CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter is structured to provide a thorough understanding of the research
methodology. It is divided into several sections, each focusing on a specific aspect of
the methodology. It examines the research design, the intricacies of data collection,
our sampling methodology, the employed data analysis methods, and the ethical
principles shaping the research. These sections will delve deeply into the practical
implementation of each element within the study.

3.2 Mixed-methods research design

The term "research design" encompasses a holistic conceptualization of the entire
research process, incorporating elements such as research questions, paradigm,
approach, method, sampling, data generation processes, and their interconnections
(Denzin and Lincoln, 2005; Yin, 2003).

Mixed-methods research is a research approach characterised by the deliberate

integration of both quantitative and qualitative research methods and data within a
single study. The synergy of qualitative and quantitative methodologies, as opposed
to utilising either approach in isolation, is posited to offer a more comprehensive
understanding of the research problem and questions (Creswell, 2012; Kumar, 2011).
The purpose is to triangulate findings, providing a more robust and holistic
perspective on the research problem at hand (Creswell and Creswell, 2018).
According to Creswell and Clark (2011), its design entails the gathering, analysis,
and integration of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies in a single study to
enable a deeper investigation of the research topic. The primary logic behind this
approach is that one data collection type provides strengths to compensate for the
limitations of the other form, and that gathering both qualitative and quantitative
data leads to a more comprehensive knowledge of a research problem and
incorporates the benefits of both qualitative and quantitative data (Creswell, 2012).
In pursuit of this research endeavour, three distinct methodologies for data collection
were deployed to gather insights from three key stakeholders engaged in the domain
of TP. A structured questionnaire was administered to student teachers, while semi-
structured interviews were conducted with student teachers, university supervisors,
and cooperating teachers. Additionally, classroom observations were employed to
further enhance the depth of data acquisition, specifically focusing on the
experiences, classroom conduct, and practices of student teachers. The framework of
the research study is illustrated in figure 4.1 below.
Figure 3. 1 The framework of the research

A concurrent mixed-method design was utilised, indicating that the collection and
analysis of research data through the three employed strategies happened
simultaneously.

3.3 Data collection methods

3.3.1 Questionnaire
The research instrument used in this study has been adapted from previous literature,
specifically drawing on the works of Ba-Udhan (2019), Nguyen (2015), and Al-Qasmi
(2017), with a primary reliance on the research instrument developed for a prior study
on TP (Ba-Udhan, 2019). To uphold research ethics and prevent any potential
allegations of plagiarism, it is crucial to duly acknowledge the original authors of the
items incorporated into the new survey (Lodico et al., 2006). This acknowledgment
ensures transparency in the adaptation and integration of their work into our study. The
utilisation of pre-established instruments in research offers several benefits, including
increased reliability and validity of the questions due to prior testing, which results in
significant time and cost savings as there is no need to create new items or coding
classifications (Hyman et al., 2006). By openly acknowledging the sources and
foundations of our questionnaire, the research preserves integrity, fostering a
collaborative approach to academic inquiry. The instrument underwent revisions
aimed at enhancing our comprehension of the phenomenon under investigation. These
revisions involved the inclusion of some fresh items and alterations to existing ones.
A group of specialists in the field evaluated the instrument's relevance and content
validity.

The data for this study were collected using a closed-ended questionnaire comprising
a total of 62 items. This questionnaire consisted of three parts. The questionnaire's
first section was devoted to gathering demographic data on the student teachers, such
as their age, gender, and type of college they attended. The second part consisted of
12 items designed to gauge STs' perceptions of TP. Respondents rated these items on
a 5-point Likert scale, which included options like "strongly agree," "agree,"
"neutral," "disagree," and "strongly disagree." The third part was dedicated to
exploring the challenges and issues encountered during the TP. It comprised seven
domains with a total of 50 items, with each addressing specific challenges
encountered. Structured questionnaires, like the one employed in this study, are
valuable for their ability to yield response frequencies amenable to statistical
treatment and analysis (Cohen et al., 2007). They, as typified by rating scales, may
be completed in a short period of time, are easy to code, and do not favour more
expressive replies (Wilson and McLean 1994: 21, as cited in Cohen et al., 2007).
Some advantages of rating scales are that they “combine the opportunity for a
flexible response with the ability to determine frequencies, correlations, and other
forms of quantitative analysis. They afford the researcher the freedom to fuse
measurement with opinion, quantity, and quality” (Cohen et al., 2007: 327).
Questionnaires offer structured, standardised data collection, ensuring consistency
and minimising biases (Dillman et al., 2014). Their efficiency with large samples
enables broader analysis and generalisation to a wider audience (Fowler Jr., 2013).

