GENERAL CHEMISTRY

CHE 101
Prof. Moavin Islam
PhD FICorr MIM CEng
(MvI)

1
 Topic 4
(Chapter 8 :Raymond Chang)
Periodic Relationships Among the
Elements
Development of the Periodic Table
 Development of the Periodic Table
 Different elements have been known since ancient times. By
the end of the 18th century, only about 2 dozens elements
were properly identified. Since that time, a new element has
been discovered on an average of every 21/2 years.
 In the nineteenth century, when chemists had only a vague
idea of atoms and molecules and did not know of the
existence of electrons and protons, they devised the periodic
table using their knowledge of their chemical properties and
atomic masses.
 Accurate measurements of the atomic masses of many
elements had already been made. Arranging elements
according to their atomic masses in a periodic table seemed
logical to those chemists, who felt that chemical behavior
should somehow be related to atomic mass.
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 Development of the Periodic Table
 In 1829, J.W. Dobereiner discovered the existence of
families of three elements with similar chemical properties
and called them Triads.
Li, Na, K Ca, Sr, Ba S, Se, Te Cl. Br, I Mn, Cr, Fe
 In 1864 the English chemist John Newlands noticed that
when the elements were arranged in order of atomic
mass, every 8th element had similar properties. Newlands
referred to this peculiar relationship as the Law of
Octaves. However, this “law” turned out to be inadequate
for elements beyond calcium.
 In 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev and the
German chemist Lothar Meyer independently proposed a
much more extensive tabulation of the elements based on
the regular, periodic recurrence of properties.
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 Development of the Periodic Table
• Mendeleev’s classification system was a great
improvement over Newlands. The elements were grouped
together more accurately according to their properties.
Also, it made possible the prediction of the properties of
several elements that had not yet been discovered.
• For example, Mendeleev proposed the existence of
unknown elements that he called eka-aluminum and eka-
silicon and predicted a number of their properties.
• Gallium (discovered in 1873) and Germanium (discovered
in 1886) matched the properties of the predicted elements
very closely.
• Mendeleev’s periodic table included 66 known elements.
By 1900, some 30 more had been added to the list, filling
in some of the empty spaces.
6
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

— = 44

— = 68 — = 72
— =100
Predicted and Observed Properties of Germanium
 Mendeleev’s
Periodic Table
commemorated in
stone on the side
of a Russian
science building
 Development of the Periodic Table
• Although Mendeleev’s periodic table was a celebrated
success, the early versions had some inconsistencies,
which suggested that some fundamental property other
than atomic mass must be the basis of periodicity.
• This property turned out to be associated with atomic
number (related to sub-atomic particles), a concept
unknown to Mendeleev and his contemporaries.
• In 1913 a English physicist, Henry Moseley, discovered
a correlation between atomic number and the frequency
of X rays generated by bombarding an element with
high-energy electrons.

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 Development of the Periodic Table
• Moseley noticed that the frequencies of X rays emitted
from the elements could be correlated by the equation:

 = A (Z – b)2
where v is the frequency of the emitted X rays and a and b are
constants that are the same for all the elements.

• Thus, from the square root of the measured frequency of the

X rays emitted, the atomic number of the element can be
determined.
• With a few exceptions, Moseley found that atomic number
increases in the same order as atomic mass. The
inconsistencies that had puzzled earlier scientists now made
sense.
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 Development of the Periodic Table

• The most popular version of the periodic table shows

the elements arranged in order of increasing atomic
number and grouped into periods and groups.
• Each group contains elements with similar chemical
properties.
• In most cases, the elements in a column also have
similar electronic configuration.
• The two most important exceptions are hydrogen and
helium.

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Timeline of When Elements Were Discovered

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 Development of the Modern Periodic Table
• A modern periodic table usually shows the atomic
number along with the element symbol.
• The atomic number also indicates the number of
electrons in the atoms of an element. Electron
configurations of elements help to explain the
recurrence of physical and chemical properties.
• The importance and usefulness of the periodic table
lie in the fact that we can use our understanding of
the general properties and trends within a group or a
period to predict with considerable accuracy the
properties of any element, even though that element
may be unfamiliar to us.

