Predicting the Position of an Element in the Periodic Table

First of all write the complete electronic configuration.

Period:
 The principle quantum number (coefficient) of the valence
 shell represents the period of the element.
 Z = 58 to 71, lanthanides belongs to 6th period.
 Z = 90 to 103, belongs to 7th period.
Block:
 The sub shell in which the last electron is filled corresponds
 to the block of the element.
 Z = 58 to 71, lanthanides and Z = 90 to 103, belongs to f block.
 Z >103, group No. = Zgiven - 100
Group:
 For s-block elements;group number = number of ‘s’ electrons
 For p-block elements; group number = 12 + no. of ‘p’ electrons
 For d-block elements; group number = 2 +number of ‘d’ electrons.
 For f-block elements; group number is 3.

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 Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
Metals: -
 These are more than 78% of all known elements. And present in the left side of periodic table.
 These are usually solids at room temperature [mercury is an exception; gallium and cesium also have very
low melting points (303K and 302K respectively)].
 This have high melting points and Boiling point.
 They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 These are metallic (can be flattened into thin sheet by hammer) and ductile (can be drawn into wires).
Non – metals :-
 These present in the top right hand side of periodic table.
 These are usually gases or solids at room temp.
 With low melting points & boiling points Boron & Carbon are exception.
 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Most of non – metallic solids are brittle and neither malleable not ductile.
 Metallic character increases down in the group
 Non – metallic character increases from left to right in a period.
Metalloids :-
 Elements which show character of both i.e. metals and non – metals are known as metalloids or semi-
metals.
 Ex: - silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium.
Nomenclature of elements with atomic number above 100

Z Name Sym Iupac official name Iupac Notation for IUPAC nomenclature of
bol symbol elements

101 Unnilunium Unu Mendelevium Md Digit Name Abbrevation

102 Unnilbium Unb Nobelium No 0 nil n

103 Unniltrium Unt Lawrencium Lr 1 un u

104 Unnilquadium Unq Rutherfordium Rf 2 bi b
105 Unnilpentium Unp Dubnium Db 3 tri t
106 Unnilhexium Unh Seaborgium Sg 4 quad q
107 Unnilseptium Uns Bohrium Bh
5 pent p
108 Unniloctium Uno Hassnium Hs
6 hex h
109 Unnilennium Une Meitnerium Mt
7 sept s
110 Ununnillium Uun Darmstadtium Ds
8 oct o
111 Unununnium Uuu Rontgenium* Rg
112 Ununbium Uub Copernicium Cn 9 enn e
113 Ununtrium Uut Nihonium Nh
114 Ununquadium Uuq Flerovium Fl
115 Ununpentium Uup Moscovium Mc
116 Ununhexium Uuh Livermorium Lv
117 Ununseptium Uus Tennessine Ts
118 Ununoctium Uuo Oganesson Og

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 BLOCKS
 The elements in the periodic table is classified into into four blocks viz., s-block, p-block, d-block and f-
block depending on the type of atomic orbitals that are being filled with electrons.
 There are two exceptions,
a) helium belongs to the s-block but its positioning in the p-block along with other group 18
elements is justified because it has a completely filled valence shell (1s 2) and as a result, exhibits
properties characteristic of other noble gases.
b) The other exception is hydrogen. It has a lone s-electron and hence can be placed in group 1
(alkali metals). It can also gain an electron to achieve a noble gas arrangement and hence it can
behave similar to a group 17 (halogen family) elements. Because it is a special case, we shall place
hydrogen separately at the top of the Periodic Table.

The s-Block Elements

 It includes 1st and 2nd group elements. (alkali metals and alkaline earth metals)
 They are so called because the last electron added to each element is filled in outermost s- orbital.
 Have common electronic configuration ns1-2 (1st group have ns1 and 2nd group have ns2 )
 They are all reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies.
 Alkali metals form 1+ ion and alkaline earth metals form 2+ ions.
 The metallic character and the reactivity increase as we go down the group.
 Because of high reactivity they are never found pure in nature.
 Except Li and Be, compounds of s block elements are predominantly ionic.
The p-Block Elements
 It include group 13 to 18 elements.
 They are so called because the last electron added to each element is filled in outermost p- orbital.
 These with s – block elements are called representative elements.
 The elements are called the representative Elements or Main Group Elements.
 Common electronic configuration is ns2np1-6.
 At the end of each period is a noble gas element with ns2np6 configuration and exhibit very low chemical
reactivity.
 The block includes metals, non metals and mettaloids.The non-metallic character increases as we move
from left to right across a period and metallic character increases as we go down the group.