3.3.2 Semi-structured interviews

The aim of the interviews is to uncover participants' viewpoints through verbal and
nonverbal communication channels (Cobern and Adams, 2020; Cohen et al., 2012).
Semi-structured interviews follow predetermined questions but allow flexibility for
depth and adaptability (McKernan, 2000), aligning with Denzin and Lincoln's
perspectives (2018). In pursuit of the study's objectives, more in-depth interviews
were undertaken with the three groups of participants. The aim was to extract a
wealth of information and insights pertaining to the various facets of the TP course,
particularly challenges and remedies. In addition, the interviewer possesses greater
control in steering the conversation towards topics that are most pertinent to the
study at hand (Creswell, 2009). The study involved carrying out semi-structured
interviews following the TP period.

A thorough analysis of the TP literature, with particular reference to Nguyen (2015),

informed the development of interview themes. The researcher's thesis supervisor
offered assistance and guidance in drafting, constructing, and refining questions and
protocols. Three key groups central to the TP—university supervisors, student
teachers, and cooperating teachers—participated in these interviews. The sample
comprised 16 student teachers, 12 university supervisors, and 12 cooperating
teachers. The interview protocols were strategically designed to elicit reflections
from participants on various dimensions of the TP. The interviews predominantly
took place on-site, featuring face-to-face interactions, with a subset conducted
virtually through online platforms and telephone calls.
3.3.2.1 Interview process
Custom interview protocols were developed for the three participant groups:
university supervisors (see Appendix), cooperating teachers (see Appendix), and
student teachers (see Appendix 6). The researcher shared the interview questions
with participants after establishing initial contact and following their specific
requests. Subsequently, each participant was invited to participate in a single
interview during the research period. The interview sessions varied in duration,
spanning from 30 to 90 minutes. Following the TP, interviews were conducted with
university supervisors, student teachers, and cooperating teachers. The interview sets
focused on six themes: (1) the participant's TP experience; (2) supervision of student
teachers; (3) support provided; (4) the readiness or preparation of student teachers by
university courses; (5) identification of problems and factors influencing TP quality;
and (6) recommendations for addressing issues and enhancing overall course quality.
Interviews with the three groups occurred from March 2022 to December 2022. They
were meticulously documented using recording tools such as Zoom, mobile, and
laptop recorders. The recordings were converted to M4a format, securely stored in
encrypted computer files, and redundantly backed up on an external hard drive.
Miller (1995, as cited in Vogl, 2013:142) stated, "Telephone interviews are neither
better nor worse than their face-to-face counterparts." Vogl (2013) argues for the
inclusion of telephone interviews in research methodologies, emphasising benefits
like limited direct interaction for anonymity and privacy, reliance on verbal cues to
reduce bias, and economic advantages such as low cost and broad geographic
coverage.

University supervisors' interviews were mainly conducted in staff teaching rooms

or via Zoom conferences, whereas those of student teachers were conducted
mostly off-campus, especially during summer break. However, most interviews with
collaborating instructors took place at schools. To maintain confidentiality,
participants were informed of the research goal and gave written consent. They were
guaranteed that interview content would be kept confidential without affecting
employment or promotion. After interviews, transcripts were shared with a number
of participants for verification.

3.3.2.2 The researcher’s role in interviews

As a researcher, I facilitated an open, honest conversation with participants to build
rapport and trust. This encouraged individuals to share their thoughts and
experiences, improving the quality and depth of the data. The goal was to obtain an
in-depth understanding of the experiences of the participants (Patton, 2002). This
involved explaining the study's goals and the various challenges participants may
face. I also actively listened to interviews, concentrating on spoken words, subtleties,
emotions, and underlying meanings. Active listening enabled probing questions,
clarification, and participant expansion, enriching data knowledge.

Clarifying interview questions was another important element of my role as an

interviewer. I accurately rephrased questions, added context, and provided examples
to improve data quality and answer accuracy. I kept my beliefs and prejudices neutral
during interviews to avoid influencing participants. This neutrality was essential to
ensuring that the data correctly reflected participants' views and preserved the
research findings. I also used probing approaches like follow-up inquiries to get more
detailed information and enhance the data for a more sophisticated analysis.