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 Periodic Classification of the Elements

• Starting with hydrogen, the subshells are filled in the order

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s
• According to the type of subshell being filled, the elements
are divided into different categories—the representative or
main group elements, the noble gases, the transition metals,
the lanthanides, and the actinides.
• The main group elements are in Groups 1A through 7A, all of
which have incompletely filled s or p-subshells of the highest
principal quantum number.
• The noble gases (Group 8A), with the exception of He, all
have a completely filled p-subshell . (The electron
configurations are 1s2 for He and ns2np6 for the other noble
gases, where n is the principal quantum number for the
outermost shell.)
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 Periodic Classification of the Elements
• The transition metals are in Groups 1B, and 3B through 8B,
which have incompletely filled d subshells, or readily
produce cations with incompletely filled d subshells.
• The nonsequential numbering of the transition metals in the
periodic table (3B–8B, followed by 1B–2B) acknowledges a
correspondence between the outer electron configurations
of these elements and those of the main group elements.
• For example, scandium and gallium both have three outer
electrons. However, because they are in different types of
atomic orbitals, they are placed in different groups (3B and
3A). The metals: iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) do
not fit this classification and are all placed in Group 8B.
• The lanthanides and actinides are sometimes called f-block
transition elements because they have incompletely filled f-
subshells.
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Classification of the Elements

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Periodic Table and Ground State
Electron Configuration

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 ns2np6
ns1 Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements

ns2np1

ns2np2
ns2np3

ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2

d10
d1

d5

4f
5f
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 Group and Period Numbers

Key information is embedded in the periodic table:

• Among the main-group elements (A groups), the A number
equals the number of outer electrons (those with the
highest n); thus, chlorine (Cl; Group 7A) has 7 outer
electrons, and so forth.
• The period number is the n value of the highest energy
level. For a particular energy level (n), the number of
orbitals is (n2), and the maximum number of electrons is
2n2
• For example, consider the n = 3 level. The number of
orbitals is n2 = 9: one 3s, three 3p, and five 3d. The
number of electrons is 2n2 = 18: two 3s and six 3p
electrons and ten 3d electrons

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 Categories of Electrons
Atoms have three categories of electrons:
• Inner (core) electrons are those an atom has in common with
the previous noble gas and any completed transition series.
They fill all the lower energy levels of an atom.
• Outer electrons are those in the highest energy level (highest n
value). They spend most of their time farthest from the nucleus.
• Valence electrons are those involved in forming compounds:
– For main-group elements, the valence electrons are the
outer electrons.
– For transition elements, in addition to the outer ns electrons,
the (n -1)d electrons are also valence electrons, though the
metals Fe (Z = 26) through Zn (Z = 30) may use only a few,
if any, of their d electrons in bonding.

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 Examples of Valence & Core Electrons

Rb = 37 electrons = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s1
• The highest principal energy shell of Rb that contains
electrons is the 5th, therefore Rb has 1 valence
electron and 36 core electrons

Kr = 36 electrons = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
• The highest principal energy shell of Kr that contains
electrons is the 4th, therefore Kr has 8 valence
electrons and 28 core electrons

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 Electron Configurations and Partial Orbital Diagrams

• Problem: Using only the periodic table and assuming a

regular filling pattern, give the full and condensed electron
configurations, partial orbital diagrams showing valence
electrons only, and number of inner electrons for the
following elements:
(a) Potassium (K; Z =19) & (b) Technetium (Tc; Z = 43)

• Plan: The atomic number tells us the number of electrons,

and the periodic table shows the order for filling sublevels.
In the partial orbital diagrams, we include all electrons
added after the previous noble gas except those in filled
inner sublevels.
• The number of inner electrons is the sum of those in the
previous noble gas and in filled d and f sublevels.
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 Electron Configurations and Partial Orbital Diagrams
• Solution
(a) For K (Z = 19), the full electron configuration is
1s22s22p63s23p64s1. The condensed configuration is
[Ar]4s1 The partial orbital diagram showing valence
electrons is

K is in Group 1A and Period 4, so there are 18 inner electrons.

(b) For Tc (Z = 43), assuming the expected pattern, the full
electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d5.
The condensed electron configuration is [Kr]5s24d5.
The partial orbital diagram showing valence electrons is

Tc is in Group 7B and Period 5, so there are 36 inner electrons.

