PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table provides a systematic and extremely useful framework for organizing the vast
amount of information available on the chemical and physical behavior of the element into a few
simple and logical patterns.

Earlier(Historical) attempt of classification of elements TRIADS (by John Dobereiner – 1817)

It is set of three elements which showed similar chemical property and the atomic weight of the
central element approximately the mean of the atomic weight of other two element. But triads could be
applied only to the limited number of element.

Triad element Li Na K Ca Sr Ba Cl Br I Fe Co Ni
Atomic Wt. 7 23 39 40 87.5 137 35.5 80 127 55.5 58.93 58.77

LAW OF OCTAVES (John Newlands – 1865 – 66)

He arranged the lighter elements in increasing order of their atomic wt. and suggested that the
properties of every eight element are similar to the first one, like the eight note of a musical scale.
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Element Li Be B C N O F

Sr. No. 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Sr. No. 15 16 But properties of the eighth element were no longer similar to
Element K Ca the first one.

LOTHER-MAYER ARRANGMENT (1869)

Proposed that the physical properties (i.e. atomic volume, melting point and boiling point) of the various
element are a periodic function of their atomic wt.
He plotted a graph between the atomic volumes and atomic wt. of the elements and observed that
the element with similar properties occupied similar position on the curve.

(i) The most strongly electropositive alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs) Occupy the peaks on the
curve.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 1

 PERIODIC TABLE

(ii) The less strongly electropositive alkaline earth metals(Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra) occupy the
discending position on the curve
(iii) The most electronegative element i.e. halogens F, Cl, Br and I occupy the ascending position on the curve

MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC LAW

This law states that “The physical and chemical properties of elements and their compound are a
periodic fun of their atomic weights”. He arranged elements in order of their increasing atomic weight
into a tabular form, elements with similar properties are repeated after certain regular intervals, so it is
said Mendeleev’s periodic table. Only 63 elements known when this classification was presented.
Important features of the table :
(i) Mendeleev’s periodic table forms vertical columns(called group) and horizontal rows (called periods)
Elements of a group are similar in properties.
(ii) There are eight groups in the table (Gr I to Gr VIII). All the groups except VIII from I to VII are
divided into subgroup A & B (i.e I A, I B, II A, II B, . . . . . . etc.) elements of a same subgroup are similar
in properties.
(iii) There are seven periods (I to VII). Elements of the same period differ in properties
Merits of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
(i) Correction of atomic weights :- Many doubtful atomic weights were corrected using Mendeleev’s
periodic table, eg. Be
(ii) Vacant place for undiscovered elements :- Mendeleev left vacant place in his table for elements to be
discovered, (Ga, Ge etc) Not only that he also predicted properties of those elements which are found
true when the elements were actually discovered. For example, Ga and Ge were not known when
Mendeleev proposed his periodic table. He named these elements Eka-Aluminium (Ga) and Eka-
Silicon (Ge), because he believed that they would be similar to Al and Si. Mendeleev’s predictions were
found true.

Defect of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

(i) Hydrogen has got two place in Mendeleev’s periodic table in Gr I (alkalimetals) and Gr VII
(halogens)
(ii) Some elements are in reverse order of atomic weight, Ar(39.9) , K(39.1), Co(58.9) Ni(58.7),
Te(127.6), I(126.9)
(iii) Highly reactive alkali metals (Li to Cs) are with noble coinage metals (Cu, Ag, Au)
(iv) Gr VIII has three elements at a place (Fe, Co, Ni), (Ru, Rh, Pd) and (Os, Ir, Pt) instead of one
element
(v) Metals like Mn, Tc, Re are placed with non-metal halogens (F to I) in Gr VII
(vi) Isotopes have got no place in Mendeleev’s periodic table
(vii) There are 15 lanthanides in the same Gr III

Mosely’s Modern Periodic Table

Mosley (1914) observed that atomic number is fundamental property of an element. This concept
changed the basis of periodic table from atomic weight to atomic Number
Mosley proposed his own periodic law known as modern periodic law. It states “properties of
elements and their compounds are the periodic function of their atomic number” Elements were
then arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers the resultant table is known as modern
periodic table. In this table subgroups are separated and so the table becomes longer in size. Therefore it
is also known as long form of the periodic table.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 2

 PERIODIC TABLE

Main features of the modern periodic table

(i) It has group and periods like Mendeleev’s periodic table
(ii) It has nine group, I to VIII and zero group (Noble gases were known when table was made)
(iii) Zero group contains noble gas (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn)
(iv) Group from I to VII are divided into subgroup A and B
(v) Zero group and Group VIII has no subgroups
(vi) This table has seven periods
(vii) Elements from atomic number 84 (Polonium) onwards are radioactive. A few other having lower
atomic number are also radioactive, eg. 43Tc, 61Pm (it is synthetic)
(viii) Elements after atomic number 92 (uranium) are all synthetic or manmade. They have been
produced by nuclear reactions.

Periodic Table And Aufbau Principle

The modern periodic table is a consequence of Aufbau principles electron configuration of element and
the modern periodic table (or IUPAC) corresponds with each other. IUPAC-Table :- It is simply a
changed version of the long form of the periodic table. It was recommended in 1984 by IUPAC
committee.
Classification And Determination of Block, Group, Period, . . . . . . of an elements
Classification of elements on the basis of differentiating electron. The last electron is called
differentiating electron. Block :- In the electronic configuration of an element the last electron comes in
that suborbit is called Block of that element.
Elements are classified into four Blocks according to differentiating electrons.

Sub gp. s-Block ns1-2 All shell are complete except outermost shell
A (in zero group all the shells are complete).
p-Block ns2 np1-6

Elements of S and P Block are commonly known as Representative or Normal or Min group
elements.