The d-Block Elements (Transition Elements)

 These are elements of group no. 3 to 12 in centres of periodic table.
 They are so called because the last electron added to each element is filled in penultimate d- orbital.
 Also known as the transition elements.
 General outer most electronic configuration is (n-1)d1-10 n0-2
 These are all metals
 Form colours ions and show variable oxidation states.
 Most of them are paramagnetic.
 Mainly used as a catalyst
 Zn , cd , Hg with configuration (n-1)d10 ns2 do not show most of the properties of transition elements.
Hence they are not considered as transition elements.
 It consists of 3 complete series and one in complete series.
1. 3d or 1st transition series – contains elements form scandium (Sc–21) to Zinc (Zn– 30)
2. 4d or 2nd transition series–contains element from Yttrium to cadmium(Y-39 to Cd-48).
3. 5d or 3rd transition series – contains the elements, Lanthanum (La-57), Hafnium (Hf-72) to mercury (Hg-80)
4. 6d or 4th transition series is incomplete. (now Ac (actinium) to Cn (coppernicium)

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 The f-Block Elements (Inner-Transition Elements)
 These have 2 – rows of elements at bottom of periodic table.
 i.e. lanthanides Ce (z = 58) to Lu (z = 71)
Actinides Th (z = 90) to Lr (z = 103) .
 They are so called because the last electron added to each element is filled in anti penultimate f- orbital.
 Outer electronic configuration is (n-2) f1-14 (n-1) d0-1 ns2.
 f – block elements also known as inner transition elements.
 They are all metals.
 large number of oxidation states possible for these actinoid elements.
 Actinoid elements are radioactive and are present only in nanogram quantities.
 The elements after uranium are called Transuranium Elements.
Trends in Physical Properties
(A) Shielding/screening effect and effective nuclear charge
 The force of attraction between nucleus and valence electrons are reduced by the force of repulsion
exerted by inner shell electrons on these valence electrons, called screening effect.
 The net charge is called effective nuclear charge.
 Zeff = Z – σ, where σ is the screening constant.
 In a period from left to right Zeff increases.
(B) Atomic Radius
 It refers to the distance between the centres of the nucleus of the atom to the outermost shell containing
electrons.
 Factors affecting radius of an atom are
1) Atomic size: when size ↑, radius ↑
2) Nuclear charge: when it ↑, radius ↓
 Since absolute value of the atomic radius cannot be determined (because they are very small and does not
have well defined boundary), it is usually expressed in terms of, the following definitions.
i. Covalent radius
 It is defined as one half of the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms of the same
elements in a molecule.
 rcovalent = 1/2 Inter molecular distance between two bonded atoms.
eg: Atomic radius of hydrogen = 74/2 = 37pm
Atomic radius of chlorine = 198/2 = 99pm
Atomic radius of Bromine = 228/2 = 114pm
 for homonuclear, rA =
 for heteronuclear,
case 1: A & B have similar electronegativity difference, dAB = rA + rB
case ll: A & B have disimilar electronegativity difference,
dAB = rA + rB – 0.09 (χA – χB)
 χA and χB are the EN values of A and B.

ii. Van der Waal’s radius

 It is defined as one half of the distance between the nuclei of two non bonded atoms of the adjacent
molecules of the element. Vander Waal’s radii are always larger than covalent radii.
 Noble gases have greater than expected van der waal’s radius.
Eg: for H2, 240/2 = 120pm
iii. Metallic radius
 It is one half of the distance between centers of nuclei of two adjacent atoms in the metallic crystal.
Eg; for Cu, 256/2 = 128pm
 It gives the actual radius of an atom.
 Order of radius is rc< rM < rv

