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Algal Explorations in Nepal

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Algal Explorations in Nepal

Shiva Kumar Rai1 and Narayan Ghimire2
1
Phycology Research Lab, Department of Botany, Post Graduate Campus, T.U., Biratnagar, Nepal
E-mail: sk.khaling@gmail.com
2
Central Department of Botany, T.U., Kirtipur, Kathmandu
Email: np.ghimire@cdbtu.edu.np

Introduction
Algae are diverse group of plants having simple reproductive organs and lack
developed embryo after fertilization. They are simple photosynthetic, thaloid
organism without organized tissue system and mostly aquatic, exhibits a wide
range of thalli organization from the microscopic unicellular to giant macroscopic
sea weeds. The multicellular forms show wide ranges like colonial, filamentous,
siphoneous, parenchymatous. Fritsch (1935) classified algae into 11 classes,
Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Chrysophyceae, Bacillariophyceae,
Cryptophyceae, Dinophyceae, Euglenineae, Chloromonadineae, Phaeophyceae,
Rhodophyceae and Myxophyceae (Cyanophyceae). They have high economic
value. Various species are used as food, fodder, fertilizer etc. Algin and alginates,
carrageenins are also obtained from algae. Some species have medicinal uses
like production of antibiotics. Algae grow in almost all kinds of habitats;
freshwater springs, rivers, ponds, hyper saline lagoons, and salt lakes. They can
grow on animals (snails, crabs, sloths, and turtles) and plants (tree trunks,
branches and leaves, water plants, and macro algae). They also colonize in
artificial habitats, such as dams and reservoirs, fountains and pools, water tanks,
cans, bottles, plant pots, and dishes.
The present paper is an attempt to review or list out previous works (till 2010)
performed at different intervals of time and localities by various scholars on the
algal flora of Nepal (Map 1). Although this attempt is to cover all of the available
literature on algal flora of Nepal published till 2010, many of them might have
been missed specially those published in occasional journals or rarely available
books. Attempt has been made to present distribution patterns and dominant
classes of algae on the basis of number of studied localities rather than the number
of taxa. A comprehensive review of algal flora of Nepal has been presented
earlier by Baral (1995 a, b) and Prasad (2011).

16
Historical Study on Nepalese Algae (till 1950)
The first contribution on the algal flora of the Himalayan region was made by
Dickie in 1882 who has reported 28 diatom species along with other algae from
the pools and lakes in upper Batong valley, Sikkim (15000-18000 feet msl)
(Baral 1995b, 1999). However, Burkill (1910) is believed to have been the first
person to collect algae from Nepal, during his trip from Sikkim to Simla, the
way through east Nepal in 1907 (Baral 1999). Later on, Carter (1926) has reported
Hydrodictyon reticulatum, Cladophora glomerata and Monostroma sp. from
Nuwakot and Navicula confervacea from Makawanpur districts which seems to
be the first record for the algal flora of Nepal (Baral 1995b).
Charophytes from Tarai region of Nepal was studied for the first time by Imahori
and Sinha (1964), which was followed by Iwamoto (1984) by comparative studies
of Prasiola formosana and P. japonica collected from Nepal and Japan. Based
on the published literature till 2010, study on algal flora of Nepal has been
divided into two periods.
Mid Period (1950 to 2000)
The notable explorations on algae in the country began only after 1950 when
the autocratic Rana regime terminated and democracy was restored. A Japanese
Prof. S. Nakao with his team completed the first and second Himalayan
expeditions to Mount Manaslu (Haga 1988). Since then, numbers of collections
have been made at different intervals by Nepalese, Indian, Japanese, German
and Czech Republican teams, mainly from the eastern half region of the country
(Map 1).
The Japanese workers seem to be more interested and thus have made major
contributions on the algal flora of Nepal. Hirano (1955, 1963, 1969, 1984) of
Kyoto University has reported 271 taxa (including 79 species of desmids) from
Wolangchung Gola, Mewa valley and Kongbachen of Eastern Nepal; Kathmandu
and Rasuwa of Central Nepal and Gorkha, Kaski, Manang and Mustang of
Western Nepal. Among these species, Chaetomnion nakoi, Cosmerium bireme
var. asiaticum, C. aequale var. nepalens, Staurastrum crenulatum var. nepalens
and S. lacustre var. nepalens as new to Science. He also reported 119 algae
(Cyano 8, Chloro 19, and Bacillariophyceae 92) from high mountains of Torbo
districts surrounded by Kanjirowa and Hanga Himal, northwestern Nepal (Hirano
1971).
Another contributor for Nepalese algal flora was done by Watanabe (1982) of
National Science Museum, Tsukuba, who reported 24 species of Closterium