Sub gp. d-Block (n-1)d1-10 ns0,1,2 Two outermost shell are incomplete
B known as, Transition elements
f-Block (n-2)f (n – 1)d ns
1-14 0-1 2 Three outermost shell are incomplete,
known as Inner transition elements
Determination of group and period of an element in Modern periodic table

American system IUPAC Table

Group No. = Total number of valence electrons For S, d and f – block elements Groupp No. =
Number of valence electrons
For p-block elements, Gp. No.= Number of valence-
Electrons+10
For d-block elements having d10 configuration
Group No. = No. of valence electrons +10

Period No. = Highest orbit number present in Same as the modern periodic table
electronic configuration of an atom of the element
MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 3
 PERIODIC TABLE

Note : The f-block elements are placed in 3rd group, both Lanthanides in 6th period and Actinide in 7th period.
Maximum no. of elements present in any period = sum of the maximum possible electrons present in the
configuration from nS to nP sub orbit (where n = outermost orbit)
eg. No. of elements present in 1st to 7th period is?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
2+6=8 2+6=8 2+10+6=18 2+10+6=18 2+14+10+6=32 2+14+10+6=32
Only two (1s2) element Eight element Eight in 18 element in 18 element in 32 elements in 32 elements in
present in 1st period present in 2nd pr. 3rd period. 4th period 5th period 6th period 7th period

Electronic configuration, valence electrons and valency

Valency :- The combining capacity (or power) of an element to form chemical bond is called valency,
or the number of chemical bond formed by an atom of the element with other is called valency, or No.
of electron involve in chemical reaction is called valency of that element or The number of unpaired
electrons present in valence shell of an atom of the element is called valency. Valency of the
elements may be variable or fixed which depends on the many factor.
Valence electron :- Total number of electrons present in outer most electronic configuration (out side
the noble gas or pseudo noble gas core) in an atom is called valence electron. Number of valence
electrons remain fixed for an atom of the element.

Outermost electronic configuration and counting of valence electron =

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
( )+( ) + ( 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 (𝑛 − 2)𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 )
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
Example :-
2
3Li → 1s 2s
1 11Na [Ne] 3s1
[He] 2s1
Nobel gas configuration. Valence shell or outermost configuration.
11Na
2 2
→ 1s 2s 2p 3s 6 1
31Ga [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1
[Ne] 3s1
Pseudio noble gas configuration Valence shell configuration.
2 2 6 2 6 1
19K →1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
[Ar] 4s1 82 Pb [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2 (18 + 2) 6p2

Inert pair configuration Valence shell configuration.

20 Ca → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
[Ar] 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 1 5
24Cr → 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
[Ar] 3d 4s1
5
2 2 6 2 6 2 10
30zn → 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
[Ar] 3d 4s2
10

31Ga → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p1

[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1

82pb → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2→…………5s25p65d10 6s2 6p2
[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2 (18 + 2) 6p2
Inert pair configuration
58Ce → [Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 4

 PERIODIC TABLE

61Pm → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f5 5d0
[Xe1] 4f5 5d0 6s2
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 2 10 6 2 2 1
64Gd → 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d
[Xe] 4f 5d 6s2
7 1

VALENCY OF AN ELEMENT:-

The valency is generally equal to either the number of valence electron

[ ]
or 8 − the number of valence electron

S – Block elements Gr. IA- Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr, (Alkali metal) Univalent
Show fixed valency Gr. IIA-Be,Mg,Ca, Sr, Ba,Ra, (Alkaline earth metal) Divalent
P-Block elements :-
 Elements of 2nd period exhibit fixed valency (Except N & O May show variable valency)
 Some elements of 3rd and 4th period show variable due to presence of vacant d-subshell in the
valence shell, which provided extra space for the unpairing of nS & nP electrons.
 Some elements of 5th and 6th period exhibit variable valency due to Inert pair effct.

INERT PAIR EFFECT – In higher member of p – block elements , nS2 electron in outer most shell
remaining paired and not participating in bonding. This is called inert pair effect.
If the energy required to unpaired them exceeds the energy evolved when they form bonds, then
the nS-electron will remain paired.
eg. stability of some elements in IC and OUS, state is
Gr. IIIA Gr. VIA Gr. VI
IC OUS IC OUS IC OUS
Ga(iii) >Ga(i) As(v) > As(iii)
In(iii) > In(i) Sn(iv) >Sn(ii) Sb(v) > Sb(iii)
Tl(iii) < Tl(i) Pb(iv) < Pb(ii) Bi(v) < Bi(iii)
Sign of grater and smaller than represents relative stability of IC & OUS state

d-block elements :- Exhibit variable valency, due to unstable core

Transition metal contain more than 8 electrons in the penultimate shell so inter-electronic
repulsion is very high order and the nucleus is not so much sufficient to bind all the electrons strongly,
so the metal looses one or more than one electron from incompletely filled (n-1)d – sub shell and display
variable valency. More ever , the transition metal display variable valency due to unstable core, after
losing electrons from incompletely filled d – sub shell so the metal acquire stable core.
Some example of variable valency → V-6,4,3,2 Cr-6,3,2 Fe-2,3 Co-2,3 Ni-2,3, etc.

RELATIONSHIPS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

(1)Diagonal relationship:-
Some elements of 2nd & 3rd period placed diagonally in the table are similar properties.
Gr. IA IIA III IVA (i) having similar in ionic potential (is known as polarizing power)
2+
A Ionic potential = Ionic radii ; (𝐵𝑒 3+ = 6.45)
Pr. Ionic charge

2nd period Li Be B C 𝐴𝑙 = 6.0

3rd period Na Mg Al Si (ii) having closeness in Ionic radii ;(Li+ = 0.6 A0, Mg2+ = 0.65 A0)

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 5

 PERIODIC TABLE

(2)Horizontal relationship :-
(i) Elements of Gr. VIII have horizontal similarity
eg. Fe Co Ni Ru Rh Pd Os Ir Pt (Tride elements)

(ii) Transition elements form a horizontal series

eg. Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni etc. and are similar
(iii) Lanthanides i.e. elements from Ce to Lu, are similar in many ways

(3)Group Relationship : Elements of a group are similar in properties Gr- IA - Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs ;
Gr. IIA – Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba etc., are similar. However, first elements of each main group (i.e. S & P –
block) differ from rest the group members, eg. Li, Be, B, C, N, O and F differ from their higher group
members respectively. Li differ from Na, Be from Mg, etc. This difference is due to
(i) small size (of the first member) (ii) high Electronegativity (of the first member)
(iii) non-availability of d-orbital’s in the valence shell of these elements (i.e. in 2nd period) valence
orbital’s are s and p only.

(4)Bridge Element : Few elements of 3rd period like Na, Mg, Al, Si are called bridge elements. Because
It have average property in between two subgroup A & B
IA IIA IIIA ivA
3rd Period → Na Mg Al Si

IA IB IIA IIB IIIA IIIB IVA IVB

K Cu Ca Zn Ga Sc Ge Ti
Rb Ag Sr Cd In Y Sn Zr
Cs Au Ba Hg Tl La Pb Hf

(5)Typical Elements : The elements of the 3rd period from sodium to chlorine (Na to Cl) are called
typical elements. They are called so, because they represent the characteristic properties of other heavier
members of their respective subgroups.
Note that there are no typical elements in d and f blocks.

