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The Globally Threatened Birds in Mongolia: A Review

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DOI: 10.1016/j.japb.2017.08.009

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Review article

Globally threatened birds in Mongolia: a review

Onolragchaa Ganbold a, b, Munkhbaatar Munkhbayar c, In-Hwan Paik b, Gi-Chang Bing b,
Ariunbold Jargalsaikhan c, Erdenetushig Purevee c, Woon Kee Peak b, *
a
Department of Animal Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, South Korea
b
Division of Research and Promotion, National Science Museum of Korea, Daejeon, South Korea
c
Department of Biology, Mongolian National University of Education, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper reviews status of globally threatened birds (GTBs) in Mongolia. Here, we review 26 GTBs from
Received 27 June 2017 eight orders. In addition, we summarize 10 GTBs recorded during our 2016 field surveys. Swan Geese
Received in revised form were most numerous and most frequently sighted of the GTBs with mean 33.8
54.1 counted birds. The
17 August 2017
Mongolian avifauna survey assessed 476 species of 19 different orders. Twenty-six (5.1%) out of 476
Accepted 25 August 2017
species are listed in the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List as GTBs. In addition,
Available online xxx
there is still a huge lack of investigation for GTBs (indeed, all avifauna) of Mongolia.
Ó 2017 National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA), Publishing
Keywords:
Globally threatened birds
Services by Elsevier. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
International union for conservation of creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
nature
Red list