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 Variation of Atomic Radii in the periodic table
a. Variation in a period
In a period from left to right the atomic radius decreases. Because along a period as the atomic number
increases, the magnitude of nuclear charge increases while the addition of electron takes places in the
same shell, which do not screen each other from the nucleus. As a result the electrons are pulled closer to
the nucleus by the increased effective nuclear charge.
b. Variation in a group
The atomic radii of elements increase from top to bottom in a group, because from top to bottom the
number of shells increases. Exceptionally, B<Ga<Al<In<Tl
 Smallest element – H
 Largest element - Fr

iv Ionic Radii
 It is defined as the effective distance from the nucleus of the ion up to which it has influence in the ionic
bond.
 The radius of cation is smaller than that of the atom because in cations the effective nuclear charge per
electron increases and hence the electrons are more strongly attracted towards the nucleus.
 The radius of anion is larger than that of the corresponding atom, because in anions, the effective nuclear
charge per electron decreases and hence the electrons are more distributed in space.
 Anion > parent atom > cation Eg : X– > X > X+
 Eg; For example, the ionic radius of fluoride ion (F-) is 136 pm whereas the atomic radius of fluorine is only
64 pm. On the other hand, the atomic radius of sodium is 186 pm compared to the ionic radius of 95 pm
for Na+.
? A cation is always smaller than the parent atom because during its formation, effective nuclear charge
increases, forces of attraction increases and hence ionic size decreases.
For example, the atomic radius of sodium is 186 pm compared to the ionic radius of 95 pm for
Na+.

? The size of an anion is always larger than the parent atom because during its formation effective nuclear, force
of attraction decreases and hence ionic size increases.
For example, the ionic radius of fluoride ion (F-) is 136 pm whereas the atomic radius of fluorine is
only 64 pm.

? In case of isoelectronic ions, ionic size increases with increase in nuclear charge. ie, higher the nuclear charge,
smaller is the size. Iso electronic ions are ions of different elements having same number of electron but differ
in magnitude of nuclear charge.
e.g., AI3+ < Mg2+ < Na+ < Ne < f- < O2- < N3-

? Order of size of 13th group is B < Ga < Al < In < Tl

(C) Ionization Enthalpy
 It is a quantitative measure of the tendency of an element to lose electron.
 It is defined as the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a

neutral gaseous isolated atom in its ground state.

 I.E. is measured in electron volts (eV) per atom or kilo Joules per mole (kJ/mol).

 1eV per atom = 96.49 kJ/mol. = 23.06 Kcal/mol

 The first and second ionization enthalpy are the energy required to remove the first and second most loosely
bound electron
X(g) → X+(g) + e-
X+(g) → X2+(g) + e-

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  Ionization enthalpy is always +ve.
 2nd ionization enthalpy is higher than 1st ionization enthalpy.
 Alkali metals have lowest and noble gases have highest ionization energy.

? The second ionization enthalpy will be higher than the first ionization enthalpy because it is more difficult to
remove an electron from a positively charged ion than from a neutral atom, due to its small size and greater
force of attraction.

? Down a group the first ionization enthalpy generally decreases .Because as we go down a group atomic size
increases, shielding of the nuclear charge by the electrons in the inner levels increases and hence removal of
the outermost electron requires less energy .

? The first ionization enthalpy generally increases as we go across a period. Because along a period atomic size
decreases, nuclear charge increases, force of attraction between nucleus and outer electrons increases, and
hence removal of the outermost electron requires more energy .

 The element with highest ionization potential – Helium (2372 kj/mol)

 The element with least ionization potential – Cesium (374 kj/mol)
 Metal and metalloids have ΔiH << 999 kj/mol
 Hg has highest ΔiH amongst metals (1007 kj/mol)
 Non metals have ΔiH ≥ 999 kj/mol

 Second group elements (alkaline earth metals) have higher ionization energy than 3 rd group elements (Boron
family).Because in 2nd group the electron has to be removed from stable ns2 configuration (s orbital), but in III
group, it has to be removed from ns2np1 configuration (ie p-orbital).
 5th gp elements have higher IE than 6th gp elements, because in 5th group the p-subshell is half filled.
 The 1st IE of C, N,O & F increases as : C < O < N < F
 The 2nd IE of C, N, O & F increases as : C < N < F < O
 The successive ionization energy values give an idea about the number of valence electrons.
 The 1st IE of Na, Mg, Al & Si follows the order : Na < Mg > Al < Si
 Lower the IE of an element more would be the reducing power.
 As the metallic character increases IE decreases.
 Transition elements have almost same ionization energy and atomic radius.
 The IE2 of alkali metals (1st gp) is high due to inert gas configuration of M+ ion.
 The 1st IE of group 13 is B >Tl >Ga >Al > In

Relative ionization energies

IE1 & IE2 of 2nd period elements:
IE1 : Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne and IE2 : Be < C < B < N < F < O < Ne < Li
rd
IE1 & IE2 of 3 period elements:
IE1 : Na < Al < Mg < Si < S < P < Cl < Ar. and IE2 : M3 < Si < Al < P < S < Cl < Ar < Na

Factors influencing ionisation energy

i. Size of the atom : As size increase IE decreases
ii. Nuclear Charge : As nuclear charge increase IE increases.
iii. Screening effect of inner electrons: As screening effect increases IE decreases.