Classification of Normal or Representative or Main group elements :

All the S and P Block elements except inert gases are called NORMAL ELEMENTS, some of
the subgroup have got special names, on the basis of their characteristic properties.
Group Group Name
No.
IA Alkali metals Because their oxide and hydroxides are strong basic(Alkaline) and water
soluble
IIA Alkaline earth Because their oxides and hydroxides are alkaline and are partially soluble
metals like earth (soil)
IIIA No special name
IVA No special name
V Pnicogens Their compounds are called “pnictides” because of some their compound
have very bad odour (suffocation)
VI Chalcogens These elements ore forming (chalcogens meaning ore forming) because
many metals occur as oxides and sulphides etc.
VII Halogens They are salt producer[(halos (Greek word) meaning, ‘salt’]
MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 6
 PERIODIC TABLE

Zero Halogens Also called rare gases or inert gases or Aerogens, at recent He, Ne, Ar are
called inert gas and Kr, Xe Rn are called Noble gas.

d – block elements or Transition metals

They are often called ‘transition elements’ because their position in the periodic table is between
the S -block and P-block elements. There properties are transitional between the highly reactive
metallic elements of the S – block, which typically form Ionic compounds and the elements of the p –
block, which are largely covalent. In d – block, electrons are added to the penultimate (n – 1)d sub shell,
expanding it from 8 to 18 electrons. Typically the transition elements have an incompletely filled d
orbital’s. There are four such series in the periodic table (3d, 4d, 5d and 6d) as.
Series Elements No. of Elements
1st transition series (3d-series) 21Sc to 30Zn 10
2nd transition series (4d-series) 39Y to 48Cd 10
3rd transition series (5d-series) 57La, 72Hf to 80Hg 10
4th transition series (6d-series) 89Ac, 104Rf to 109Mt 7
[Incomplete]
Note-30Zn has d10 configuration 30 Zn-family is excluded from transition metal group, although they are
d-block elements thus Zn, Cd & Hg are non-typical transition metals and show some different
properties from the others.
Q: Which of the following Ions may not be regarded as transition metal
(i) Ti+3 → [d1], (2) Sc+3 → [d0], (3) Cu+1 → [d10] , (4) Zn+2 → [d10], (5) Cu+2 → [d9],
Elements of d-block has common properties and they are characterized by .
* Variable valency and oxidation state due to participation of variable No. of (n-1) d-electron in
addition to outer s-electron in bond formation
* They are capable of forming complex because their atom or Ion have small size, high nuclear
charge and a number of empty d-orbitals for the co-ordination of ligands.
* Their compounds are generally coloured and paramagnetic due to presence of unpaired d-electrons
* Most of the transition metals such as V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Ni, Pt, etc. and their compounds
are used as catalyst.
* Most of the transition metals form alloys
* They are hard, Malleable, ductile, high M.P & B.P and good conductors of heat and electricity

ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON IN POLYELECTRONIC ATOM

Energy of an electron in polyelectronic atom depends on both Principal(n) and Azimuthal(l) quantum
number. In poly electronic atom both force of attraction and repulsion interact simultaneously on an
electron so energy of an electron depends on effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
2𝜋2 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓2 𝑚 𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = − ;
(4𝜋𝜖𝑜)2 𝑛2 ℎ2
(Zeff = Zactual – 𝝈)
Where :-
n is effective principle quantum No. , Zactual is atomic No. (True nuclear charge) Zeff. is
effective nuclear charge, 𝝈 is screening constant or shielding constant and it depends on n & l.
SHIELDING EFFECT
In an atom outer electrons are shielded from the full charge of the nucleus by the inner electrons is
called shielding effect.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 7

 PERIODIC TABLE

J.C. slarter (1932) for formulated the following empirical rules (known as slater’s rule) for
estimating ‘𝝈’ as
(i) 𝜎 = 0, for ‘e’ in question (i.e. an electron of nth orbit) or electron in higher group (i.e. n+1 or higher
orbit)
(ii) 𝜎 = 0.3, for a 1s electron screening another 1s electron
(iii) 𝜎 = 0.35 per electron for rest of the group electron (n)
(iv) 𝜎 = 0.85 per electron for all electrons in (n-1) group
(v) 𝜎 = 1, per electron for all electrons in (n-2) or lower groups
(vI) in case of electron being shielding of nd or nf all electrons lying to the lift of nd or nf gr., 𝜎 = 1 per
electron
Summary of above Rule→
Electron group All higher group Same group Group with (n-1) Group with (n-2)
1s 0 0.3 0 0
ns np 0 0.35 0.85 1.00
nd nf 0 0.35 1.00 1.00

Q. Calculate the effective nuclear charge (Zeff.) for the last electron in calcium (20Ca)
Ans. Zeff = Z – 𝜎 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
𝜎 = (2 x 1) +(8 x 1) +(8 x 0.85) +(1 x 0.35) = 17.15
Zeff = 20 – 17.15 = 2.85
-
Q. Calculate the Zeff for the last electron in 14Si Ion * Zeff for the highest energetic electron
2 2 6 2 2+1
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p regularly increasing in period
𝜎 = (2 x 1) (8 x 0.85) (4 x 0.35) = 10.2 * Zeff increases with zactual (atomic
Zeff = 14 – 10.2 = 3.8 number)
Q. Calculate the effective nuclear charge for. (i) 3s electron in sulphur (z = 16)
(ii) The 4s electron in potassium (z = 19) (iii) a 4s and a 3d electron in vanadium (z = 23)
Ans. (i) 𝜎 = (5 x 0.35) + (8 x 0.85) + (2 x 1.0) = 10.55 ; Zeff = 16 – 10.55 = 5.45
(ii) 𝜎 = (8 x 0.85) + (10 x 1) = 16.8 Zeff = 19 – 16.80 = 2.20
(iii) 𝜎 = (1 x 0.35) + (11 x 0.85) = (10 x 1) = 19.7 Zeff = 23 – 19.70 = 3.30
Q. Calculate Z* For the 10th d-electron of Zn
30Zn – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
𝜎= (18 x 1) + (2 x 0) + (9 x 0.35) = 21.15
Z* = 30 – 21.15 = 8.85
Variation of Effective nuclear chrge(Z*) in the periodic table.
(i) Except first member, z* remain constant in the group for other members.
Example : Li (z*=1.3), Na(z*=2.2), k (z*=2.2), Rb (z*=2.2), Cs (z*=2.2), Fr (z*=2.2).
(ii) z* increases in a period from left to right.
MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 8
 PERIODIC TABLE