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 Chemical Reactivity
• The chemical reactivity of the elements is largely
determined by their valence electrons, which are the
outermost electrons .
• For the main group elements, the valence electrons are
those in the highest occupied n-shell. All non-valence
electrons in an atom are referred to as core electrons
• All the elements in a given group have the same number
and type of valence electrons which make the same
group resemble one another in chemical behavior.
• The alkali metals (Group 1A) all have the valence
electron configuration of ns1 and they all tend to lose one
electron to form unipositive (+1) cations.

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Chemical Reactivity
• In (Group 1A), Li and Na have the outer
electron configuration ns1 (where n is the
quantum number of the highest energy
level), as do the other alkali metals (K,
Rb, Cs, and Fr). All are highly reactive
metals whose atoms lose the outer
electron when they form ionic
compounds with nonmetals, and all react
vigorously with water to displace H2
• In (Group 7A), F, Cl and other halogens
(Br, I, and At), have the outer electron
configuration ns2np5.. All are reactive
nonmetals and occur as diatomic
molecules (X2), that form ionic
compounds (halides) with metals. They
all gain one electron and form anions (-1)
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 Chemical Reactivity
• The alkaline earth metals (Group 2A) all have the valence
electron configuration of ns2, and they all tend to lose two
electrons to form the dipositive (+2) cations.
• We must be careful, however, in predicting element
properties based solely on “group membership.” For
example, the elements in Group 4A all have the same
valence electron configuration ns2np2 , but there is a
notable variation in chemical properties among the
elements: carbon is a nonmetal, silicon and germanium
are metalloids, and tin and lead are metals
• The lack of chemical reactivity of noble gases is due to the
completely filled ns and np subshells, a condition that
often correlates with great stability.

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 Valence Electron Configuration
• Although the valence electron configuration of the
transition metals is not always the same within a group
and there is no regular pattern in the change of the
electron configuration from one metal to the next in the
same period, all transition metals share many
characteristics that set them apart from other elements.
• The reason is that these metals all have an
incompletely filled d-subshell. Likewise, the lanthanide
(and the actinide) elements resemble one another
because they have incompletely filled f-subshells.

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 Conventions in Chemical Equations
Representation of metals, metalloids, and nonmetals in
chemical equations:
• Metals do not exist in discrete molecular units, so
empirical formulas are used.
– Empirical formula = Symbols (Mg, Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn,
etc.)
• For nonmetals no single rule apply.
– Carbon exists as an extensive three-dimensional
network of atoms, the empirical formula (C) is used.
– Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, & halogens exist as
diatomic molecules, so the molecular formulae, H2,
N2, O2, & F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 are used.
– In case of phosphorus, the stable molecular form,
P4 is used.
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 Conventions in Chemical Equations
• For nonmetals no single rule apply (contd.)
– S8 is the stable form of molecular sulfur but (S) is used. e.g.
combustion of sulfur should be equation (a) but equation (b)
is used, which has identical stoichiometry:

S8(s) + 8O2(g)  8SO2(g) Eqn (a)

S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g) Eqn (b)

• All noble gases are monatomic. Here symbols are used.

– He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, & Rn
• Metalloids have complex three-dimensional networks.
Empirical formulas are used,
• B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Po, & At
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Trends in Metallic Character

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Metals Tend to Lose Electrons
Nonmetals Tend to Gain Electrons
 Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions
of Main Elements

Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]

Atoms lose electrons so that
Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar] the cation has a noble-gas
outer electron configuration.
Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]

H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]

Atoms gain electrons so that
the anion has a noble-gas F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
outer electron configuration.
O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

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 Cations and Anions of Representative Elements
+1
+2

+3

-2
-3

-1
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Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals

When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal,

electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and
then from the (n – 1)d orbitals.

Fe: [Ar]4s23d6
Mn: [Ar]4s23d5
Fe2+: [Ar]4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6
Mn2+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
Fe3+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5

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 Electron Shielding

• Electron shielding in a
multi-electron atom results
in a net decrease of the
actual nuclear charge
(Zactual ) and atomic radii

Zeff = Zactual – No. of Core Electrons

 Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
The Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff) is the
“positive charge” felt by an electron.
Zeff = (Z – s) 0 < s < Z (s = shielding constant)
Zeff  (Z – number of inner or core electrons)

Z Core Zeff Radius (pm)

Na 11 10 1 186

Mg 12 10 2 160

Al 13 10 3 143

Si 14 10 4 132 38
 Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)