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 iv. Penetrating power of electrons (Type of orbital): As the penetrating power of the electrons increases the
IE increases.The penetrating power decreases as S >P >d > f.
v. Half filled & completely filled subshells : Since half filled and completely filled orbitals are more stable, it is
difficult to remove electrons from those configurations.
(D) Electron Gain Enthalpy
 When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to convert it into a negative ion, the enthalpy change
accompanying the process is defined as the Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔegH).
 It provides a measure of the ease with which an atom adds an electron to form anion X(g) + e- → X-(g)
 It may be endothermic or exothermic.
 When energy is released when an electron is added to an atom, then electron gain enthalpy is negative.
 For example, group 17 elements (the halogens) have very high negative electron gain enthalpies because they
can attain stable noble gas electronic configurations by picking up an electron.
 When energy is absorbed when an electron is added to an atom, then electron gain enthalpy is positive.
 Noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpies because the electron has to enter the next higher
principal quantum level leading to a very unstable electronic configuration.
 Electron gain enthalpy increases with increase in the atomic number across a period due to the increase in
effective nuclear and force of attraction and hence it will be easier to add an electron.
 down a group it decreases or less negative because the size of the atom increases and the added electron
would be farther from the nucleus.
Electron affinity
 If energy is released when an electron is added to an atom, the electron affinity is taken as positive, contrary to
thermodynamic convention.
 If energy has to be supplied to add an electron to an atom, then the electron affinity of the atom is assigned a
negative sign.
 ΔegH = –Ae – 5/2 RT.

Electron affinity of fluorine is unexpectedly less than that of chlorine

 The low electron affinity value of F is due to the very small size of the F-atom. Therefore, the addition of
electron to the relatively small 2p sub-shell of fluorine makes strong inter-electronic repulsion and thus the
incoming electron does not feel much attraction. But in the case of chlorine, the addition of electron takes
place to comparatively large 3p-sub-shell.
ie., Electron affinity values of halogens follows the order
Cl(349.6) > F(328) > Br(325) > I (295)
 Electro affinity is maximum for chlorine.
 The metal with highest electron affinity – gold (Au)
 The elements having maximum EA in each period: Halogens.
 The 2nd EA is endo energic (ie +ve) The EA of exactly half filled configurations is approximately zero and exactly
zero for fully filled configurations.
 The EA of zero group elements is zero.
 The EA of Cl is greater than F, S is greater than O and P is greater than N.
 Higher the EA, greater will be its capacity to glair electrons and thus its oxidizing power is more.
 In group 15, Bi has higher - ΔegH.
 When T=0, ΔegH = -Ea But at absolute zero, ΔegH = Ea.
 Be, Mg, N and noble gases have +ve ΔegH.
 Ne has highest +ve ΔegH (117kj/mol)

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 (E) Electronegativity
 A qualitative measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract shared electrons to itself is
called electronegativity.
 It is not a measureable quantity. It can be measured by numerical scales of electronegativity like Pauling scale,
Mulliken-Jaffe scale and Alfred-Rochow scale have been developed.
 Maximum EN is shown by fluorine, ie 4 (by Pauling’s scale).
 Electronegativity generally increases across a period from left to right due to the decrease in size and increases
in force of attraction.
 Electronegativity generally decreases down a group from top to bottom due to the increase in size and
decreases in force of attraction.