Example: Li(z*=1.3), Be(z*=1.95), B(z*=2.6), C(z*=3.25), N(z*=3.9), O(z*=4.55), F(z*=5.2),

Zeff. Feels by the sub orbit and its penetration effect.(Feels of Zeff. By sub orbit ∝ 𝟏⁄𝓵
Zeff. For the nth orbit ∝ 𝟏⁄𝒏 )
Increase in energy Increase in energy
2 2
ns np nd nf 1s 2s 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
Zeff feels by suborbit decrease in force of attraction
between nucleus and electron cloud
~ For nS electrons, has lower energy than nP, nd . . .
~ Feels maximum Zeff.
~ More tightly held by the nucleus
~ Large probability density near nucleus
~ Maximum penetration effect
~ Maximum screened to the nucleus Penetration effect increases

ATOMIC RADII
Atomic radii depend on many factors
(1) Orbit number (2) Effective nuclear charge
(3) Screening effect or shielding effect (4) Transition metal contraction
(5) Lanthanide contraction
Atomic radii :- according to the wave mechanical picture of the atom the electron cloud around
the nucleus extend to infinity, the atomic size of an atom is difficult to define. Thus we can only
arbitrarily define as atomic radius = ½ distance between the centers of nucleus of two similar atom
held together in a molecule.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 9

 PERIODIC TABLE

Note – In period alkali metal are largest atom and halogen are smallest atom. If noble gases should be
compared with Vander walls radii (Non bonded radii) rather than with covalent bonded radii, then the
largest atom will be inert gas not alkali metals.

Transition contraction or d- contraction

Q. Why is the size of Al = Ga ?
In transition metal electrons are being added in next to outer most orbit of 3d – orbitals.
d orbitals have very poor screening effect so the ns electrons are strongly attracted reducing the
size hence the size of Al and Ga is very close
Lanthanide contraction.
Q. Why is the size of 2nd and 3rd row of transition elements being almost the same?
Due to Lanthanide contraction, the radii of 4d transition series and 5d transition series are
very closed , because from (58La – 71Hf), 1 to 14 electrons are being filled in 4f orbitals which is dipped
in side and poorest screening effect so the outer electron is strongly attracted by the nucleus and atom
contracts, which leads to decrease in size and resulting in the size of 2nd and 3rd row of transition
elements being almost the same.
eg. Zr – Hf are almost same
Nb – Ta
Ag – Au

There are three operational concept of atomic radii.

(1) Covalent radius → For homonuclear molecul ( H2, Cl2, ..etc.) = 1/2 x distance between the centre
of nucleus of two similar atoms held together by a purely covalent single bond.

Note : For hetero atomic molecule eg. CH3Cl the measured distance between Cl—C bond is 178 pm.,
remarkably close to the expected value 176 pm.
(2) Vander waal’s radius :-
It is ½ the inter nuclear distance between two similar adjacent non bonded atoms belonging to
two neighboring molecule of the same substance in solid state.
eg. Inter nuclear distance between non-bonded closest neighboring atom in solid Iodine is 430 pm. R =
215 pm (but covalent radius = 133 pm)

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 10

 PERIODIC TABLE

(3) Metallic Radius :- It is ½ the inter nuclear distance separating the metal ions in the metallic crystal.

Comparison of different types of atomic radii :-

Vander waals’ radius > metallic radius > covalent radius
For example, metallic radius of sodium is 186 pm where as its covalent radius as determined from its
vapours which exist as Na2 is 154 pm.

(4) Ionic radius :- For the corresponding atom, cationic size < neutral atom < anionic size .

O- - > O - > O > O+ > O++

Z/e = 8/10 8/9 8/8 8/7 8/6
Effective nuclear pull = Z/e (attraction by nucleus ∝ l/size)
For iso-eletronic species. Size increases with the increase in magnitude of –ve charge and vice-versa
for +ve charge.
eg.Isoelectronic species → C4- N3- O2- F- Ne Na+ Mg++ Al+++ Si4+
Z =6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
e = 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Nuclear attraction Z/e = 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
0.6 < 0.7 < 0.8 < 0.9 < 1.0 < 1.1 <1.2 < 1.3 < 1.4
If Z/e Increases, then size decreases
When a negative Ion is formed, one or more electron are added to an atom, the effective nuclear charge
is reduced and hence the electron cloud expands, so size of –ve Ions sub shell acquire bigger size than
the corresponding atom and vice-versa for +ve Ions.
Size of hydrated Ions :-
Smaller ions are heavily hydrated due to very high charge density, resulting in the larger its size.
eg. Size of hydrated ion → Li+ (aq) > Na+ (aq) > K+ (aq) > Rb+ (aq) > Cs+ (aq)
F-(aq) > Cl-(aq) > Br-(aq) >I-(aq)
Size of gaseous ions :-
Size of gaseous ion → Li+ (g) < Na+(g) < K+(g) < Rb+(g) < Cs+(g)
MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 11
 PERIODIC TABLE

F-(g) < Cl-(g) < Br-(g) < I-(g)

IONIZATION POTENTIAL (I.P.) OR IONIZATION ENTHALPY (I.E.)
The minimum amount of energy (Or minimum potential difference in discharge tube) required to
remove the most loosely held electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state is called
Ionization enthalpy (I.E.) or Ionization potential of an element
Value of I.P. or IE always +ve
UNIT → ev/atom or KJ/mole or K.cal/mole

1ev per atom = 1.602 x 10-19 J per atom = 3.83 x 10-20 cal per atom (1 cal = 4.184 j)
-19 23
1.602 x 10 x 6.022 x 10 = 3.83 x 10-20 x 6.022 x 1023cal per mole (one mole = 6.022x1023)
-1
= 96.48 KJ mole = 23.06 Kcal mole-1

Ionization energy (Enthalpy) for Hydrogen atom in discharge tube.

When hydrogen gas under low pressure is taken in the discharge tube, suddenly very large
increase in current flow occurs when the applied voltage is 13.58 volt = 13.6 v (due to increase in the
number of free electron at this potential difference in hydrogen discharge tube)
Therefore, the ionization enthalpy of hydrogen atom is = 13.6 ev or 13.6 x 96.48 = 1312 KJ/mole

Successive Ionization Enthalpies.