3.3.3 The observation protocol

The observation protocol in this study was adapted from Nguyen's 2015 doctoral
research, building upon Wajnryb's (1992) key areas in foreign language teaching.
Nguyen's protocol, previously tested and aligned with the study's context, covered
learner, language, learning process, lesson, teaching skills and strategies, classroom
management, and materials and resources. The tool was chosen for its relevance to
the research participants (student teachers) and its comprehensive coverage of
classroom observation aspects.
A five-point scale, ranging from very good to poor, was employed to assess teaching
quality across six identified areas. Before finalising the tool's adoption, extensive
document analysis and a literature review, along with comparisons with similar tools,
were conducted. Despite considerations, the currently adopted tool was deemed the
most fitting for the study's purpose. It underwent a thorough review for contextual
relevance, with adjustments made based on feedback from a jury panel. This
meticulous process aimed to enhance applicability and alignment with the research's
specific parameters and goals. Before the TP began, the researcher sought support
from English departments for contact information and TP-related documents for 4th-
year student teachers.

The researcher functioned as a complete observer during classroom observations,

adopting a non-participatory stance (Creswell, 2014). To minimise potential
influence, a series of deliberate steps were taken. The author initiated the process by
contacting student teachers and school principals via phone calls, WhatsApp, or
Viber, confirming a mutually agreed-upon date and time for the observation. This
transparent and collaborative communication aimed to establish a collaborative
approach to the observation process.

On the day of the observation, a pre-observation meeting between the researcher and
student teachers served to establish a friendly atmosphere and clarify the observation
objectives. The emphasis was placed on ensuring confidentiality, identity anonymity,
and the non-evaluative nature of the author's presence. This proactive clarification
aimed to alleviate any apprehensions among student teachers. The pre-observation
also provided an opportunity for the researcher to engage with cooperating teachers
and invite their participation. During each class observation, the researcher
maintained a complete observer role without participation, dressed formally to avoid
drawing attention, and discreetly positioned at the back of the room to minimise
intrusion. The observer completed the protocol and documented lesson occurrences.
A detailed record-keeping approach was used to document events comprehensively.
Data from observations, combined with analysis of observation protocols, formed a
detailed class record. Lesson plans from participants were also collected, aiming for
the most exhaustive documentation of each instructional period.

3.4 Research sample

3.4.1 The selection of the sample
The selection of a study sample is a critical phase in mixed-methods research (Sharp
et al., 2012). A sample is essentially “a subgroup of the target population that the
researcher plans to study for generalising about the target population” (Creswell,
2012, P. 142). Research indicates that the choice of a study sample depends on
various factors, including the desired level of research rigour, the characteristics of
the research population, and the availability of potential participants (Creswell,
2012). To comprehensively understand the investigated phenomenon, the research
focused on three key stakeholder groups in the TP: student teachers, university
supervisors, and cooperating teachers. The study included three colleges of basic
education and one college of education affiliated with Duhok University and Zakho
University in Duhok province. Three colleges were associated with the former
university, and one with the latter.

The participants were recruited mostly via phone calls, email communication, and/or
in-person visits to the English departments at the four colleges, where they provided
the list of names of the student teachers, the names of the CSs, the place of the
schools, and the intended grade to teach. Different sampling strategies were adopted
to collect data from the prospective participants because the sample consisted of
three different groups of participants. Different sampling strategies were utilised to
collect the data. The data collection process started in February 2022 and concluded
in December 2022.
3.4.2 Questionnaire participants
Questionnaire data collection began right after student teachers completed their TP at
the CSs and returned to their academic responsibilities at the university. The decision
to collect data post-TP had three considerations: ensuring the most current and
reliable insights, avoiding the exam-focused last three weeks of April, and capturing
responses before the dispersal of teaching staff and student teachers at the end of the
academic year, minimising the risk of low response rates. Therefore, the last week of
March was chosen as the most viable window for data collection.

The questionnaire, self-administered with the researcher present to facilitate the

process, provided advantages like immediate clarification, a high response rate, and
accurate completion of all questions (Cohen et al., 2007). Before distributing the
sheets, the research objectives, ethical considerations, and voluntary participation
were explicitly communicated. Participants were encouraged to read and respond
carefully and honestly. The questionnaire sheets were then distributed, and
participants were given around 40 minutes to complete them.