EN depends on:

i. Size of atoms: As size increases EN decreases.

ii. Effective nuclear charge : As E.N.C increases E.N increases
iii. Shielding effect: As S.E increases E.N decreases.
iv. ox.state 3I is more EN than C in CH3I because C in CF3I acquire greater +ve charge.

vi.
vii. Order of EN: sp > sp2 > sp3

 The element with highest EN : Fluorine (4)

 The element with least EN : Fr (0.7) [Cs – 0.7]
 Metalloids have EN values close to 2. '

Determination of electronegativity:

1. Pauling Scale:
The electronegativity of two atoms A & B in Kcal / mole is given by the expression.
 A –  B = 0.208 E (Kcal/mol)
= 0.102 E (KJ/mol)  A = EN of and  B = EN of B
E = B.E (A – B) – E A A  E B  B

2. Mulliken's Scale:

M = IE  EA IE  EA IE  EA
[eV/atom] = [KJ/mol] = [Kcal/mol]
2 2  96.49 2  23.06
M
These two scales are related as P 
2.8
P  IE  EA
(KJ/mol)
540
IE  EA
P  (Kcal/mol)
130
Application
χA – χB > 1.7 (predominantly ionic)
χA – χB < 1.7 (predominantly covalent)
χA – χB = 1.7 ( 50% ionic)
χA – χB < 1.7 =0 (100% covalent)
% of ionic character = 16(χA – χB) + 3.5(χA – χB)2

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 (F) ELECTROPOSITIVITY
 It is the tendency of an atom to lose electron and form positively charged ion. It is a mesure of metallic
character.
 In a period from left to right electropositive character decreases. In a group from top to bottom
electropositive character increases.
 It determines metallic character
 Most metallic is Cs and least metallic is F.

Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties

Valency
 It is defined as the combining capacity of the element.
 The valency of an element is related to the electronic configuration of its atom and usually determined by
electrons present in the valence shell,
 On moving along a period from left to right, valency increases from 1 to 4 and then to zero
(for noble gases) while on moving down a group the valency remains the same.
 Transition metals exhibit variable valency because they can use electron from outer as well as penultimate
shell.

Groups 1 2 13 14 15 16 17
No. of valence es 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Valency 1 2 3 4 to -4 5 to -3 6 to -2 7 to -1
Formulae of oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7
Valency wrt oxygen 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Formulae of hydride NaH MgH2 AlH3 SiH4 PH3 H2S HCl
Valency wrt hydrogen 1 2 3 4 3 2 1

Chemical Reactivity
 Reactivity of metal increases with decrease in IE, electronegativity and increase in atomic size as well as
electropositive character.
 Reactivity of non-metals increases with increase in electronegativity as well as electron gain enthalpy and
decrease in atomic radii.
 the maximum chemical reactivity at the extreme left (among alkali metals) is exhibited by the loss of an
electron leading to the formation of a cation and at the extreme right (among halogens) shown by the gain of
an electron forming an anion.
 The metallic character of an element, which is highest at the extremely left and decreases towards right and
the non-metallic character increases while moving from left to right across the period.
 Elements on two extremes of a period easily combine with oxygen to form oxides.
 The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme left is the most basic (e.g., Na2O), whereas that formed by
the element on extreme right is the most acidic (e.g., Cl2O7).
 Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric (e.g., Al2O3, As2O3) or neutral (e.g., CO, NO, N2O).
 Amphoteric oxides behave as acidic with bases and as basic with acids, whereas neutral oxides have no acidic or
basic properties.

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7

Highly Basic Amphoteric weakly Acidic Strongly Very strongly
basic acidic acidic acidic

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 Melting and Boiling Points
 On moving down the group, the melting point and boiling point for metallic elements go on decreasing due to
the decreasing forces of attraction.
 However, for non-metals, melting point and boiling point generally increase down the group.
 Along a period from left to right, melting point and boiling point increases and reaches a maximum value in the
middle of the period and then start decreasing.

Diagonal Relationship
 Certain elements of 2nd period show similarity in properties
with their diagonal elements in the 3rd period as shown
below :
 Thus, Li resembles Mg, Be resembles Al and B resembles Si.
This is called diagonal relationship and is due
a) Similar ionic size
b) Similar polarizing power (i.e., charge/size ratio).
c) Similar ionization enthalpy .
 Mg, Al and Si are known as bridge elements.
Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements

 First element of each group shows some dissimilar properties as compared to the other elements of the same
group. Such difference in properties are called anomalous properties.
 This is due to
a) Smallest size
b) Highest ionization enthalpy
c) Highest electro negativity
d) large charge/ radius ratio
e) absence of d orbitals
eg:1 Lithium unlike other alkali metals, and beryllium unlike other alkaline earth metals, form compounds with
covalent character; the other members of these groups predominantly form ionic compounds.
eg:2 The first member of p-block elements displays greater ability to form pπ – pπ multiple bonds to itself (e.g.,
C = C, C ≡ C, N = N, N ≡ Ν) and to other second period elements (e.g., C = O, C = N, C ≡ N, N = O)
Acid-base behaviour of Oxides and hydroxides
 The oxide or hydroxide of an element may act either as a base or as an acid depending up on its ionization
energy.
 If the IE is low, it acts as a base and if the IE is high, it acts as an acid.