Ionization is not necessarily limited to the removal of a single electron from an atom. Two, three
or even more electrons can be removed sequentially from an atom, and the amount of energy associated
with each step can be measured.
For example Al(g) IE1 = 579 KJ mol-1 Al+(g) + e - 1st Ionization energy (IE1)
2 2 6 2 1
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Al+(g) IE2 = 1795 KJ mol-1 Al2+(g) +e - 2nd Ionization energy (IE2)
2 2 6 2
1s 2s 2p 3s
Al++(g) IE3 = 2758 KJ mol-1 Al3+(g) + e - 3rd Ionization energy (IE3)
2 2 6 1
1s 2s 2p 3s

Order of IE must be IE1 < IE2 < IE3 and so on

The factors that influence the Ionization enthalpy are :-
(1) The size of the atom
(2) The charge on the nucleus (Effective nuclear charge)
(3) How effectively the inner electron shell screen the nuclear charge
(4) The type of electron involved (s,p,d,f) and penetration effect of the electrons
(5) Nature of electronic configuration
(6) Inert pair effect
(1) Ionization energy decreases as the atomic size increases. eg. Ionization enthalpy is found to
decrease on moving down a group.
(2) The Ionization enthalpy increases with increase in effective nuclear charge. eg. Ionization
enthalpy increases as we move along a period from left to right.
(3) As the shielding or the screening effect of the inner electrons increases, the Ionization
enthalpy decreases.
MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 12
 PERIODIC TABLE

(4) Ionization enthalpy increases with the increase in the penetration effect of electrons. If
penetration effect of the electron is more, it will come closer to the nucleus and hence will be held more
firmly by the nucleus. So the ionization enthalpy will be more to knock out s-electron than p-electron of
the same shell which in turn will be more than that required to remove a d-electron and so on.
Thus, with in the same shell, the penetration effect decrease in the order of
s>p>d>f
(5) If an atom contains exactly half-filled or completely filled orbitals, it has extra stability.
Therefore the removal of an electron from such an atom requires more energy than expected.
eg. Ionization enthalpy of Be (1s2 2s2) > B (1s2 2s2 2p1)
Mg (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2) > Al (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1)
N (1s 2s 2px 2py1 2pz1) > O (1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1)
2 2 1

P (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px1 3py1 3pz1) > S(1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py13pz1)
Noble gases have the highest I.P.in their respective period due to stable configuration

ELECTRON AFFINITY (Ea)1 AND ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY (∆egH)1

It me be defined as the amount of energy released when an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state
accepts an electron, to form a mono valent gaseous anion. Value of ∆egH and Ea may be +ve or –ve
depend on nature of an element.
UNIT → ev/atom or KJ mol-1 or K-cal mol-1
eg.- group – 17 elements (Halogens) have very high –ve electron gain enthalpy (-∆egH)1
−
spontaneous Reaction F (g) + e - → F(g) ; ∆H =∆egH1 =-328 KJ mol-1 (Exothermic) [Stable anion] and
electron affinity (Ea) is taken as +ve (=+328 KJ mol-1)
group – 18 (Noble gas) have larger +ve electron gain enthalpy (+∆egH)1
Non spontaneous Ne(g) + e - → Ne+ 1 -1
g ; ∆H = ∆egH + 116 KJ mol (Endothermic) [unstable anion] and
electron affinity (Ea) is taken as –ve (= - 116 KJ mol )
-1

Electron affinity is defined at absolute zero but at any other temperature (T), heat capacities
instead of electron affinity of the reactant and products should be considered. Therefore, in view of these
two reasons, the term electron gain enthalpy is used instead of electron affinity, the two terms are
5
related to each other as ⇒ ∆egH = - Ae - 2 RT
Thus numerically electron gain enthalpy is higher than that of electron affinity by 5/2 RT.
Since the value of 5/2 RT at 298 K is just 2.477 KJ mol-1 therefore this small difference is often ignored
and the two term are used indistinguishably with the only difference that electron gain enthalpy is just
the – ve of electron affinity

Successive electron gain enthalpies

Second and higher electron gain enthalpies (∆egH)2,3,… are also possible but energy thus to be supplied
for the addition of second or higher electron (due to electrostatic repulsion between anion and 2nd

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 13

 PERIODIC TABLE

additional electron). Thus the second electron gain enthalpy (∆egH)2 of an element is positive (+ve) so
this anion (x2-) are highly unstable.
eg. :- O(g) + e - → 𝐎− -1
(𝐠) ; ∆egH = - 141 KJ mol (Exothermic) First electron gain enthalpy (∆egH)
1

O - + e - → 𝐎𝟐− -1 nd
(𝐠) ; ∆egH = +780 KJ mol (Endothermic) 2 electro gain enthalpy (∆egH)
2

Factors Which Affecting Electron Gain Enthalpy (∆egH).

(1) Effective nuclear charge :- Greater the magnitude of nuclear charge greater will be the
attraction for the incoming electron and as a result, electron gain enthalpy (∆egH) becomes more –ve so
larger will be the +ve value of electron affinity (Ea)
(2) Atomic size – Larger the size of an atom is more will be the distance between the nucleus
and the additional electron, as a result the force of attraction between them decreases and hence the
electron gain enthalpy (∆egH) becomes less –ve so smaller will be the +ve value of electron affinity (Ea)
(3) Electronic configuration – Stable the electronic configuration of an atom is lesser will be its
tendency to accept the electron and lower will be the value of its electron affinity. As a result, energy
has to be supplied to add an electron. Hence their electron gain enthalpies (∆egH) have large +ve value
so large –ve value of electron affinity (Ea) since the do not accept the additional electron so easily.

Variation of electron gain enthalpies in the periodic table

∆egH or Ea does not show a perfectly regular trend along a period or a group because of a number of
exceptions. However, in general, the electron gain enthalpy becomes less –ve in going from top to
bottom in a group and more –ve in going from left to right in a period.
Variation in period :-
(1) Halogens have the highest –ve value of electron gain enthalpy (∆egH)
So highest the +ve value of electron affinity (Ea)
(2) Noble gas (G-18) have the highest +ve value of ∆egH So It have the highest –ve value of Ea
(3) Alkaline earth metals (G-2) like Ca, Sr, Ba have zero value of ∆egH and Ea
(4) Electron affinities of N, P and other elements of group-15 are quit low because their electronic
configuration
are stable due to the half filled p-orbitals of their valence shell.