Unfortunately, during the scheduled visit to College One, the researcher discovered
that only student teachers with meetings with their research supervisors were
attending, resulting in only about 15 complete questionnaires. To address this
limitation, an electronic version using Google Forms was designed. The
questionnaire and consent form were shared with the department secretary, who
distributed them to student teachers via emails, Viber, or WhatsApp groups.
Recognising the efficiency and versatility of questionnaires, especially with
technological advancements, online survey platforms and digital tools have
streamlined administration and data collection, making them more accessible and
cost-effective (Baltar & Brunet, 2012).

From the targeted population, a total of 132 complete responses were gathered
through both self-administered and online questionnaires, out of the intended 143
responses. Eleven questionnaires were excluded for various reasons, including four
with multiple answers, five incomplete submissions, and two erroneously filled out
by students from a different year.

Figure 3. 2 Demographic profile of the questionnaire respondents

Among the 132 respondents analysed, 56.8% were female and 43.2% were male. The
age distribution showed that 74 respondents were 22 years old, with the remaining 58
being older than 22. These respondents were 4th-year students from three colleges of
basic education and one college of education located in Duhok city, Zakho, Akre,
and Amedy districts, all within the Duhok province. Response rates across various
college groups demonstrated a relatively uniform distribution, ranging from 22.7% to
28.0%, indicating a balanced and consistent questionnaire sampling across different
colleges.

Among the 132 respondents, 56.8% were female and 43.2% were male. The age
distribution revealed that 74 respondents were 22 years old, while the remaining 58
were older. These respondents were 4th-year students from three colleges of basic
education and one college of education in Duhok city, Zakho, Akre, and Amedy
districts, all within the Duhok province. Response rates across college groups
showed a relatively uniform distribution, ranging from 22.7% to 28.0%, indicating
balanced and consistent questionnaire sampling.
3.4.3 Interview participants
3.4.3.1 The student teachers
The selection of participants for semi-structured interviews with student teachers
followed a cluster sampling procedure, dividing the sample into four interview
groups. Afterwards, due to reasons of inaccessibility or declining to participate, an
availability sampling technique was used for those readily available. While 20
potential candidates were identified, ultimately, 16 participants volunteered for the
interview process. The researcher endeavoured to ensure balanced representation
among participants across the four groups.

Table 3. 1 Demographic profiles of student teachers’ interview participants

No. Coded Name Gender Age Institution

1 ST 1 M 22 College 1
2 ST 2 F 23 College 1
3 ST 3 F 22 College 1
4 ST 4 F 24 College 1
5 ST 5 M 22 College 1
6 ST 6 F 22 College 2
7 ST 7 F 23 College 2
8 ST 8 M 23 College 2
9 ST 9 M 24 College 2
10 ST 10 M 24 College 3
11 ST 11 M 22 College 3
12 ST 12 M 22 College 3
13 ST13 F 24 College 4
14 ST14 F 24 College 4
15 ST15 F 23 College 4
16 ST16 F 22 College 4
The sample comprised nine females and seven males, all aged between 22 and 24
(see the above table). Some of the interviewees were also participants in previous
classroom observations. The researcher individually coordinated interview dates,
times, and locations with each applicant. Interviews were conducted using three
methods: face-to-face (10), Zoom meetings (4), and mobile interviews (2). The
varied methods accommodated personal considerations, with mobile interviews
tailored for those unable to attend in person and lacking internet access.

3.4.3.2 The university supervisors

The second group of interview participants in this study consisted of university
supervisors responsible for observing and evaluating student teachers in designated
schools. Opting for one-on-one interviews with university supervisors was based on
their belief in their capacity to provide a nuanced and comprehensive perspective on
the subject (Gage, 1989). A cluster sampling strategy was applied to collect the data.
Fourteen teacher educators from the four participating institutions underwent
interviews. However, two interviews were excluded due to insufficient information
provided by participants who were relatively new to the job and lacked significant
supervision experience with TP. Among the interviewees, one held a PhD, and all
others were MA holders with specialisations in English literature, English language
studies, and a few in ELT (see the table below).