 The IE of alkalimetals (and other electropositive metals) is very low and therefore their oxides and
hydroxide are strong bases.
 Further, since the IE of alkali metals decreases down the group, the basic character of their hydroxides
increases in the same order.
LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH
 The IE of halogens are quite high, therefore their oxides are the strongest acids.
 Further since the IE decreases down the group, the acidic character of their oxides and hydroxides
decreases in the same order.
HClO4 > HBrO4 > HIO4
 As we move from left to right within a period the IE increases and hence their oxides and hydroxides show
gradual variation from strongly basic through amphoteric to strongly acidic character
Na2O > MgO > Al2O3 > SiO2 > P4O10 > SO2 > Cl2O7

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 EXERCISE QUESTIONS

1. Which important property did Mendeleev use to classify the elements in his periodic table and did he stick
to that?
2. What is the basic difference in approach between the Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and the Modern Periodic
Law?
3. On the basis of quantum numbers, justify that the sixth period of the periodic table should have 32
elements.
4. In terms of period and group where would you locate the element with Z =114?
5. How does atomic radius vary in a period and in a group? How do you explain the variation?
6. What do you understand by isoelectronic species? Name a species that will be isoelectronic with each of
the following atoms or ions.
(i) F– (ii) Ar (iii) Mg2+ (iv) Rb+
7. Consider the following species: N , O , F , Na , Mg2+ and Al3+
3– 2– – +

(a) What is common in them?

(b) Arrange them in the order of increasing ionic radii.
8. Explain why cations are smaller and anions larger in radii than their parent atoms?
9. Energy of an electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is –2.18 × 10–18 J. Calculate the ionization
enthalpy of atomic hydrogen in terms of J mol–1.
10. Among the second period elements the actual ionization enthalpies are in the
order Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne. Explain why
(i) Be has higher ΔiH than B
(ii) O has lower ΔiH than N and F?
11. How would you explain the fact that the first ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower than that of
magnesium but its second ionization enthalpy is higher than that of magnesium?
12. The first ionization enthalpy values (in kJmol–1) of group 13 elements are :
B Al Ga In Tl
801 577 579 558 589
How would you explain this deviation from the general trend?
13. Which of the following pairs of elements would have a more negative electron gain enthalpy?
(i) O or F (ii) F or Cl
14. Would you expect the second electron gain enthalpy of O as positive, more negative or less negative than
the first? Justify your answer.
15. What is the basic difference between the terms electron gain enthalpy and electronegativity?
16. Describe the theory associated with the radius of an atom as it
(a) gains an electron (b) loses an electron
17. Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.
(a) Identify an element with five electrons in the outer subshell.
(b) Identify an element that would tend to lose two electrons.
(c) Identify an element that would tend to gain two electrons.
(d) Identify the group having metal, non-metal, liquid as well as gas at the room temperature.
18. The first (ΔiH1) and the second (ΔiH) ionization enthalpies (in kJ mol–1) and the (ΔegH) electron gain
enthalpy (in kJ mol–1) of a few elements are given below:
Elements ΔiH ΔiH ΔegH
I 520 7300 –60
II 419 3051 –48
III 1681 3374 –328
IV 1008 1846 –295
V 2372 5251 +48
VI 738 1451 –40