Introduction conducted by the Soviet Union’s Institute of Geography. Historical

Mongolia is a vast country with diverse natural zones and land-
scapes, harboring rich and unique assemblages of birds
(Gombobaatar and Monks 2011). The country is located at the
junction of three migratory flyways: East Asia Australian, Central
Asian and East Africa-West Asia. Over the past decades, Mongolia
has undergone significant social and economic changes, and during
that time, many groups of birds, including cranes, breeding shore-
birds, raptors and some passerines, have experienced rapid declines
(Gombobaatar and Monks 2011). Categories in the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red Listdvulnerable (VU),
endangered (EN), and critically endangered (CR)dare considered as
globally threatened (GT) species, whereas near threatened were not
included in the category of GT birds (GTBs).
Foreign scientists have previously studied Mongolian Avifauna,
especially Russian scientists (including those from the former So-
viet Union) who conducted basic studies on Mongolian avifauna
during the 19th and 20th centuries (Adiya and Suran, 2008). The
previous work included research into the avifauna along the
MongolianeSoviet border area (focusing on Mongol Daguur)
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: paekwk@nsmk.kr (W.K. Peak).
Peer review under responsibility of National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and
Korea National Arboretum (KNA).
biological expeditions by Mongolia and Germany (between 1962
and 1964) and Mongolia and Russia (since 1970) explored most of
the Mongolian avifauna (Adiya and Suran, 2008). Since the second
half of the 20th century, Mongolian researchers’ roles have rapidly
increased to study the country’s fauna (Adiya and Suran, 2008)
especially in the case of GT species.
Currently, some surveys on GTBs are being conducted by a joint
expedition of Mongolian and foreign scientists in Mongolia. Partic-
ularly, migration ecologyeflyway, conservation management, and
other ecological and biological surveys are being conducted for
several GTBs: Swan Goose (Anser cygniod), White-napped Crane
(Grus vipio), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nepalensis), Great Bustard (Otis
tarda), and Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug). The Wildlife Science and
Conservation Center of Mongolia (WSCCM) and the Mongolian
Ornithological Society are participating with major roles in GTB
studies. Further, two major conservation documents for Mongolian
birds (Directory of Important Bird Areas in Mongolia: Key Sites for
Conservation and Mongolian Red List of Birds) performed by these two
organization, respectively. In addition, the Ornithological Laboratory
of the Mongolian Academy of Science and Department of Biology of
Mongolian National University of Education have been playing a
significant part in the study of GTBs. Here, we reported 10 GTBs of
four orders that were observed in the 2016 important bird area (IBA)
survey, performed by research team of Mongolian National Univer-
sity of Education and National Science Museum of Korea.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2017.08.009
pISSN2287-884X eISSN2287-9544/Ó 2017 National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA), Publishing Services by Elsevier. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Ganbold O, et al., Globally threatened birds in Mongolia: a review, Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity (2017),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2017.08.009
2 O Ganbold et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity xxx (2017) 1e6
In addition, the most part of Mongolian avifauna remain very
poorly investigated. As mentioned above, earlier studies conducted
by foreign scientists and Mongolian researchers were conducted
avifauna survey since 1980s, especially focused on GTBs. Further,
there is still a need to expand the bird surveys in Mongolian avifauna
to improve the understanding of their avifauna importance. Our
objective for this paper is to introduce wide opportunities and ter-
ritory of Mongolian avifauna to international organizations and in-
dividual researchers.
Status of Mongolian birds
In recent years, international nature conservation organizations
have been paying attention to the highly diverse Mongolian avifauna.
Mongolia is one of the top-priority countries for bird research and
conservation as it is located at the junction of three different
migratory flyways and contains globally significant breeding
grounds for threatened species (Gombobaatar and Monks 2011).
The main bird habitats in Mongolia are grassland steppe, semi-
desert and desert, mountain steppe, high mountains, forested
mountains, wetlands and riparian areas (Batbayar and
Tseveenmyadag 2009).
Currently, 476 species of birds have been recorded in Mongolia,
belonging to 60 families and 19 orders. There are 81 species of
resident birds and 395 species of migratory birds. In addition, 310
species of migratory birds breed in Mongolia, 10 species are winter
visitors from Siberia, nine species are summer visitors and 66 spe-
cies are vagrants (Bold et al 2007). There are 435 species listed as of
least concern in the IUCN Red List, whereas 14 species are listed as
near threatened, 14 as VU, nine species as EN, and three as CR
(Figure 1) (Gombobaatar and Monks 2011). Twenty-six species GTBs
(VU, EN, CR) are from eight different orders (42%) of the total 19
orders in Mongolia (Figure 2). The population trend of these 26 GTBs
is considering still rapidly decreasing across in their global ranges.
Status summaries for GTBs
Here, we review the 26 GTBs that are distributed in Mongolia
using historical literature sources (from the 1930s to 2016). Most
Mongolian avifauna, especially GTBs and near threatened species,
Figure 1. International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List status: A, Status of all birds; B, Status of globally threatened birds (GTBs) (Gombobaatar and Monks 2011; Birdlife
International 2016). CR ¼ critically endangered; EN ¼ endangered; VU ¼ vulnerable.
Please cite this article in press as: Ganbold O, et al., Globally threatened birds in Mongolia: a review, Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity (2017),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2017.08.009
have been poorly investigated throughout their valuable Mongolian
breeding range in the past. Since the 1990s, the investigation of
GTBs has been increased at the regional and international research
levels. As a result, three (12%) of 26 species became well studied in
their Mongolian range. Unfortunately, other 23 GTBs (88%) are
considered as being very poor studied species in Mongolia (indeed,
throughout eastern and central Asia).
Most of the previous studies were conducted for raptors (6
species; also known as birds of prey), especially for their distribu-
tion, number, conservation status, breeding, mortality, and diet
composition. The EN Saker falcon is the most investigated GTB in
Mongolia, and this species has been historically studied by several
expeditions (Dementiev and Shagdarsuren 1965; Kozlova 1930;
Shagdarsuren 1983; Bold et al 2007; Ellis et al, 1997; and
Gombobaatar et al 1999, 2003). In Mongolia, the breeding Saker uses
utility poles (n ¼ 10 nests); bridges (n ¼ 2); old buildings (n ¼ 3);
track tires (n ¼ 1); and rock cliffs, slopes, the tops of stone pillars and
short elms (n ¼ 64 combined) for its nesting sites in central and
southeast Mongolia (Ellis et al 1997). Mortality of GT raptors, i.e.
Saker Falcon and Steppe Eagle (with other raptors) has been
investigated by several research teams (Harness et al 2008;
Amartuvshin and Gombobaatar 2012; Dixon et al 2017) in eastern
and southeast Mongolian steppes where there is a shortage of
nesting sites. They reported that electrocution is considered one of
the dominant threats for raptors in Mongolia (and indeed in their
global range; IUCN 2016). During our survey in 2016, we observed
seven individuals from seven different localities (Table 1) and we
found four electrocuted (dead) birds just in our 10-km drive in Bogd
Soum (village) of Ovorkhangai Aimag (province: N44.81e44.90;
E101.92e102.00). The Steppe Eagle population, especially its Euro-
pean population, has been rapidly decreasing for the past few de-
cades due to strong factors such as the conversion of steppes to
agricultural land and electrocution (Table 2). This species is known
from several studies in Mongolia: Gombobaatar et al (2012) showed
that high mortality occurred in their young nestlings (eggs and
young chick; average fledging success was 42.2%) during the early
breeding time. Since the Steppe Eagle often selects the ground
surface (22 of 49 nests) as its breeding site, foxes and wolves easily
prey on the nestlings (Ellis 2003; Gombobaatar et al 2012). The
Pallas’s Fish Eagle (VU) is known from only one study (Gilbert et al
 O Ganbold et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity xxx (2017) 1e6 3