Several participants possessed prior experience as student teachers, while others had
previously served as school or cooperating teachers. This background led to the
anticipation of obtaining more comprehensive data from this particular research
group. The face-to-face interviews with college supervisors took place in university
supervisors' offices and meeting rooms located on college premises. Depending on
participants' preferences and availability, two interviews were conducted virtually
through Zoom conferences.
Table 3. 2 Professional profiles of the university supervisors’ interview participants

Experience Experience as
TP supervision
Coded as a school a university
No. Gender Degree experience
Name teacher teacher
(years)
(years) (years)
1 US 1 M MA none 10 8
 2 US 2 F MA none 10 6
3 US 3 M MA
4 US 4 M MA 4 8 5
5 US 5 M MA none 5+ 2
6 US 6 F MA none 9 5
7 US 7 M PhD 9 19 15 +
8 US 8 M MA 5 6 6
9 US 9 M MA
10 US 10 M MA
11 US 11 M MA 21 5 4
12 US 12 M MA 22 5 5

Among the twelve participants interviewed, there was a notable gender asymmetry,
with ten males and only two females. The underrepresentation of female participants
was attributed to specific factors at each college. In College One, logistical
challenges hindered the participation of three intended female interviewees. In
College Two, the interviewed female participant was likely the only female teaching
staff in the department. In College Three, the sole female teacher declined to
participate, and there was a lack of female teaching staff in College-4.

3.4.3.3 The cooperating teachers

The third cohort of participants in this study encompassed cooperating teachers
selected from cooperating schools. More precisely, these cooperating teachers are
dedicated to instructing English as a foreign language at both primary and
intermediate levels in basic schools. Their role involved mentoring student teachers
throughout the TP period.

Initially, participants were selected from the study population of cooperating teachers
through a cluster sampling procedure. Subsequently, a convenience sampling
technique was employed to choose sample members based on their availability and
ease of access. The objectives of including cooperating teachers in the research were
twofold: Firstly, it aimed to enhance the richness and diversification of data sources.
Second, the fact that this group had not put enough effort into supervising student
teachers during the TP period was the driving force behind this inclusion. It was
anticipated that valuable insights would be gleaned from interviews with this group,
as they are the individuals most likely to observe STs more frequently and in
authentic educational contexts.
Table 3. 3 Professional profiles of the cooperating teachers interview participants

Teaching Mentoring
No. Coded Name Gender Degree
Experience experience
1 CT 1 F Bachelor 12 6
2 CT 2 F Diploma 21 7
3 CT 3 F Bachelor 20 3
4 CT 4 F Diploma 18 3
5 CT 5 F Diploma 14 2
6 CT 6 F Diploma 5 4
7 CT 7 M Bachelor 7 3
8 CT 8 M Diploma 13 3
9 CT 9 M Diploma 18 5
10 CT 10 F Diploma 24 10
11 CT 11 F Diploma 18 10
12 CT 12 M Diploma 12 3
In contrast to university supervisors, the majority of participants in this group were
female, making up two-thirds of the total. Participants were evenly distributed across
institutions, reflecting a balanced representation. A significant number of participants
held diplomas, and many had extensive teaching experience. A majority of
participants had a relatively moderate level of supervisory or mentoring experience,
as detailed in the table above.

3.4.4 Classroom observation participants

Cluster random sampling was employed to select participants for classroom
observations. The population was first divided into four clusters, each from one
college, and subsequently, a simple random sampling was run within each cluster.
According to Cohen et al. (2007), Muijs (2004), and Creswell (2014), everyone in
the larger population has an equal chance of being in the sample; being inside or
outside the sample is solely dependent on chance. They argue that this sampling
procedure is useful for making generalisations since it seeks to generalise findings to
a larger population and reduces the possibility of bias to a minimum. The focus was
on public basic schools within the four districts associated with the colleges of
education. A total of 16 classroom observations were conducted over the course of
the TP during February and March. However, it should be noticed that the real and
practical period of observations was only 30 days, from mid-February to mid-March.
This was mainly attributed to several factors. Firstly, the majority of student teachers
began their TP one week later than originally planned. Subsequently, the following
week was allocated for the observation period for student teachers. Additionally, the
last fifteen days of March overlapped with "Newroz," the Kurdish New Year
celebrations, and other holidays. The process of classroom observation began with
the researcher contacting the participants about a week prior to the scheduled
observation date. Upon arriving at the school, the researcher met with the headmaster
to explain the purpose of the visit and present the necessary permission letters from
the general and local education departments. Subsequently, a brief meeting with the
student teacher took place, during which the purpose of the visit, the observation, and
the role of the researcher as a data collector were reiterated. Most observations lasted
for 40 minutes, with only two ending slightly earlier than planned.