Increasing Zeff
Decreasing Zeff

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 Trends In Three Atomic Properties
• Three atomic properties are directly influenced by electron
configuration and the effective nuclear charge (Zeff ) :
Atomic Size, Ionization Energy, and Electron Affinity.
• These properties generally exhibit consistent changes, or
trends, within a group or period.
• The Atomic Size depends on the substance
– Metallic radius. Used mostly for metals, it is one-half the
shortest distance between nuclei of adjacent, individual
atoms in a crystal of the element
– Covalent radius. Used for elements occurring as
molecules, mostly nonmetals, it is one-half the shortest
distance between nuclei of bonded atoms

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Atomic Size

Co-valent Radii

Metallic Radius 41
 Trends in Atomic Size
• As the principal quantum number (n) increases in the
main group of elements, the atomic size increases.
That is, the atomic radii increases down a group
• As the effective nuclear charge (Zeff) increases across
a period in the main group of elements, the atomic
size decreases.
• Atomic size trends are not as consistent for the
transition elements (in Periods 4, 5 & 6)

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 Atomic Radii Increases Down a Group
2e-
2e-
Group 2A Be (4p+ & 4e-)
4 p+
Be

Increases
2e-
Mg
8e-
Ca Mg (12p+ & 12e-) 2e-
12 p+
Sr
Ba 2e-
8e-
Ra 8e-
Ca (20p+ & 20e-) 2e-
20 p+
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Atomic Radii Decreases Across the Period

Period 2 Li Be B C N O

Decreases
1e- 2e- 3e-
2e- 2e- 2e-
3 p+ 4 p+ 5 p+
Li (3p+ & 3e-) Be (4p+ & 4e-) B (5p+ & 5e-)
4e- 6e- 8e-
2e- 2e- 2e-
6 p+ 8 p+ 10 p+

C (6p+ & 6e-) O (8p+ & 8e-) Ne (10p+ & 10e-)

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45
Trends in Atomic Radii

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 Atomic Radii & Ionic Radii

• A Cation is always smaller than the atom from

which it is formed.
• An Anion is always larger than the atom from
which it is formed.

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The radii in pm (picometers) of ions of familiar elements arranged
according to the elements’ positions in the periodic table
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Comparison of Atomic Radii with Ionic Radii

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Isoelectronic Atoms: have the same number of electrons,
and hence the same ground-state electron configuration

Na+: 1s22s22p6 Al3+: 1s22s22p6 F-: 1s22s22p6

O2-: 1s22s22p6 N3-: 1s22s22p6

Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with
[Ne] 1s22s22p6

What neutral atom is isoelectronic with H- ?

H-: 1s2 same electron configuration as He

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 Radii for Isoelectronic atoms or ions

Atom or Ion Radius (nm) Electron config.

  C4- 0.260 1s22s22p6
N3- 0.171 1s22s22p6
O-2 0.140 1s22s22p6
F- 0.136 1s22s22p6
Ne 0.112 1s22s22p6
Na+ 0.095 1s22s22p6
Mg2+ 0.065 1s22s22p6
Al3+ 0.050 1s22s22p6

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The Radii (in pm) of Ions of Familiar Elements

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 Ionization Energy
• Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required to
remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
• The ionization energy is a key factor in an element’s reactivity:
• Atoms with a low IE tend to form cations during reactions.
• Atoms with a high IE (except noble gases) tend to form anions.

Atoms with many-electrons can lose more than one electron:

E + X (g) X+(g) + e- I1 first ionization energy

E + X+(g) X2+(g) + e- I2 second ionization energy
E + X2+(g) X3+(g) + e- I3 third ionization energy

I 1 < I2 < I 3
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Periodicity of First Ionization Energy (IE1). This Trend
is the Inverse of the Trend in Atomic Size 54
First ionization energies of the main-group elements 55
 General Trends in First Ionization Energies

Increasing First Ionization Energy

Decreasing First Ionization Energy

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 Trends in Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that
occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the
gaseous state to form an anion.
X (g) + e- X-(g)

F (g) + e- F-(g) DH = −328 kJ/mol EA = +328 kJ/mol

O (g) + e- O-(g) DH = −141 kJ/mol EA = +141 kJ/mol

O- (g) + e- O2-(g) DH = +780 kJ/mol EA = −780 kJ/mol ?