Figure 2. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List status by orders (8) of Mongolian Avifauna. CR¼ critically endangered; EN ¼ endangered; NS ¼ no species
listed; VU¼ vulnerable.

Table 1. Observed globally threatened birds during our 2016 important bird area survey.

Scientific name English name OF Counted bird IUCN global status Observed areas
(Mean
SD) IUCN Redlist

Anser cygnoides Swan Goose 19 33.8
54.1 Vulnerable Mongol Dagur, Buir,
Khukh Lake
Haliaeetus leucoryphus Pallas’s Fish-Eagle 1 1
0.0 Vulnerable Khukh lake
Aquila nipalensis Steppe Eagle 11 1.5
1.2 Endangered Hustai NP, Eastern
Mongolia
Falco cherrug Saker Falcon 7 1
0.0 Endangered Eastern Mongolia,
Khan Khenty, Hustai NP,
Ikh Nart
Larus relictus Relict Gull 5 1.8
0.5 Vulnerable Khukh, Buir lake Lake
Grus vipio White-naped Crane 7 3.1
1.5 Vulnerable Eastern Mongolia,
Khan Khenty
Grus monacha Hooded Crane 3 1.3
0.5 Vulnerable Mongol Dagur
Grus leucogeranus Siberian Crane 1 1
0.0 Critically endangered Ugtam Mountain
(Nogoon lake)
Grus japonensis Red-Crowed Crane 1 1
0.0 Endangered Mongol Dagur
Otis tarda Great Bustard 2 1.5
0.7 Vulnerable Khukh Lake, Eastern
Mongolia

All these threatened species are listed in The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as CMS or the Bonn Convention) aims to
conserve terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory species throughout their range.
IUCN ¼ International Union for Conservation of Nature; NP ¼ National Park; OF ¼ observed frequency; SD ¼ standard deviation.

2014) but no breeding pair has been observed so far. During our IBA
survey in 2016, we observed 16 Steppe Eagles and one individual
Pallas’s Fish Eagle respectively (Table 1). For the other three raptors,
i.e. the Greater Spotted Eagle (VU), the Imperial Eagle (VU) and the
Egyptian Vulture (EN), the available studies were mostly conducted
in South Asia (Cuthbert et al 2006) and Europe (Katzner et al 2005;
Demerdzhiev et al 2011), while no reports were available in
Mongolia.
Notably, eastern Mongolian, especially the Mongol Daurian
wetland and numerous small lakes, hosts all six species of cranes
in Mongolia (Batbayar and Tseveenmyadag 2009). Four out of six
cranes have been listed by the IUCN as GT, including the Siberian
Crane (Grus leucogeranus), the Red-crowned Crane (Grus japo-
nensis), the Hooded Crane (Grus monacha) and the White-napped
Crane (Table 2). Among these species, the White-napped Crane is
moderately studied, and known from three studies (Bradter et al
2005; Gilbert et al 2016; WSCCM) in eastern Mongolia, while no
studies are available for the other three cranes (only individual
registration available; all available studies performed in Japan
and China (Higuchi et al 1998; Zou et al 2004; Wang et al 2009).
White-napped Crane surveys have been conducted in the Ulz
River basin, which is considered a valuable breeding site for all
cranes (17 breeding pairs of White-napped Crane were recorded
by Gilbert et al 2016) in eastern Mongolia. The WSCCM and Ari-
zona State University joint project performed poaching, nest
destruction, migration flyway, and land-use change observation
surveys for the Great Bustard in eastern Mongolia (Kessler et al
2013). In addition, the Eurasian Bustard Alliance is performing
key conservation studies on the Great Bustard in central Asia,
including Mongolia (Kessler and Smith 2014). We observed all
four GT cranes and the Great Bustard: 22 White-napped Cranes,
five Hooded Cranes, one Siberian and Red-crowned crane
respectively, as well as five Great Bustards only from eastern
Mongolia (Table 1) during our IBA survey in 2016. There are no

Please cite this article in press as: Ganbold O, et al., Globally threatened birds in Mongolia: a review, Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity (2017),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2017.08.009
4 O Ganbold et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity xxx (2017) 1e6

Table 2. Summary of status for the 26 species globally threatened birds (Birdlife International 2016).