3.5 Reliability and validity of the instruments

3.5.1 Reliability and validity of the questionnaire

In accordance with research principles, when modifications are made to a pre-
existing instrument, it is imperative for the researcher to reestablish the instrument's
reliability and validity for accurate reporting of findings (Lodico et al., 2006). To
address this requirement, meticulous measures were implemented to ascertain and
affirm the reliability and validity of the instrument employed in this study.
Reliability, defined as the consistency of an instrument in 'measuring whatever it
measures,' is a critical aspect of research methodology (Kratwohl, 1998, p. 435). In
this study, the alpha coefficient of reliability, serving as a metric for internal
consistency, was employed to assess the reliability of the questionnaire. The alpha
coefficient yields a value between 0 and 1, where scores below 0.60 are deemed
unacceptable, 0.60 to 0.69 are considered marginally reliable, 0.70 to 0.79 are
classified as reliable, 0.80 to 0.89 are highly reliable, and 0.90 to 1 are very highly
reliable (Cohen et al., 2007). In the present research, the questionnaire demonstrated
a Cronbach Alpha score of 0.78, affirming its reliability as an effective instrument
for data collection.

According to Warmbord (2001), an instrument's validity serves as a measure of its

trustworthiness. Validity, in this context, reflects the extent to which a tool accurately
measures what it is intended to measure. In the current study, the instrument fulfils and
surpasses validity standards due to its status as a pre-established tool that has
undergone testing in analogous settings in prior research studies. Face and content
validity also represent crucial dimensions of validity assessment. In this study, a pilot
research phase was conducted, soliciting input and suggestions from individuals to
further refine and enhance the instrument. Furthermore, a panel of expert jury members
within the field undertook the evaluation of the face and content validity of the
instrument.

3.5.2 Reliability and validity of the interviews

Ensuring the trustworthiness of interview data is paramount to drawing accurate
conclusions and contributing to the robustness of our research findings. Reliability is
the degree to which a tool remains consistent over time. Silverman (2001) proposed
performing a pilot study of interview scheduling to improve interview reliability. The
tools were reviewed, and modifications were suggested by the researcher's
supervisors and academics in the field. Throughout the data collection process, the
interviewer adhered strictly to the standardised interview protocol, ensuring
consistency in question wording, probing techniques, and overall interviewing
approach. Furthermore, the researcher utilised mobile and in-person interviews and
audio recordings to increase the reliability of the findings (Keats, 2000; Silverman,
2001). The transcripts were repeatedly reviewed to look for transcribing mistakes,
the information was compared to the codes, and memos were created concerning the
codes (Gibbs, 2007 as cited in Creswell, 2009). By checking the transcripts
repeatedly for transcribing problems, comparing the data to the codes, and making
memos about the codes, it was possible to further assure the trustworthiness of the
interviews (Gibbs, 2007 as cited in Creswell, 2009).
Validity in interviews concerns “whether the questions asked look as if they are
measuring what they claim to measure” (Cohen et al., 2007: 150). One way to
achieve this is by reducing bias to the maximum extent, which is probably the most
realistic strategy to increase validity (Cohen et al., 2007). The interviews must be
properly planned and structured in order to elicit and gather important and relevant
data. Several rules are in place by which an interview's validity can be judged. Flick
(2002), for instance, lists three criteria for the validity of an interview: if the
information presented is truthful, if what is said is socially acceptable, and if the
speaker's self-presentation is genuine (Flick, 2002). The validity of the interviews in
this study was ensured by taking care of factors such as careful scheduling of the
interviews undertaken, minimising the possibility of bias, and collecting data from
several sources.

The researcher began by carefully planning the design of the interview protocols,
based on a thorough evaluation of the relevant literature and consultations with
professionals in the field.

All relevant information from the literature and from conversations with experts was
included, and no topic was underrepresented on purpose. In addition, after the
analysis of the interviews was complete, specific copies of each category of analysed
interviews were sent to several original participants in each group so that they could
verify whether or not the descriptions provided were consistent with their own
personal observations. The analysis was revised in accordance with the adjustments,
additions, and corrections made by the participants after the analysis. Triangulation
was employed to enhance the validity of the interview data. After the data were
analysed, they were compared and contrasted to see whether there were any
commonalities within the study's sample.