 EA of O− is highly –ve; i.e. O2− formation is unfavorable,

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 Trends in Electron Affinity
• Factors other than Zeff and atomic size affect electron
affinities, so trends are not regular, as are those for atomic
size and IE. The many exceptions arise from changes in
sublevel energy and electron-electron repulsion:
• We might expect a smooth decrease of EA down a group
because atomic size increases, but only Group 1A exhibits
this behavior
• We might expect a regular increase of EA across a period
because atomic size decreases and Zeff is higher. But it is
not at all regular though there is an overall left-to-right
increase,.

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 Trends in Electron Affinity

Electron affinities of the main-group elements (in kJ/mol). Values

for Group 8A are estimates
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Variation of Electron Affinity With Atomic Number (H – Ba)

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 Trends in Metallic Behavior
• There are three general classes of elements:
• Metals, found in the left and lower three-quarters of the
periodic table, are typically shiny solids, have moderate to
high melting points, are good conductors of heat and
electricity, can be machined into wires and sheets, and
lose electrons to nonmetals.
• Nonmetals, found in the upper right quarter of the table,
are typically not shiny, have relatively low melting points,
are poor conductors, are mostly crumbly solids or gases,
and tend to gain electrons from metals.
• Metalloids, found between the other two classes, have
intermediate properties.

Thus, metallic behavior decreases left-to-right across a period

and increases down a group in the periodic table
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Summary of Periodic Properties of the Elements
Variation in Chemical Properties of the Main Elements

• Ionization energy (IE) and electron affinity (EA) help us

to understand:
– the types of reactions an element undergo
– the nature of the elements’ compounds formed
• IE measures the attraction of an atom for its own
electrons
• EA expresses the attraction of an atom for additional
electrons
– IE and EA together gives the insight into the general
attraction of an atom for electron
• With these concepts we can survey the chemical
behavior of the elements systematically.

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Variation in Chemical Properties of the Main Elements

• The metallic character of the elements

– decreases from left to right across a period, and
– increases from top to bottom within a group
• On the basis of these trends and the knowledge that
metals usually have low ionization energies while
nonmetals usually have high electron affinities, we
can frequently predict the outcome of a reaction
involving some of these elements.
• Another trend in the chemical behavior of the main
elements is Diagonal Relationships, which are
similarities between pairs of elements in different
groups and periods of the periodic table .
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Variation in Chemical Properties of the Main Elements

Diagonal Relationships
• The first three members of
the second period (Li, Be, and
B) exhibit many similarities to
those elements located
diagonally below them in the
periodic table.
• The reason is the closeness
of the charge densities of
their cations. They form the
same type of compounds.
Thus, the chemistry of Li
resembles that of Mg in some
ways; the same holds for Be
and Al, and for B and Si.

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 Hydrogen (1s1)
 No suitable position for hydrogen in the periodic
table, it really could be a class by itself
 Like alkali metals, has a single s electron and forms
H+ ion, which is hydrated in solution (H3O+)
 Also can gain an electron & form hydride ion H− in
ionic compounds, NaH, CaH2
 Hydrides reacts with water:
2NaH(s) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
CaH2(s) + 2H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H2(g)
 Most important compound of hydrogen is water,
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)
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 Group 1A Elements (ns1, n  2) Alkali Metals
• These elements have low ionization energies and readily
form unipositive ions.
M M+1 + 1e-
• Are very reactive & never found in pure state in nature.
• They react with water to produce hydrogen gas and the
corresponding metal hydroxide:
2M(s) + 2H2O(l) 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)
Increasing reactivity

67
 Group 1A Elements (ns1, n  2)
• Combines with O2 to form oxides & lose shiny appearance :

 Li forms oxides
 Na, K, Rb, & Cs forms oxides and peroxides
 K, Rb, & Cs also forms superoxides

4Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li2O(s); Lithium oxide, contg. O2

2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s); peroxide, contg. O22

K(s) + O2(g) KO2(s); superoxide, contg. O2

Stability of the oxides depend on how strongly the cations and

anions attract one another in the solid states.
68
Group 1A Elements (ns1, n  2)

69
Group 2A Elements (ns2, n  2) Alkaline Earth Metals
• As a group, the alkaline earth metals are somewhat less
reactive than the alkali metals. Also, reactivities vary
among the elements.
M M+2 + 2e-
Be(s) + 2H2O(l) No Reaction

Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

M(s) + 2H2O(l) M(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) M = Ca, Sr, or Ba