Species IUCN status Estimated global population Current trend Globally major threats

Swan Goose Anser cygnoides VU 60,000e90,000 Decreasing Uncontrolled hunt

Lesser White-fronted VU 28,000e33,000 Decreasing Illegal spring hunt
Goose Anser erythropus
Creater spotted Eagle VU 5,000e13,200 Decreasing Electrocution and habitat destruction
Aquila clanga
Imperial Eagle VU 3,500e15,000 Decreasing Intensive forestry
Aquila heliaca
Steppe Eagle EN w62,700 Decreasing Conversion of steppes to agricultural
Aquila nipalensis land/electrocution
Baer’s Pochard CR 150e700 Decreasing Poorly understood
Aythya baeri
Haubara bustard Chlamydotis VU 13,000e33,000 Decreasing Illegal hunt
undulata
Oriental Stork Ciconia boyciana EN 1,000e2,499 Decreasing Deforestation and drainage of wetlands
Yellow-eyed Pigeon Columba VU 15,000e30,000 Decreasing Illegal hunt
eversmanni
Swinhoe’s Rail Coturnicops VU 2,500e9,999 Decreasing Destruction and modification of wetlands
exquisitus
Yellow-breasted Bunting EN 20,000e100,000 Decreasing Excessive trapping
Emberiza aureola
Jankowski’s Bunting Emberiza EN 375e1,499 Decreasing Increase of agricultural land
jankowskii
Saker Falcon EN 12,800e30,800 Decreasing Degradation of steppes/electrocution
Falco cherrug
Red-Crowed Crane EN 3,050 Decreasing Degradation of wetlands
Grus japonensis
Siberian Crane CR 3,500e4,000 Decreasing Degradation of wetlands
Grus leucogeranus
Hooded Crane VU 11,600 Decreasing Wetland loss and degradation
Grus monacha
White-naped Crane VU 6,250e6,750 Decreasing Loss of wetlands to agricultural expansion
Grus vipio
Pallas’s Fish Eagle VU 3,500e15,000 Decreasing Habitat degradation and disturbance
Haliaeetus leucoryphus
Relict Gull VU 12,000 Decreasing Loss of ephemeral wetland
Larus relictus
Egyptian Vulture EN 12,000e38,000 Decreasing Direct and secondary poisoning
Neophron percnopterus
Far Eastern Curlew EN 38,000 Decreasing Wetland degradation in the Yellow Sea
Numenius madagascariensis
White-headed Duck EN 7,500e15,900 Decreasing Introgressive hybridization
Oxyura leucocephala
Great Bustard VU 44,000e57,000 Decreasing Acclimated to agricultural landscapes
Otis tarda
Dalmatian Pelican VU 6,700e9,300 Decreasing Wetland drainage
Pelecanus crispus
White-throated Bushchat VU 3,500e15,000 Decreasing Loss and modification of grasslands
Saxicola insignis
Sociable Lapwing CR 6,000e8,000 Decreasing Poorly understood
Vanellus gregarius

Estimated Global population retrieved from official website of International Bird Life; International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List categories include critically
endangered (CR), endangered (EN), and vulnerable (VU).