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 Which of the above elements is likely to be :
(a) the least reactive element.
(b) the most reactive metal.
(c) the most reactive non-metal.
(d) the least reactive non-metal.
(e) the metal which can form a stable binary halide of the formula MX2, (X=halogen).
(f) the metal which can form a predominantly stable covalent halide of the formula MX (X=halogen)?
19. Predict the formula of the stable binary compounds that would be formed by the combination of the
following pairs of elements.
(a) Lithium and oxygen (b) Magnesium and nitrogen
(c) Aluminium and iodine (d) Silicon and oxygen
(e) Phosphorus and fluorine (f) Element 71 and fluorine
NEET/KEAM – DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Henry Mosely showed that the atomic number is a more fundamental property of an element than its
atomic mass by plotting a graph between
(a) Frequencies of X-rays versus atomic number
(b) Frequencies of X-rays versus atomic masses
(c) Frequencies of X-rays versus square root of atomic number
(d) Square root of frequencies of X-rays versus atomic number
(e) Atomic weight versus atomic volume
2. The element having atomic number 100 is
(a) Es (b) Fm (c) Md (d) No (e) Sg
3. The twin elements of the periodic table are
(a) Ti & Zr (b) Sc and Ti (c) Zr and Hf (d) Au and Pt (e) Ti and Hf
4. The IUPAC symbol of future alkaline earth metal is
(a) ue (b) ubn (c) uuo (d) ubu (e) ubb
5. The element having atomic number 70 belongs
(a) 5th period, 3rd gp, d-block (b) 6th period, 6th gp, d-block
(c) 6th period, 3rd gp, f-block (d) 7th period, 3rd gp, f-block (e) 4th period, 3rd gp, f-block
6. Eka aluminium and Eka silicon are
(a) Sn & Pb (b) Ga and Sn (c) Ga & Ge (d) Ga and B (e) None of these
7. General E.C of Lathanides is
(a) 4f1-14 5d0-1 6s2 (b) 5f1-14 6d0-1 7s2 (c) 4f14 5d1-14 6s2
1-14 0-14 2 14 1 2
(d) 4f 5d 6s (e) 5f 6d 7s
8. Which of the following order is correct?
(a) rcov> rmet> rvan (b) rmet> rcov> rvan (c) rvan> rmet> rcov
(d) rvan> rcov> rmet (e) rmet> rvan> rcov
9. The ionic radii of O2-, F-, Na+ and Mg2+ are 1.35, 1.34, 0.95, 0.66 A0 respectively. Then the radius of Ne
atom is
(a) 1.39 A0 (b) 1.12 A0 (c) 0.85 A0 (d) 0.50 A0 (e) 0.52
- 2–
10. The radii of F, F , O and O are in the order
(a) F > F–> O > O2– (b) O > O2–> F > F– (c) O2–> F–> O > F
(d) F > O > F–> O2– (e) O2–> O > F–> F
11. The correct order of size is
(a) I > I–> I+ (b) I+> I > I– (c) I–> I > I+
(d) I–> I+> I– (e) I+> I–> I
12. Arrange the following elements in the increasing order of their I.E, C, N, O & F
(a) C < N < O < F (b) C < O < N < F (c) F < N < O < C
(d) F < O < N < C (e) F < N < C < O
13. The five successive I.E of an element ‘a’ are 800, 2427, 3658, 25024 and 32824 KJ/mol respectively. the
molecular formula of it’s chloride is
(a) ACl (b) ACl2 (c) ACl3 (d) ACl4 (e) None of these

