Set 1 Introduction

EE 6433 Power System Protection,

Winter 2024

There are at least eleven elements to this course.

1. Introduction, background, housekeeping
2. Symmetrical components method for fault current calculations
3. Fault calculations for various types of faults
4. Generator protection
5. Transformer protection
6. Bus protection
7. Transmission line protection
8. Motor protection
9. Substation design particularly ground grids
10. Grounding as a concept or idea
11. Arc flash.
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Point 1 -- Before we get started – a power system word you will hear

Bushing
In electric power systems, a
bushing is an insulating
device that allows a live
electrical conductor to pass
safely through a grounded
conducting barrier such as
the case of a transformer or
circuit breaker, or the wall of
a building

There are many, many forms but

they all have these general
elements.

Left side – pictorial. Right side - cutaway

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Point 2 -- Before we get started – common understanding

For generation and transmission:

We always quote/use the three-phase power (MW) and three

phase volt-amps (MVA).

We always quote Line to Line (L – L) RMS voltage values.

For distribution systems

We might quote single phase or three-phase power values. You

will be specifically told, or it will be “understood”

We might quote L-N or L - L values.

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 Now turning to relays - the words we use
A relay is:
- Actuated
- Activated
- Operates
- Energized (this is the usual terminology)
They all mean the same thing!!

It means that some

current or voltage is
supplied to the

• “operating coil” of an
electromagnet as
shown by the red dot •
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 And what happens??

This cause these two

contacts to close i. e. c -
NQ.

These two contacts, when

placed in an appropriate

•
circuit, could:
- Ring a bell.
- Sound a buzzer
- Turn a light on.
- Light up a section of
an Annunciator Panel
THIS HAPPENS: The force produced by the - Trip a circuit breaker,
electromagnet on the armature overcomes the that is cause a circuit
force of the restraining spring. breaker to open (the
usual and necessary
The armature is pulled down and --- as right: result)
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 What drives a relay??
What energizes it??
What causes it to operate??

There are so many types of protection needed.

There are so many conditions, by specific name, that we want

to protect against.

So the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

(IEEE) has given relay types, and associated switching devices,
a specific identification number.

And that number is recognized worldwide!!

You will become familiar with these numbers through usage (so
no need to memorize now).
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 Furthermore

As you will soon see, certain power system components

require many more relaying protection types than others.

Generator (15-20 relay types),

Transformer (4-8 relay types),

Transmission line (4-6 relay types),

Bus bar (1 relay type),

Motor (4-8 relay types)