3.5.3 Reliability and validity of the observations

Reliability and validity are crucial considerations when using classroom observations
as a research tool in education. Reliability in this context refers to whether an
independent researcher could consistently obtain similar results within the same or
similar contexts, ensuring consistency in data collection, analysis, and interpretation
procedures (Allwright & Bailey, 1991, p. 46). The observational protocol in this
study included a clear and operationally defined set of categories outlining specific
behaviours and events to be observed during classroom teaching sessions. To assess
the protocol's reliability, the researcher and two expert teacher educators
independently applied it to observe a sample of teachers. Inter-rater reliability,
determined by comparing independent assessments, showed that the raters agreed at
96%, supporting the protocol's consistency and dependability.

To ensure observation validity in this research, various measures were implemented.

The protocol, covering all relevant aspects for classroom teaching and research
objectives, underwent content validity through expert review. A panel of specialists
in the field assessed clarity, identified ambiguities, and refined instructions
iteratively. The researcher personally conducted observations across the four research
sites, employing standardised procedures to minimise bias and ensure consistency.
Triangulation, combining observational data with interviews or surveys, enhances
validity for a more comprehensive understanding.
3.6 Data analysis
3.6.1 Quantitative data analysis
In this study, a questionnaire was employed to gather information from student
teachers (see Appendix). Essentially, the questionnaire was divided into three parts.
The first gathered demographic information, including gender, age, type of college,
and area. The second explored participants' perceptions of TP in language teacher
education, covering the process, supervision, and support from university and school
stakeholders in 12 items. The third part addressed seven domains, focusing on
challenges faced by student teachers during school-based TP. The data collected
from the questionnaire were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences software (SPSS). Initially, descriptive statistics were employed, including
frequencies and percentages, to gain an overall understanding of the respondents'
patterns and trends. In the subsequent stage, means and standard deviations were
calculated to assess the level of agreement among the samples regarding the variables
under consideration. The main statistical method utilised in this research was
frequency distribution, which allowed for the calculation and presentation of the
distribution of scores across the questionnaire. This method assists in identifying the
most and least frequent scores, as well as the degree of clustering or dispersion
among the scores. The utilisation of frequency distribution simplifies the obtained
information (Fraenkel et al., 2012) and provides a deeper understanding of the
dynamics of real situations and individuals (Cohen et al., 2007). The mean is a
measure that represents “the average performance of a group or the centre of the
group” (Ludico et al., 2010: 61). On the other hand, the standard deviation (SD) is a
measure that indicates “a measure of the extent to which the values in a distribution
cluster around the mean” (Muijs, 2004: 107).

To assess the responses to the questionnaire items, a 5-point Likert scale was
employed. The scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree, SD) to 5 (strongly agree, SA),
with intermediate options of 2 (disagree, D), 3 (neutral, N), and 4 (agree, A). This
scale was chosen to capture the respondents' perspectives and facilitate the
calculation of mean values. The mean values were rounded up to determine the
overall sentiment of the groups. The following categorization was used to interpret
the mean scores: 0-1.80 = strongly disagree, 1.81–2.60 = disagree, 2.61–3.40 =
neutral, 3.41–4.20 = agree, 4.2–5 = strongly agree. The subsequent sections will
provide a detailed description and analysis of the numerical data obtained from the
62-item questionnaire.

The questionnaire analysis included an examination of potential differences in the

perceptions of student teachers from the four teacher education colleges regarding
various issues related to the course. Variables such as college type, gender, and age
were considered in this analysis. Following the guidance of Boone and Boone
(2012), the interval scale was chosen to examine a composite score consisting of four
or more Likert scale items. As a result, parametric tests such as the one-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) and the independent sample t-test were considered effective
for analysing interval data. After detecting a significant difference between the
means, follow-up tests were conducted to assess pairwise differences. The Sheffe
procedure was chosen for these post hoc analyses due to its recognised efficacy,
especially in situations where sample sizes exhibit slight inequalities (Field, 2009). A
composite variable titled "Perceptions of the TP course" was established by
consolidating responses from the 12 individual Likert items. In a similar fashion,
seven composite scores representing challenges pertaining to "student teachers,"
"classroom students," "textbooks," "school principals," "cooperating teachers,"
"school/classroom environment," and "the gap between theory and practice" were
computed. These composite scores were derived from 13, 5, 7, 3, 9, 10, and 3
individual Likert items, respectively.