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 14. The second Ioniation potential of Na, Mg, Al and Si are
(a) Mg < Na < Si < Al (b) Na < Al < Mg < Si (c) Na < Mg < Al < Si
(d) Si < Al < Mg < Na (e) Al < Si < Na < Mg
15. The correct order of electron affinity is
(a) F > Cl > Br > I (b) I > Br > Cl > F (c) Cl > F > Br > I
(d) Cl > Br > I > F (e) Cl > F > I > Br
16. Which of the following will have the most negative electron gain enthalpy and which the least negative?
P, S, Cl , F
(a) Cl & S (b) Cl & P (c) F & S (d) F & P (e) S & P
17. The order of EN of N, O & F are
(a) N > O > F (b) O > F > N (c) F > O > N (d) F > M > O (e) F > M = O
18. If the I.E and E.A of an atom are 14.7 eV and 2.3 eV respectively. Its EN in pauling’s scale is
(a) 2.6 (b) 3 (c) 3.2 (d) 2 (e) 4
19. The gp which violates the general order of EN is
(a) gp 1 (b) gp 2 (c) gp 13 (d) gp 18 (e) gp 14
20. Arrange the following elements in the increasing order of their metallic character Be, Mg, Ca, Si, P
(a) P < Si < Be < Mg < Ca (b) Mg < Ca < Be < P < Si
(c) Ca < Mg < Be < si < P (d) P < Be < Si < Mg < Ca (e) Be < Mg < Ca < si < P
HOME ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. The statement that is not correct for periodic classification of elements in Modern periodic table is :
(1) The properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.
(2) Non-metallic elements are less in number than metallic elements.
(3) For transition elements, the 3d-orbitals are filled with electrons after 3p-orbitals and before 4s-orbitals.
(4) The first ionisation enthalpies of elements generally increase with increase in atomic number as we go
along a period.
2. Which of the following is true about the element 33As according to Modern periodic table :
(1) It is a 5th period element. (2) It is a p-block element.
(3) It belongs to 16th group. (4) It is one among typical elements.
3. Which of the following contains atomic number of only s-block
(1) 55,12,18,53 (2) 13,33,54,83 (3) 3, 20,55,87 (4) 22,33,55,66
4. Screening effect is not observed in :
(1) He+ (2) Li2+ (3) Be3+ (4) In all cases
5. When the following five anions are arranged in order of decreasing ionic radius, the correct sequence is
(1) Se2–, I–, Br–, O2–, F– (2) I– , Se2–, Br– , F–, O2–
(3) Se2–, I–, Br–, F–, O2– (4) I–, Se2–, Br–, O2–, F–
6. The correct order of size of ions Li+, Mg2+, K+, Al3+ :
(1) Al3+ < Mg2+ < Li+ < K+ (2) Mg2+ < Al3+ < Li+ < K+
(3) Al3+ < Mg2+ < K+ < Li+ (4) Al3+ < Li+ < Mg2+ < K+
7. Ionic radii of :
(1) Ti4+ < Mn7+ (2) 35Cl– < 37Cl– (3) K+ > Cl– (4) P3+ > P5+
8. The correct order of radii is :
(1) N < Be < B (2) F– < O2– < N3–
(3) Na < Li < K (4) Fe3+ < Fe2+ < Fe+4
9. Which of the following is the correct order of ionisation enthalpy ?
(1) Be+ > Be (2) Be > Be+ (3) C > Be (4) B > Be
(1) 2, 3 (2) 3, 4 (3) 1, 3 (4) 1, 4
10. Considering the elements B, Al, Mg, and K, the correct order of their metallic character is :
(1) B > Al > Mg > K (2) Al > Mg > B > K (3) Mg > Al > K > B (4) K > Mg > Al > B

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 11. The incorrect statement among the following is :
(1) the first ionization energy of Al is less than first ionization energy of Mg.
(2) the second ionization energy of Mg is greater than second ionization energy of Na.
(3) the first ionization energy of Na is less than first ionization energy of Mg.
(4) the third ionization energy of Mg is greater than third ionization energy of Al.
12. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity among the ns2 np5 group on the Pauling scale, but the electron
affinity of fluorine is less than that of chlorine because :
(1) the atomic number of fluorine is less than that of chlorine.
(2) fluorine being the first member of the family behaves in an unusual manner.
(3) chlorine can accommodate an electron better than fluorine by utilising its vacant 3d–orbital.
(4) small size, high electron density and an increased electron repulsion makes addition of an electron to
fluorine less favourable than that in the case of chlorine in isolated stage.
13. Which of the following statement is incorrect ?
(1) The tendency to attract bonded pair of electron in case of hybrid orbitals follow the order : sp > sp2 > sp3
(2) Alkali metals generally have negative value of electron gain enthalpy.
(3) Cs+(g) releases more energy upon gain of an electron than Cl(g).
(4) The electronegativity values for 2p-series elements is less than that for 3p-series elements on account
of small size and high inter electronic repulsions.
14. Identify the least stable ion amongst the following :
(1) Li– (2) Be– (3) B– (4) C–
15. Among the following, the number of elements showing only one non-zero oxidation state is :
O, Cl, F, N, P, Sn, Tl, Na, Ti
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5
16. The oxidation number that iron does not exhibit in its common compounds or in its elemental state is :
(1) 0 (2) +1 (3) +2 (4) +3
17. Which of the following can show +7 oxidation state?
(1) Mn (2) F (3) In (4) N
18. Which of following does not exist :
(1) TlI3 (2) PbF4 (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) None of these
19. Elements of which period show maximum inert pair effect :
(1) 3 (2) 4 (3) 5 (4) 6
20. Which of the following species has the largest size?
(1) Mg (2) Mg+ (3) Mg2+ (4) Al3+

1. (3) 2. (2) 3. (3) 4. (4) 5. (4) 6. (1) 7. (4)

8. (2) 9. (3) 10. (4) 11. (2) 12. (4) 13. (4) 14. (2)
15. (1) 16. (2) 17. (1) 18. (4) 19. (4) 20. (1)

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