Variation in group:-
On moving down a group, the atomic size as well as nuclear charge increase. But the effect of increase
in atomic size is much more pronounced than that of nuclear charge consequently, electron affinity
decreases on going down the group, so electron gain enthalpy (∆egH) becomes less –ve
The electron gain enthalpies (∆egH) of O & F is unexpectedly less –ve than
corresponding elements S & Cl, due to extremely small size of 2-P sub-orbit in F and O compared to 3-P
sub-orbit in S & Cl, therefore smaller in volume greater the charge density around F & O. As a result
there are inter electronic repulsions within the atom itself and hence the additional electron is not
accepted easily.
Electron gain enthalpy of some elements in KJ mol-1

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 14

 PERIODIC TABLE

Although electron affinities depend on the size and effective nuclear charge. They cannot be determined
directly, but are obtained indirectly from the Born-haber cycle. This cycle devised by Born and Haber
in 1919 relates the lattice energy of a crystal to other thermo chemical data. The energy terms involved
in building a crystal lattice such as sodium chloride may be taken in steps, and its constituent element
taken in their standard state.
According to Hess’s law, the overall energy change in a process depends only on the energy of
the initial and final state and not on the route taken. The enthalpy of formation of (∆Hf) is the algebraic
sum of the term going round the cycle.
BORN- HABER CYCLE FOR THE FORMATION OF NaCl & ITS HYDRATION ENERGY.
From this cycle, electron gain enthalpy (∆egH) or Electron affinities (E) of an element may be calculated
as :-
∆Hf = + ∆Hs + I + ½ Hd + E + U
For NaCl 381.2 = + 108.4 + 495.4 + 120.9 + E - 757.3
Hence electron gain enthalpy (∆egH) for Cl(g) = -348.6 KJ mol-1
It is also possible to calculate the lattice energy
Lattice energy also guide to the solubility of the crystal and Ionic/covalent nature of the bonding.
Lattice energy(U):- It is defined as the amount of energy released when cations(g) and anions(g) are
brought from infinity to their respective equilibrium site in the crystal lattice to form one mole of the
ionic compound.
For lattice energy to be high, the force of electrostatic attraction between the constituent ions should
be high.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 15

 PERIODIC TABLE

Born-Haber cycle for the formation of NaCl The dissociation of an ionic compounds in
water takes place in the following two steps:
Step-1. Dissociation of ionic solid in to free
Na+(g) + e- + Cl(g) Na+(g) + e- + Cl(g) ions. The energy required for this process is
called lattice energy or lattice enthalpy.
+800
Step-2. Hydration of the ions. The energy
Electron
released in this process is called hydration
𝟏 affinity(Ea)
Enthalpy of
𝟐
energy or enthalpy of hydration.
Dissociation(ΔHd) Na+(g) + Cl -(g)
Na+(g) + Cl -(g) Na+(g) + Cl -(g)
𝟏
Na+(g) + e- + 𝟐
Cl2(g)

+400 Enthalpy of ionzation(ΔHI)

-417.0 Kj mol-1
Na(g) + 𝟏𝟐 Cl2(g)
U=+788Kj mol-1
(U = Lattice energy)
Enthalpy of sublimation(ΔHS)

0.0 Na(s) + 𝟏𝟐Cl2(g) Na+(aq)

Lattice energy(U)
Enthalpy of U=-788 Kj mol-1
Formation -367.0 Kj mol-1
(ΔHf)
Cl -(aq)
-400 NaCl (Crystal) NaCl (Crystal)

Thus ΔSolH = ΔlatticeH + Δhyd.H

For example, for one mole of NaCl(s). Lattice energy = +788Kj mol-1
Hydration energy = -784Kj mol-1

∴ ΔSolH = +788Kj mol-1 - 784Kj mol-1 = +4 Kj mol-1

H
Na+ O
H

Hydrated cations and anions

ELECTRONEGATIVITY (on the basis of Pauling-1931)
It is tendency or ability of an atom of a given element to attract electron cloud to itself compared
with the other element in a given compound. The implication of this is that when a covalent bond is
formed.
Electronegativity is unit less quantity because it is tendency.
If the bonding electrons spend more time round one atom , has more tendency to attract electron
cloud so that bonded atom will has a partial –ve charge (𝛿-) and consequently the other atom will have a
partial +ve charge( 𝛿+). eg. HCl and it is covalent in nature.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 16

 PERIODIC TABLE

If bonding electrons are round one atom all of the time, the bond is Ionic eg. NaCl, CsF
ELECTRONEGATIVITY DEPENDS ON
 Size of Atom :- generally small atom attract electron more strongly than large ones and hence
smaller the size of an atom greater the Electro negativity
 Electronic Configuration: - Atom with nearly filled shell of electron tends to have higher
electro negativities (eg. Group – VII A) than those with sparsely occupied ones.
 Oxidation State :- It increases as the positive oxidation state increases
 Hybridization :- Greater is the S – character in a hybrid orbital more is Electronegativity
 Basic Properties :- The basic properties of elements are inversely related to the
Electronegativity
 Charge on the nucleus & Sheilding effect :-
Note – It is unlikely that the Electronegativity of an atom remains constant regardless of its
environments, though it is invariably assumed that it is constant.
 Pauling scale is most commonly used scale and is based on the bond energy data.

Electronegativity help to predict the polarity of bond & Nature of bond.

 If two atom have similar electronegativities, that is similar tendency to attract electrons, the bond
between them will be (Non polar) predominantly covalent. → True covalent bond
 Polar covalent → If Electronegativity difference between combining element ≤ 1.7
 It two atom have Electronegativity difference of approximately 1.7 – 1.8 corresponds to 50%
Ionic character
 Large difference in Electronegativity leads to a bond with a high degree of polar character, that is
a bond that is predominantly ionic.
 In general, greater is difference of electro
negativities between two atoms smaller is the Compound Difference In electro %teg
Bond- Length negativity Ionic
character
HI 0.4 4%
HBr 0.7 11%
HCl 0.9 19%
HF 1.9 45%
BF3 2.0 63%

* Ionic compounds(of transition metal) having percentage ionic character less than 20% were found
coloured, e.g.,
AgCl AgBr AgI Ag 2 S

22% 18% 11% 8%

White Light Dark Black
yellow yellow
Lesser the percentage ionic character, darker will be the colour.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 17

 PERIODIC TABLE

The %tag ionic character is calculated from the Electronegativity difference between the two atom by
the Hannay and Smith Relationship. %age Ionic character = 16(XA – XB) + 3.5 (XA – XB)2 Where XA
and XB are the electronegativities of two atom A & B

Measured dipole moment (μ obs)

Or %tag Ionic character = X 100
Dipole moment if the electron (μ ionic) is complete transfered
Note : If Electronegativity difference is zero the bond is = 100% covalent.
There is no bond with 100% ionic in character.
Electronegativity of some important elements
Elements → F > O > N = Cl > Br > I = C = S > P = H , Metalloids
Electronegativity → 4, 3.5, 3 3, 2.8, 2.5, 2.5, 2.5 2.2 2.0
Metalloids have electronegativity value is close to 2.0
The electronegativity of all the lanthanides are identical and close to 1.1

Electronegativity according toPauling scale.