studies available for other species of Gruiforme such as, the
Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis undulata) and Swinhoe’s Rail
(Coturnicops exquisitus) in Mongolia.
Four species of waterfowl (Table 2) are recognized as GT in
Mongolia. Among these species, only the Swan Goose has been
studied in Mongolia (Goroshko 2003, 2004; Poyarkov et al 2006;
Batbayar et al 2006, 2011). The eastern Mongolian lakes; Buir
Lake, Khukh Lake, and Mongol Daurian Lakes, are supporting a
major population of the Swan Goose by providing a habitat for their
nesting and molting sites (Goroshko, 2003, 2004; Batbayar et al
2006). Goose was the most numerous and the most frequently
sighted of the GTBs in our IBA survey, with more than 500 counted
birds in eastern Mongolian lakes. Unfortunately, no reports are
available for the other three species of waterfowl. Moreover, Lesser
White-fronted Geese are only known from two observations in the
Kherlen Ulz River valleys and the Buir Lake-Khalkh River-Khyangan
region in small groups during their migration (Fomin and Bold,
1991; Tseveenmyadag and Bold 2005a, b). Baer’s Pochard is a
very rare summer visitor recorded at Mongol Daguur and Khalkh-
Buir Lake Region (Fomin and Bold, 1991). Only one pair of the
White-headed Duck was found in Khar Us Lake, and this species
occurred only in the western Mongolian lakes and rivers including
Dorgon Lake, Khyargas Lake, Khovd River, and the Zavkhan River
basin (Fomin and Bold 1991; Dawaa et al 1994; Boldbaatar 2005).
Three species of Passeriforme are recognized as GTBs in
Mongolia, including the White-throated Bushchat, the Yellow-
breasted Bunting and Jankowski’s Bunting. Only the White-
throated Bushchat is known from a single study, which conducted
by WSCCM in southwest Mongolia. Mongol Altai is considered to be
one of the few breeding sites for White-throated Bushchat in the
world. There are no studies available for the Yellow-breasted Bun-
ting and Jankowski’s Bunting. However, several expeditions re-
ported that the Yellow-breasted Bunting is breeding in the valleys of
big rivers and lakes, and in the Khangai, Altai, Khuvsgul, and Khentii