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IEEE DEVICE NUMBERS
1 - Master Element
2 - Time Delay Starting or
Closing Relay
3 - Checking or Interlocking
Relay
4 - Master Contactor
5 - Stopping Device
6 - Starting Circuit Breaker
7 - Rate of Change Relay
8 - Control Power
Disconnecting Device
9 - Reversing Device
10 - Unit Sequence Switch
11 - Multi-function Device
12 - Overspeed Device
13 - Synchronous-speed
Device
14 - Underspeed Device
15 - Speed - or Frequency,
Matching device
16 - Data Communications 28 - Flame Detector
Device 29 - Isolating Contactor or
17 - Shunting or Switch
Discharge Switch 30 - Annunciator Relay
18 - Accelerating or 31 - Separate Excitation
Decelerating Device Device
19 - Starting to Running 32 - Directional Power
Transition Contactor Relay
20 - Electrically Operated 33 - Position Switch
Valve 34 - Master Sequence
21 - Distance Relay Device
22 - Equalizer Circuit 35 - Brush-Operating or
Breaker Slip-Ring Short-Circuiting
23 - Temperature Control Device
Device 36 - Polarity or Polarizing
24 - Volts Per Hertz Relay Voltage Devices
25 - Synchronizing or 37 - Undercurrent or
Synchronism-Check Device Underpower Relay
26 - Apparatus Thermal 38 - Bearing Protective
Device Device
27 - Undervoltage Relay 39 - Mechanical Condition
De Monitor
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40 - Field (over/under
excitation) Relay
41 - Field Circuit Breaker (DC)
42 - Running Circuit Breaker
43 - Manual Transfer or
Selector Device
44 - Unit Sequence Starting
Relay
45 - Abnormal Atmospheric
Condition Monitor
46 - Reverse-phase or
Phase-Balance Current
Relay (Negative sequence
relay)
47 - Phase-Sequence or
Phase-Balance Voltage
Relay (Negative sequence
relay)
48 - Incomplete Sequence
Relay
49 - Machine or
Transformer Thermal Relay
50 – Instantaneous
Overcurrent Relay
51 - AC Inverse Time
Overcurrent Relay
52 - AC Circuit Breaker
53 - Exciter or DC Generator
Relay
54 - Turning Gear Engaging
Device
55 - Power Factor Relay
56 - Field Application Relay
57 - Short-Circuiting or
Grounding (Earthing)
Device
58 - Rectification Failure
Relay
59 - Overvoltage Relay
60 - Voltage or Current
Balance Relay
61 - Density Switch or
Sensor
62 - Time-Delay Stopping or
Opening Relay
63 - Pressure Switch
64 - Ground (Earth)
Detector Relay
65 - Governor
66 - Notching or Jogging
Device
67 - AC Directional
Overcurrent Relay
68 - Blocking or “Out-of-
Step” Relay
69 - Permissive Control
Device
70 - Rheostat
71 - Liquid Level Switch
72 - DC Circuit Breaker
73 - Load-Resistor
Contactor
74 - Alarm Relay
75 - Position Changing
Mechanism
76 - DC Overcurrent Relay
77 - Telemetering Device
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78 - Phase-Angle 92 - Voltage and Power
Measuring Relay Directional Relay
79 - AC Reclosing Relay 93 - Field Changing
80 - Flow Switch Contactor
81 - Frequency Relay 94 - Tripping or Trip-Free
82 - DC Reclosing Relay Relay
83 - Automatic Selective
Control or Transfer Relay
84 - Operating Mechanism
85 - Communications,
Carrier or Pilot-Wire Relay
86 - Lockout Relay
87 - Differential Protective
Relay
88 - Auxiliary Motor or
Motor Generator
89 - Line Switch
90 - Regulating Device
91 - Voltage Directional
Relay

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 Some associated details

The purpose of the three previous slides was to introduce the

IEEE Device Numbering system

We are going to leave the types of protective relaying for a

couple of lectures in order to talk about associated aspects.

The associated aspects are all about associated parts of

relaying.

But they are quite varied!!!

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 What are the sources which energize relays??

1. Current transformers, CT or CTs

2. Potential transformers PT or PTs (the older term, but

still widely used), or voltage transformers VT or VTs
(the newer term)

These are also in a “general manner” called Instrument

Transformers.

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 Current Transformers (CTs)

Typical load currents on any power system might be 1000 amps.

Typical fault currents on any power system might be 25,000 amps.

We cannot bring those levels of current anywhere near people, or

anywhere near electromagnetic or digital relays.

We have to proportionately greatly reduce them to acceptable levels!!

Had we started with digital relays one hundred years ago, the “acceptable
or useful” level might be different (likely much lower).

But we started with electromagnetic relays, and so a “standard or

acceptable or useful” level is generally 5 amps in the secondary winding.

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 How do CTs work??

The principle is the same as for any transformer.

Magnetic flux produced in one winding (primary winding) linking,
or being common to, a second winding (secondary winding).

But CTs have very distinct differences!!

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 Distinct difference 1 -- a one-turn primary winding

There is only “one turn” on the primary winding - a power system phase
conductor.

The one-turn can be quite long.

- One phase of a generator out through one phase of a 200 km long
transmission line to one phase of a customer load, and back through the
neutral connection to the neutral of the generator.
- We can place the CT anywhere in that loop where we want to measure
current.
The primary winding current could be 1000 amps (normal load current) or
25,000 amps (typical fault current)

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Distinct difference 2 – cannot safely open the secondary winding

A CT is the only transformer type in existence in the world where opening

of the secondary winding does NOT stop the flow of current in the primary
winding.