17
from Dudh Pokhari and Dudh Koshi river in Eastern Nepal; Gosain Kund, Trisuli
river and Hetauda in Central Nepal and Begnas lake in Western Nepal and added
5 species (Closterium ehrenbergii, Cl. jenneri, Cl. pseudopsillum, Cl. rostratum
and Cl. venus) and 5 varieties (Closterium closteroides var. intermedium, Cl.
dianae var. brevius, Cl. dianae var. minus, Cl. littorale var. crassum and Cl.
parvulum var. maius) as new for the Nepalese desmid flora.
Later studies was done by Nakanishi et al. (1984, 1988) and Nakanishi (1986)
who reported 38 algal taxa belonging to Chlorophyceae 25 species,
Bacillariophyceae 12 species and Euglenophyceae 1 species from Phewa, Begnas
and Rupa lakes, Kaski. Similarly, Haga (1988) of Hokkaido University has
reported 9 species of filamentous Chlorophyceae from Kathmandu among which
Geminella minor, Klebsormidium pseudomirabile, Uronema confervicolum, U.
gigas and Gongrosira papuasia were new for the country. Likewise, Ioriya (1988)
of Tokyo University has worked on Euglenophyceae of Kathmandu valley and
reported 25 taxa (Euglena 8, Phacus 6, Trachelomonas 10 and Petalomonas 1)
among which except Trachelomonas oblonga and T. volvucina, all other species
were reported for the first time from the country. Eleven taxa belonging to
Chlorococcals (Chlorococcum scabellum, Bracteacoccus minor, Chlorella fusca,
C. kessleri, C. vulgaris, Palmellococcus homosphaera, Chlorolobion braunii,
Scenedesmus acutiformis, S. armatus var. boglariensis f. bicaudatus, S.
quadricauda and S. spinosus) have been reported by Nakano and Watanabe
(1988) from Kathmandu, of which, all except S. quadricauda were new for
Nepal.
The Cyanophycean flora of Kathmandu valley has been studied by Watanabe
and Komarek (1988, 1989) reporting total 64 taxa among which 44 species
including 3 new species (Scytonema contorta, S. fertilia and Blennothrix ganeshii)
were new record for Nepal. They (1994) further reported 21 Cyanophycean
species from Phakdingma, Namche Bazar, Pangpoche, Amai Dablang, Chhukung,
Kongma La and Dusa in and around Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park
(2700-5300 m) recognizing 12 taxa as new to Nepal and 5 species (Woronchinia
kuselae, Eucapsis himalayensis, Chlorogloea simplex, Entophysalis rubra and
Schizothrix radius-solis) new to the World. Akiyama (1989) of Shimane
University has reported 5 taxa of Trentepohlia (T. arborum, T. aurea, T. aurea
var. polycarpa, T. effuse var. subtropica and T. monilia) from Kathmandu and
except T. aurea, rest were new to Nepal. Similarly, Bando et al. (1989) have
studied the desmid flora of Kathmandu and reported 49 species, 5 varieties and
3 forms belonging to 10 genera. The frequently observed species were Closterium
acerosum, Cl. leibleinii var. recurvatum, Cosmarium javanicum, C. obtusatum
and C. subcostatum.