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 O Ganbold et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity xxx (2017) 1e6
Mountains (Kozlova 1930; Fomin and Bold 1991; Dawaa et al 1994).
The only record available for Jankowski’s Bunting is in the Khalkh
and Numrug Rivers in eastern Mongolia (Mauersberger 1979).
Dalmatian Pelican is classified as VU, and this species is known
from only one study in western Mongolia (Batbayar et al 2007), and is
regionally distributed in western Mongolian lakes, i.e. Khar Us Lake,
Uvs Lake, and Khotont Lake, and these sites were recognized as
historical breeding sites for the species. Batbayar et al (2007) re-
ported that there are two important breeding sites for Pelican in
Mongolia, such as Khar Us and Airag Lake, and shooting them for
their bill and high disturbance of them by nomadic herders are the
most crucial threats to the species in western Mongolia. They coun-
ted 14 Pelicans at Khar-Us Lake, but no nestlings or active nests were
observed that time. In addition, they assessed the breeding habitat of
Pelican in western Mongolia, and constructed a Pelican nest platform
at an island of Khar Us lake to support a new breeding site.
Unfortunately, no studies are available for three species of
Charadriiformes, such as Relict Gull, Far Eastern Curlew, and So-
ciable Lapwing; however, several records are available for these.
According to historical review, two individuals of Sociable Lapwing
were observed with the Northern Lapwing group at Ogii Lake in
1998 (Boldbaatar 2002). Far Eastern Curlew is not a breeder in
Mongolia and during the course of migration several individuals
were observed at Ogii Lake, Orkhon-Tuul, Selenge, and Onon Rivers
(Dawaa et al 1994; Tseveenmyadag and Bold 2005a, b). The Relict
Gull has been recorded in many different localities through
Mongolia, with breeding records from two sites, i.e. Khar-Us Lake
and Taatsiin Tsagaan Lake (Tseveenmyadag and Bold 2005a, b) in
western Mongolia.
The Oriental Stork (Ciconiiformes) is a rare summer visitor or
passage migrant, and this species is known from only three records
at Ulz River valley, Buir Lake, and Khalkh River, respectively (Tse-
veenmyadag 1998; Fomin and Bold 1991; Dawaa et al 1994). No
more study is available for this species in Mongolia.
The Yellow-eyed Pigeon (Columbiformes) is a vagrant in Mongolia,
also known from only two records, at Telmen Lake and Bulgan River
Basin (Bold and Mainjargal, 2006). This species’ global distribution is
in central and southwest Asia (Birdlife International 2016).
There were seven status changes in the IUCN Red List between
2011 and 2016 in Mongolian avifauna, including Baikal Teal (Anas
formosa) and Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) that were down-listed
to least concern from VU. Five upgrades were recorded: Steppe
Eagle (Least ConcerneEN), Baer’s Pochard (ENeCR), the Saker Fal-
con (VUeEN), Yellowebreasted Bunting (VUeEN), and Far Eastern
Curlew (VUeEN).
Threats for GTBs
Although Mongolia has one of the lowest human population
densities in the world, its population growth rate is one of the
highest in East Asia (Batbayar and Tseveenmyadag 2009). Following
high growth rate of human settlements, livestock overgrazing,
degradation and desertification of steppe and wetland ecosystem,
steppe and forest fire, and mining actions are considered as crucial
threats for GTB. Other researchers previously reported on threats:
(i) Steppe fires, which mostly originate artificially, have become
a real threat to biodiversity, even to humans, contributing to
mortality. Steppe fires are also considered to be natural di-
sasters that frequently occur in every dry season (Elbegjargal
2016). The greatest threat to biodiversity at the eastern
Mongolian IBA is steppe fires, which mainly originate from
Russia. Steppe fires occur every year and cover very large
areas in eastern and northern Mongolia (Batbayar and
Tseveenmyadag 2009). Goroshko (2003; 2004) showed that
Please cite this article in press as: Ganbold O, et al., Globally threatened birds in Mongolia: a review, Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity (2017),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2017.08.009
5
steppe fires directly contribute to the high mortality rate of
some GTBs, especially Swan Goose, in eastern Mongolia.
(ii) Fourteen (53.8%) of 26 GTBs live in the lakes and wetland in
Mongolia. Unfortunately, the water levels of many steppe
lakes have fallen in recent decades, with some wetlands
completely disappearing. In some cases, this has been due to
the damming or diversion of rivers and streams, to
divert water for irrigation and livestock (Batbayar and
Tseveenmyadag 2009). The Ministry of Environment and
Green Development (2016) reported a rapid drying out of
lakes all over Mongolia during 1996e2011. In our 2016 IBA
survey we found that seven out of 41 lakes were completely
dried in Mongol Daguur IBA because of both natural phe-
nomena and uncontrolled human usage.
(iii) Batbayar and Monk (2009) also suggested that the main land
use is for livestock husbandry in most IBA sites throughout
Mongolia, and most of the wetland degradation (and also that
of steppes) is caused by uncontrolled high-density livestock.
Discussion and conclusion
Gombobaatar and Monks (2011) reported that Mongolia has un-
dergone significant social and economic changes, and, during that
time, many groups of birds, including cranes, breeding shorebirds,
raptors and some passerines, have experienced rapid declines in
recent decades. However, we believe that Mongolian Avifauna,
especially GTBs do not face such following hazard yet. Furthermore,
there could be some threats to the avifauna in some parts of Mongolia,
but these threats are not as high as those found in other part of their
global ranges, e.g. a large group of Whooper Swan poisoned in
Northeast China in 2016, vultures poisoned in India, Russian water-
fowl hunting culture, and limited distribution range in countries that
have high human density. Mongolia is considered as having the
lowest human density in the world, does not have any waterfowl
hunting culture, and does not poison birds (or indeed other wildlife).
Mongolia is considered the main breeding site for 10 (38.5%) of
26 GTBs. The breeding site, occurrence, and distribution range
varied among these species. In particular, it has the major breeding
populations of the Saker Falcon, the White-throated Bushchat, the
Swan Goose, the Great Bustard, and several species of crane that
breed in Mongolia. Unfortunately, only a few studies have
addressed a small number of the GTBs, i.e. the Saker Falcon, the
Swan Goose, the Steppe Eagle, the White-napped Crane, and the
Great Bustard. Otherwise, the Mongolian GTBs are very poorly
studied in their Mongolian range. This could be due to lack of
budget funds/management of researchers, as well as their limited
distributions and densities in Mongolia. Nine (34.6%) GTBs are
known from only one to to three observations in some parts of
Mongolia. Seven (27.0%) GTBs are frequently observed in the
country, but no regular breeding sites were found. The lack of
investigation of GTBs has a negative effect on their future conser-
vation trends. In addition, many species of bird have become GTBs
in the globally (e.g. Steppe Eagle in Mongolia in 2015) due to
population decline, caused by poor knowledge, habitat degrada-
tion, and other dominant threats. To close this gap, at least basic
studies are needed for future conservation of these GTBs.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflicts of interest.
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