That has major implications!! By the Right Hand Rule, the current in the
primary still causes the same magnetic flux in the core – now unopposed.
Since there are hundreds or thousands of turns on the secondary winding,
Faradays Law says e = N dφ/dt so there is an extremely high voltage
induced in the secondary winding – and it can rupture/destroy the
insulation.

NEVER OPEN THE SECONDARY OF A CURRENT TRANSFORMER.

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 Distinct difference 3 – high turns ratios

The CT turns ratio is extremely high

Ns/Np = Ip/Is and might = 25,000/5

In the power system, you will see all sorts of CT ratios.

200:5
1000:5
2000:5
4000:5
25,000:5

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Distinct difference 4 – where you will see them
You will see CTs in many different locations/positions

- In the bushings of generators or transformers

- Sitting out on an insulating stand in a switchyard

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 Distinct difference 5 – Burden on a CT

That which you connect to the secondary winding of a CT is

called the “burden”

Should you connect only the Operating Coil of one relay??.

OR
Could you connect the Operating Coils of six relays in series in
order to save money.

The allowable burden is limited in the secondary of the CT.

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 Distinct difference 6 – Accuracy Class

The “Accuracy Class” is all important.

There are three types of current transformers.

• Metering Class CT
• Protection Class CT
• Special Protection Class CT
Website:https://www.electricalvolt.com/2018/09/accuracy-class-of-current-
transformer/

C57.13.5-2019 - IEEE Standard for Performance and Test Requirements

for Instrument Transformers of a Nominal System Voltage of 115 kV and
Above
Accuracy Class of Current Transformer (CT) is defined in Indian Standard
IS 2705 Part-2 and Part-3. This accuracy class of CT is defined so as to
provide the permissible error in the current measurement by the CT.
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 Potential Transformers (PTs)

Typical transmission voltage levels on any power system might be:

138, 230, 345 kV (New Brunswick)
500 kV (Ontario Hydro)
735 kV (Quebec)
765 kV (American Electric Power, in Ohio)
220, 400 kV (Bhutan and India).

We cannot safely bring those levels of voltages anywhere near people, or

anywhere near electromagnetic or digital relay equipment.

We have to greatly reduce them to acceptable levels!! We do this with

Potential Transformers (PTs)

Potential Transformers (PTs) are also called Voltage Transformers (VTs)

PT – the original designation for about 100 years.

VT – seems to be more recent usage.
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 Potential Transformers (PTs)

Typical transmission voltage levels on any power system might be:

138, 230, 345 kV (New Brunswick)
500 kV (Ontario Hydro)
735 kV (Quebec)
220, 400 kV (Bhutan and India).

We cannot safely bring those levels of voltages anywhere near people, or

anywhere near electromagnetic or digital relay equipment.

We have to greatly reduce them to acceptable, safe levels!!

Had we started with digital relays one hundred years ago, the “acceptable
or useful” level might be different (likely a lot lower).

But we started with electromagnetic relays, and so a “standard or acceptable

or useful” level is generally 120 volts in the secondary winding (American
diagrams sometimes incorrectly show this as 110 volts.
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 Potential Transformers (PTs)

One side of
Here we are both the
measuring Line Primary and
to Neutral Secondary
(LN) voltages. windings are
grounded

What current does a voltmeter, or

digital voltage sensor, need to operate
- milliamps or microamps
VP/VS = NP/NS

So PTs have very low VA ratings

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 What do PTs look like in the switchyard

CT carries a
Connection through current
just brings a
voltage to
the PT
primary, the
other side of
the primary
winding is
connected to
ground

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 Potential Transformers (PTs)

Both the
Here we are Primary and
measuring LN Secondary
voltages. windings are
grounded

Do we really want to go to the expense of insulating

the Primary Winding of the PTs at 400/√3 kV level??