3.6.2 Qualitative data analysis

In the context of this study, an in-depth analysis of qualitative data sources—
comprising interviews, field notes, and observation protocols—was conducted using
thematic content analysis. This analytical approach sought to identify recurring
themes across the entire dataset, focusing on the pre-established themes and content-
based patterns inherent in the qualitative information.

Boyatzis (1998) argues that themes can be found in qualitative data in two ways: by
using established theories, models, and literature reviews to draw conclusions, or by
going straight from the raw data to draw conclusions. Adhering to the standard
analytic procedures outlined by Rossman and Rallis (2003), the qualitative data
analysis in this study unfolded across seven distinct phases: organising the data,
immersing in the data, generating categories and themes, coding the data, offering
interpretations through analytic memos, searching for alternative understandings, and
composing the final report. It's noteworthy that, in this study, the researcher chose to
amalgamate certain stages within the analytical procedure, thereby adapting the
process to suit the specific needs of the research.

In the current study, the analysis of data was conducted using the latest version
(2022) of MAXQDA, a specialised qualitative data analysis software originating
from Germany. Creswell (2009) highlighted the crucial role that software tools like
MAXQDA play in systematically evaluating and analysing qualitative texts. Their
functionality extends to simplifying the storage, access, and retrieval of data while
also aiding in the coding, organisation, and sorting of qualitative information
(Creswell, 2009; Flick, 2009). Creswell (2009) contends that these tools enhance
code comparison and can expedite and optimise the coding process compared to
manual methods.

Every interview conducted in this study was meticulously recorded in audio format
and subsequently transcribed verbatim using the MAXQDA project. Concurrently,
essential methodological details and descriptions of the interview settings were
documented in document memos. These memos served a crucial role in subsequent
phases of the study, aiding in the presentation of results and contributing to the
assessment of the accuracy and dependability of the data collection process.
3.7 Ethical considerations
In the realm of research, ethical considerations hold paramount significance across
diverse contexts and scenarios. Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) emphasise that
"there are ethical issues surrounding social research just as there are with any other
human activity" (p. 263). Since this study relies heavily on obtaining participants'
personal information, meticulous adherence to established social research ethics
codes was integral to ensuring that participants were accorded due respect and care
throughout all stages of the data collection process.

Prior to commencing the research, ethical approval was obtained from the PhD
committee at the College of Languages, University of Duhok. Adhering to
established research ethics, the researchers emphasised honesty, ensuring
comprehensive and accurate information was provided to all participants. Informed
consent was deemed imperative, and a commitment to safeguarding confidentiality
and anonymity was obligatory. The study aimed to avoid harm to participants,
aligning with ethical considerations outlined by Creswell (2013) and Yin (2015),
which encompass elements such as participant anonymity, data confidentiality, and
fostering participants' engagement in the research process. A formal letter of
approval and support from the university, along with comprehensive documents,
including Participant Information and Consent Forms (see Appendix), were provided
to each participant before initiating the data collection phase.

Participants were explicitly informed of the voluntary nature of their involvement,

emphasising their autonomy to withdraw at any point, aligning with the principle that
participation decisions rest solely with individuals (Cohen et al., 2007). The
researcher assumed a neutral observer role without responsibility for evaluating
trainees' performance as instructors. To safeguard participant identities, each
individual was assigned a pseudonym or code to mitigate the potential risk of
disclosure. Precautionary measures were in place to ensure the anonymity,
confidentiality, and untraceability of respondents, including not soliciting names,
consolidating data, securely storing physical records in locked cabinets, and
encrypting electronic data.

3.8 Summary
The methodology chapter details the research strategy employed, utilising a mixed-
methods approach to capitalise on the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative
methods. It establishes a solid foundation for the empirical foundation for addressing
research questions and objectives. Employing structured questionnaires, classroom
observation, and semi-structured interviews, data collection occurred from February
to December 2022. The selection of research design, sampling strategies, and data
collection tools is aimed at ensuring robustness and validity. With the
methodological framework set, the next step is to present and discuss the findings
derived from the comprehensive data analysis.