Increasing reactivity

70
Group 2A Elements (ns2, n  2)

71
 Group 3A Elements (ns2np1, n  2)
• The first member of Group 3A, boron (B), is a metalloid; the rest
are metals. B does not form ionic compounds and is unreactive
toward oxygen gas and water.
• The next element, Al forms Al+3 ions, readily forms aluminum
oxide in air and reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce H2
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s) 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)

• The other Group 3A metallic elements form both unipositive

and tri-positive ions

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Group 3A Elements (ns2np1, n  2)

73
 Group 4A Elements (ns2np2, n  2)
• The first member of Group 4A, carbon, is a nonmetal, and the
next two members, Si and Ge, are metalloids.
• The metallic elements of this group, Sn and Pb, do not react with
water, but react with acids to liberate hydrogen gas:
Sn(s) + 2H+(aq) Sn2+(aq) + H2 (g)
Pb(s) + 2H+(aq) Pb2+(aq) + H2 (g)

• The Group 4A elements form compounds in both the +2 and

+4 oxidation states

74
Group 4A Elements (ns2np2, n  2)

75
 Group 5A Elements (ns2np3, n  2)
• In Group 5A, N and P are nonmetals. As and Sb are
metalloids, and Bi is a metal. As, Sb & Bi have 3-dimensional
structures. Variation in properties is expected in the group.
• N is a diatomic gas (N2). It forms different oxides (NO, N2O, NO2,
N2O4, and N2O5). Only N2O5 is a solid; the others are gases.
• Nitrogen can accept three electrons to form the N+3 (nitride) ion.
• P forms two solid oxides, P2O3 and P2O5 .
• N2O5(s) and P2O5 dissolve in water to produce acids
N2O5(s) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq)
P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)

76
Group 5A Elements
(ns2np3, n  2)

77
 Group 6A Elements (ns2np4, n  2)
• The first three members (O , S and Se) are nonmetals, and the
last two (Te and Po) are metalloids.
• O is a diatomic gas; elemental S and Se have the molecular
formulas S8 and Se8 , respectively; Te and Po have more
extensive three-dimensional structures
• The elements in this group (especially O) form a large number of
molecular compounds with nonmetals.
• The most important commercial sulfur compound is sulfuric acid,
which is formed when SO3 reacts with water:
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

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Group 6A Elements (ns2np4, n  2)

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 Group 7A Elements (ns2np5, n  2) Halogens
• All the halogens are nonmetals with the general formula X2 ,
where X denotes a halogen element. Highly reactive, so never
found in the elemental form in nature.
• Readily forms (a) anions (b) reacts with H to form hydrogen
halides (c) F can react with water to produce O2
(a) X + 1e- X-1 (b) 2F2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4HF(aq) + O2(g)
(c) X2(g) + H2(g) 2HX(g)

• The halogens have high ionization energies and large positive

electron affinities.

Increasing reactivity
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Group 7A Elements (ns2np5, n  2)

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Group 8A Elements (ns2np6, n  2) Noble Gases

• Completely filled ns and np subshells. Highest

ionization energy of all elements.
• No tendency to accept extra electrons.

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Chemistry in Action: Discovery of the Noble Gases

Sir William Ramsay

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 Compounds of the Noble Gases

A number of xenon compounds XeF4, XeO3,

XeO4, XeOF4 exist.
A few krypton compounds (KrF2, for example)
have been prepared.
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 Comparison of Group 1A and 1B
The metals in these two groups have similar outer
electron configurations, with one electron in the
outermost s orbital.
Chemical properties are quite different due to difference
in the ionization energy.

Lower I1, more reactive

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Properties of Oxides Across a Period

basic acidic

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 Properties of Oxides Across a Period
 Basic oxides:
Na2O and MgO are basic oxides,
Na2O(s) + H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq)
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
 Amphoteric oxide:
Al2O3 is an amphoteric oxide,
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l)  2NaAl(OH)4(aq)
Other amphoteric oxides are, ZnO, BeO, and Bi2O3

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 Properties of Oxides Across a Period
 Acidic oxides:
SiO2, P4O10, SO3 and Cl2O7 are acidic oxides,
SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)
P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l)  4H3PO4(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO4(aq)
Cl2O7(l) + H2O(l)  2HClO4(aq)
 Neutral oxides:
Some oxides are neutral, CO and NO,
Do not react with water to produce acidic or basic solution

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