Capacitors are easier to insulate!!

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Capacitive Potential Transformers (PTs)

Capacitors are easier to insulate!!

Simple use of capacitor voltage division!

26
Capacitive Potential Transformers (PTs)

You may not see the capacitors.

They are often just part of the

bushings!!!

27
Opening Potential Transformers (PTs)

YES we can open

the Secondary
Winding of a PT

– no reason not to!!

28
We always have to worry about the Accuracy Class

The “Accuracy Class” is all important.

There are three types of current transformers.

• Metering Class PT
• Protection Class PT
• Special Protection Class PT

C57.13.5-2019 - IEEE Standard for Performance and Test

Requirements for Instrument Transformers of a Nominal
System Voltage of 115 kV and Above

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 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION – IEEE Guides
IEEE Std 242 - 2001 IEEE Buff Book – IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
============================
IEEE Std C37.91-2008 IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power Transformers
IEEE Std C37.95-2002 (R2007) IEEE Guide for Protective Relaying of Utility-Customer
Interconnections
IEEE Std C37.96-2012 IEEE Guide for AC Motor Protection
IEEE Std C37.99-2012 IEEE Guide for the Protection of Shunt Capacitor Banks
IEEE Std C37.101-2006 IEEE Guide for Generator Ground Protection
IEEE Std C37.102-2006 IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection
IEEE Std C37.106-2003 IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequency Protection for Power Generating
Plants
IEEE Std C37.108-2002 (R2007) IEEE Guide for the Protection of Network Transformers
IEEE Std C37.109-2006 IEEE Guide for the Protection of Shunt Reactor
IEEE Std C37.110-2007 IEEE Guide for the Application of Current Transformers Used for
Protective Relaying Purposes

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IEEE Std C37.111-1999 IEEE Standard IEEE Standard Common Format for Transient
Data Exchange (COMRADE) for Power Systems
IEEE Std C37.112-1996 (R2007) IEEE Standard Inverse-Time Characteristic Equations
for Overcurrent Relays
IEEE Std C37.113-1999 (R2004) IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to
Transmission Lines
IEEE Std C37.114-2004 IEEE Guide for Determining Fault Location in AC
Transmission and Distribution Lines
IEEE Std C37.117-2007 IEEE Guide for the Applications of Protective Relays used for
Abnormal Frequency Load Shedding and Restoration
IEEE Std C37.119-2005 IEEE Guide for Breaker Failure Protection of Power Circuit
Breaker
IEEE Std C57.13.5-2019 - IEEE Standard for Performance and Test Requirements for
Instrument Transformers of a Nominal System Voltage of 115 kV and Above
IEEE Std C37.234-2009 IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power
System Buses
IEEE Std C37.2 - 2008 IEEE Standard for Electrical Power System Device Function
Numbers, Acronyms, and Contact Designations
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Includes all 13 IEEE Color Books:
•IEEE Std 141-1993 (The Red Book - Power Distribution)
•IEEE Std 142-1991 (The Green Book - Grounding)
•IEEE Std 241-1990 (The Gray Book - Commercial Buildings)
•IEEE Std 242-2001 (The Buff Book - Protection and Coordination)
•IEEE Std 399-1997 (The Brown Book - Power Systems Analysis)
•IEEE Std 446-1995 (The Orange Book - Emergency and Standby Power)
•IEEE Std 493-1997 (The Gold Book - Reliable Design)
•IEEE Std 551-2006 (The Violet Book - Short-Circuit Currents)
•IEEE Std 602-1996 (The White Book - Health Care Facilities)
•IEEE Std 739-1995 (The Bronze Book - Energy Management)
•IEEE Std 902-1998 (The Yellow Book - Maintainance, Operations, and Safety)
•IEEE Std 1015-2006 (The Blue Book - Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers)
•IEEE Std 1100-2005 (The Emerald Book - Electronic Equipment)

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