Linus Pauling developed method for the calculation of relative electronegativity of element.
𝑥𝐴 − 𝑥𝐵 = 0.208√∆𝐸

Where ∆𝐸= Bond energy of (A-B) – √𝐵. 𝐸. 𝑜𝑓(𝐴 − 𝐴) 𝑋 𝐵. 𝐸. 𝑜𝑓( 𝐵 − 𝐵)

Note: Bond enthalpy is taken in Kcal/mole
Relation between Mulliken and Pauling scale.
The value of electronegativity for an element in Mullican scale is 2.8 times higher than Pauling’s value.
Electronegativity according to Mulliken
Mulliken suggested that Electronegativity could be regarded as the average of the ionization
energy and the electron affinity of an atom.
𝑰𝑬+𝑬𝒂
Electronegativity (En) = 𝟐 ; This value may be more nearly converted in pauling scale by
performing this calculation → (𝐈E + Ea)/540

Electronegativity according to Allred and Rochow’s scale

They defined Electronegativity as the attractive force between a nucleus and an electron at a distance
equal to the covalent radius
𝒆𝟐 .𝒁𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
F= . These F, values may be converted to Electronegativity values on the pauling
𝒓𝟐
scale of values using an empirical relationship :
𝟎.𝟑𝟓𝟗 𝒁 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟒 + This value quit closely with pauling and Mulliken
𝒓𝟐 (𝑨)

ELECTRO POSITIVITY
Tendency of atoms of an element to lose electrons and form positive ion is known as electro positivity.
A more electropositive element has more metallic character
Reactivity
The chemical reactivity of an element can best be shown by its reactions with oxygen and halogen.
Elements on the two extremes of a period readily combine with oxygen to form oxides. The normal
oxide formed by the element on the extreme left (most metallic) is most basic (Na2O) whereas, the oxide

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 18

 PERIODIC TABLE

formed by the element on the extreme right (most non-metallic) is most acidic (e.g., Cl2 O7). Oxides of
the elements in the centre are amphoteric
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P 2 O5 SO3 Cl2O
Behaviour Strongly Basic Amphoteric Weakly acidic Acidic Strongly Very strongly
Basic acidic acidic

Classification of oxides.
(I) Acidic oxide are generally the oxides of non metals like CO2, SO2, SO3, N2O5,P4O10, Cl2O7 etc., or
metallic oxides with high oxidation state like V2O5, CrO3, Mn2O7 etc.,
Acidic oxides dissolved in water to give acid, and are therefore called acid anhydrides.
Grater the electro negativity (or oxidation state) of the central atom, grater is the strength of acidic
oxide.
SO2 +H2O H2SO3 (aq)
SO3 +H2O H2SO4 (aq)
P4O10 +6H2O 4H3PO4 (aq)
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (aq)
These oxide are neutralize alkali and their aqueous solution turn blue litmus red.
SO2 + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O (l)

(II) Basic oxides: In general metallic oxides are basic in nature, like K2O, Na2O, MgO, CaO, BaO, etc,
The more electro positive the metallic atom the more basic the oxide.
Na2O +H2O 2NaOH
CaO +2HCl CaCl2 + H2O
(III) Amphoteric oxides: Some oxides behave as both an acid and base depending upon the conditions.
Example:. Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) + 9H2O 2Al(H2O)63+ (aq) + 6Cl-(aq) Basic in nature .
Al2O3(s) + 6NaOH(aq) + 3H2O 2Na3[Al(H2O)6](aq) + Acidic in nature .
Amphoteric oxides are generally the oxides of the elements located almost in the centre of P.T.
Example: Al2O3 , SnO2, ZnO, PbO
(IV) Neutral oxides: Oxides which are neither acidic nor basic, do not react with water so no oxyacid
ore base are formed. Example: CO, N2O, NO, etc,
*On moving across a period, the basic character of the oxides gradually changes first into amphoteric
and finally into acidic character.
*On moving down a group, reverse behaviour is observed i.e., from more acidic to more basic.
*Stability of oxides decreases across a period.
*Hydrides
(i) Hydrogen combines with a number of other elements including metals and non-metals to form
compounds called hydrides.
(ii) Covalent nature of hydrides increases across a period and decreases down the group.
(iii) Ionic hydride are better reducing agents than covalent hydride and reducing nature of hydride
decreases across a period and increases down the group.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 19

 PERIODIC TABLE

(A) (B) (C) LiH NaH MgH2 AlH3 SiH3

covalent
NaH (A)
ionic
KH (B)
reducing nature
RbH (C)

CsH (Minimum Maximum)

(iv) Covalent and ionic hydrides are classified as follows

* Melting and boiling points : The melting points of the elements exhibit some periodicity with rise of
atomic number. It is observed that elements with low values of atomic volumes have high melting points
while elements with high values of atomic volumes have low melting points. In general, melting points
of elements in any periodic at first increase and become maximum somewhere in the centre and
thereafter begins to decreases.
Tungsten has the maximum melting point (3410°C) amongst metals and carbon has the
maximum melting point (3727°C) amongst non-metals. Helium has the minimum melting point
(–270°C). The metals, Cs, Ga and Hg are known in liquid state at 30°C.
The boiling points of the elements also show similar trends, however, the regularities are not so
striking as noted in the case of melting points.
*Atomic volume : It is defined as the volume occupied by one gram atom of an element.
Mathematically,
Gram atomic weight
Atomic volume 
Density in solid state
Units of atomic volume are c.c./mole. Atomic volume signifies the volume occupied by one mole
(Avogadro number) of atoms of the given element in solid state. Lower atomic volume generally leads
to higher density, increased hardness and brittleness, higher melting and boiling points, less malleability
and ductility.
(i) While descending a group, the atomic volume generally increases which is due to increase in the
number of shells though the valence electrons in a given group remains constant.
(ii) While going left to right across a period the atomic volume first decreases to a minimum and then
increases. Francium has the highest atomic volume and boron has lowest atomic volume.

* Density : The density of the elements in solid state varies periodically with their atomic numbers. At
first, the density increases gradually in a period and becomes maximum somewhere for the central
members and then starts decreasing afterwards gradually

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 20

 PERIODIC TABLE

The IUPAC nomenclature of elements > 100

In IUPAC system, the names are derived by using roots for the three digits in the atomic number of the element
and adding the ending : ium. The roots for the numbers are
Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Root nil un bi tri Quad pent hex sept oct enn
Abbreviation n u b t Q p h s o e

Recommended and Official names of Elements with Z > 100

Z Recommended name Symbol IUPAC official name IUPAC symbol
101 Unnilunium Unu Mendelevium Md
102 Unnilbium Unb Nobelium No
103 Unniltrium Unt Lawrencium Lr
104 Unnilquadium Unq Rutherfordium Rf
105 Unnilpentium Unp Dubnium Db
106 Unnilhexium Unh Seaborgium Sg
107 Unnilseptium Uns Bohrium Bh
108 Unniloctium Uno Hassnium Hs
109 Unnilennium Une Meitnerium Mt
110 Ununnilium Uun * *
111 Unununium Uuu * *
112 Ununbium Uub * *
113 Ununtrium Uut ** 
114 Ununquadium Uuq * *
115 Ununpentium Uup ** 
116 Ununhexium Uuh ** 
117 Ununseptium Uus ** 
118 Ununoctium Uuo ** 
119 Ununennium Uue ** 
120 Unbinilium Ubn ** 
*The elements which comes after the uranium atom in periodic table are known as Trans-uranic
elements.

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 21

 PERIODS
Atomic radius Decreases
Ionisation potential Increases
Electronegativity Increases
Electron affinity Increases
Covalent character of halides Increases
Increases Metallic character Decreases

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY

IMPORTANT
Decreases Oxidising nature Increases
Decreases Reducing nature Decreases
G
Decreases Screening effect Increases

FACT
Decreases Effective nuclear charge (Z ) eff Increases
R
Increases Valency w.r.t Oxygen Increases
O Decreases Basic character of hydroxides Decreases
U Increases Basic character of hydrides Decreases
Increases Basic character of Oxides Decreases
P Constant Strength of oxy acids Increases

TO REMEMBER
S Constant Thermal stability of sulphate Decreases
PERIODIC TABLE

(Metals) Increases Thermal stability of carbonates Decrease

(Non metal) Decreases (Metals)Increases Thermal stability of nitrates Decrease
Increases Therma stability of hydroxide Decrease
Decreases Density First increases then decreases
Increases Electro positivity Decrease
Increases
Increases
Increases

By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739.

Increases
GENERAL TREND OF DIFFERENT PROPERTIES IN THE PERIOD AND GROUPS

Increases

Page 22
 PERIODIC TABLE

1. Lowest electronegativity : Cs
2. Highest electronegativity : F
3. Highest ionisation potential : He
4. Lowest ionisation potential : Cs
5. Lowest electron affinity : Noble gases
6. Highest electron affinity : Chlorine
7. Least electropositive element : F
8. Lowest m. pt. metal : Hg
9. Highest m. pt. and b. pt. metal : W (Tungsten)
10. Lowest m. pt. and b. pt. non metal : He
11. Notorious element : Hydrogen
12. Lightest element : Hydrogen
13. Smallest atomic size : H
14. Largest atomic size : Cs
15. Largest anionic size : I–
16. Smallest cation : H+
17. Most electropositive element : Cs
18. Element with electronegativity : Oxygen
next to Fluorine
19. Group containing maximum no. : Zero group
of gaseous elements in periodic table
20. Total number of gaseous elements : 11 (H, N, O, F, Cl, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)
in periodic table
21. Total number of liquid elements : 6 (Ga, Br, Cs, Hg, Fr, Uub)
in periodic table
22. Smallest anion : H–
23. Liquid element of radioactive nature : Fr
24. Total number of radioactive elements : 25
in periodic table
25. Volatile d block elements : Zn, Cd, Hg, Uub
26. Element containing no neutron : H
27. Most abundant element on earth : Oxygen
28. Rarest element on earth : At (astatine)
29. Most abundant metal on earth : Al
30. Element having maximum tendency : Carbon
for catenation
31. Non metal having highest m. pt., b.pt. : Carbon (diamond)
32. Metal showing highest oxidation number : Os (+8)
33. Most electrovalent compound : CsF
34. Most stable carbonate : Cs2CO3

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 23

 PERIODIC TABLE

35. Strongest alkali (Hydroxide) : CsOH

36. Strongest basic oxide : Cs2O
37. Best electricity conductor among metals : Ag
38. Best electricity conductor among non metals : graphite
39. Most poisonous element : Pu (Plutonium)
40. Liquid non metals : Br
41. Element kept in water : Phosphorous
42. Elements kept in kerosene : IA group element (except Li)
43. Elements sublime on heating : I2
44. Noble metals : Ag,Au, Pt etc.
45. Amphoteric metal : Be, Zn, Al, Sn, Pb
46. Amphoteric non metal : Si
47. Metalloids elements : B, Si, As, Te, At, Ge, Sb
48. Non metals having metallic lusture : Graphite, Iodine
49. Heaviest naturally occurring element : Uranium
50. Poorest conductor of electricity : Diamond
51. Hardest naturally ocurring element : Diamond
52. Lightest solid metal : Li
53. 90% of Sun mass : Hydrogen
54. Amphoteric oxides : BeO, Al2O3, ZnO, PbO, PbO2, SnO, SnO2,
Sb2O3, As2O3 etc.
55. Neutral oxides of non metals : NO, CO, H2O, N2O
56. Dry bleacher : H2O2
57. Dry ice : Solid CO2
58. Artificial explosive : TNT, RDX (Research Developed Explosive etc.)
59. Oldest known organic acid : CH3COOH
60. First noble prize of chemistry : Vantt Haff
was given to
61. Some isomorphous substances : FeSO4.7H2O, MgSO4.7H2O, ZnSO4.7H2O
62. Some efflorescent substances : Na2CO3.10H2O, MgSO4.7H2O etc.
63. First man made element : Tc43 (Technicium)
64. Smallest period : 1st (2 elements)
65. Largest period in periodic table : 6th (32 element)
66. Largest group in periodic table : 3rd/III B (32 element)
67. Most abundant d-block metal : Fe
68. Most abundant s-block metal : Ca
69. Element having maximum isotopes : Sn(10)
70. Most stable element : Te
71. Highest density (Metals) : Os, Ir
72. Highest density (Non Metals) : Boron

MEGA MIND . CHEMISTRY By-S.S.Pandey, Ph. No. 9234764703, 8797373739. Page 24