18
From Rara lake (1970 m) and its vicinity, Watanabe (1995) reported 50 taxa of
algae (Cyanophyceae 17, Chrysophyceae 2 and Chlorophyceae 31) among which
28 species (Cyanophyceae 13, Chrysophyceae 2 and Chlorophyceae 13) were
first time reported from Nepal.
Colonial Volvocales was studied by Nozaki (1988, 1990) and reported 5 species
of (Gonium pectorale var. pectorale, G. multicoccum, Pandorina morum var.
morum, Eudorina elegans var. synoica and Volvulina sp.) from Kathmandu and
3 species (Volvulina steinii, Astrephomene gubernaculifera and Pyrobotrys sp.)
from Central and Eastern Nepal.
A reported on a new species Volvulina compacta (Volvocaceae) from Nepal
along with morphology and sexual reproduction study of Gonium multicoccum
was done by Nozaki and Kuroiwa in 1990 and 1991. Snow algae in a shallow
ice core from Yala glacier (28º142 -152 N, 85º362 -382 E, 5100-5700 m) in
Langtang region have been examined for potential use as environmental markers
in ice-core analysis (Kohshima 1984, 1987, Kohshima et al. 1993, Yoshimura et
al. 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006).
Study on snow algae from Yala glacier was done by Yoshimura et al. (1997) and
they reported for the first time a total of eleven species of snow algae belonging
to 7 species of chlorophyceae- Trochiscia sp., Chloromonas nivalis, Mesotaenium
berggrenii, Cylindrocystis brébissonii, Ancylonema nordenskioldii, Raphidonema
sp., Koliella sp.; 3 species of cyanobacteria- species of Oscillatoriaceae and
one unknown coccoid species. They also reported that most of them grow from
late spring to late summer and are accurate boundary marker for ice-core dating.
Similarly, Takeuchi et al. (1998) have also studied AXO10 glacier and Yala
glacier (4950-5380 m).
Axenic culture of Oocystaenium elegans and natural population of Closterium
ehrenbergii in the country was studied for the first time by Ichimura (1976,
1997). Similarly, Ichimura and Kasai (1982, 1984) also studied about the mating
group and post zygotic isolation of the same. Saito (1984, 1990) has observed
about sexual affinities and compatibility in mating clones of Gonium pectorale
isolated from Nepal. Life cycle of Peridinium sp. B3 (Dinophyceae) collected
from Begnas lake was studied by Sato et al. (1986).
After Japanese, another major contribution on the algal flora of Nepal was made
by Förster (1965) who has reported 79 desmids (Cylindrocystis 2, Netrium 1,
Penium 6, Closterium 3, Tetmemorus 1, Euastrum 3, Cosmarium 54 and
Staurastrum 9) from Lobuche, Pheriche, Karyolung and Thodung areas in the
Himalaya regions. Among them 72 taxa were reported for the first time from

19
Nepal and 18 species (Penium cylindraceum, P. poeltianum, P. phymatosporum
f. minus, Closterium navicula var. crassum f. maius, Euastrum hellmichii,
Cosmarium microsphinctum var. hexagonum, C. quadratum var. minus, C.
quadratum var. nepalense, C. speciosissimum var. himalayense, C. sumatranum
var. nepalense, C. decedens var. bahiense f. nepalense, C. holmiense var. integrum
f. nepalense, C. venustum var. excavatum f. cyclopicum, C. dorsitruncatum f.
trigona, C. regnellii f. trigona, C. speciosum f. trigona, Staurastrum hexacerum
var. robustum and S. varians var. himalayense), which were new to the world.
Similarly, Müller (1965) has reported a new species Spirogyra nepalensis from
Lobuche. Kusel-fetzmann (1969) has also studied the desmid and Cyanophycean
algae (Oscillatoria acutissima and Scytonema myochrous) from Kathmandu and
Solukhumbu. Zehnder (1970) has also studied blue-green algae in the country.
Limnology of high altitude lakes in the Mt. Everest region was done by Loffler
(1969) and Lami and Giussani (1998). The algal studies of the lakes and ponds
from Pokhara and Kathmandu valleys have been carried out by Hickel (1973a,
1973b) who has reported 44 algal taxa (Cyanophyceae 1, Chlorophyceae 31,
Bacillariophyceae 4 and Euglenophyceae 8) first time from the country. Similar
types of limnological works of ponds and lakes of Pokhara and Kathmandu
valley have been carried out by Lohman et al. (1988). Ferrow (1978) has
conducted the limnology of Rara lake. Komarek and Lukavsky (1988) and Iliev
et al. (2006) have identified Arthronema africanum, a cyanobacterium from
Kathmandu and high altitude plateau of Nepal. Komarek and Watanabe (1990,
1998) have also reported 16 Cyanophycean forms from Sagarmatha National
Park (Eastern Nepal) including 8 new species viz., Coleodesmium sagarmathae,
Chamaesiphon palssahtiae, Clastidium nepalense, Cyanobacterium epiphyticum,
Gloeocapsopsis ferruginea, Mantellum himalayense, Schizothrix flammea and
Xenococcus luteo-violaceus.
Diatom of different part of the country was done by Jüttner et al. (1996a, 1996b,
1998, 2000, 2003) in different time period. They have reported 38 diatom species
from Kathmandu valley riffles, 60 from the Likhu river and 36 from Arun valley
(Eastern Nepal), while studying diatoms as indicators of river quality. Other
people to diatoms were Ormerod et al. (1994, 1997) and Ormerod and Jüttner
(1998), they studied the altitudinal trend of diatom occurrence in Nepalese river
systems. While, the epiphytic and epilithic diatoms from Nepalese Himalaya
was studied by Rothfritz et al. (1997).
Indian phycologists have also made a lot of contributions on the algal flora of
Nepal. During the Indian Cho Oyu (East Himalaya) Expeditions in 1958, Rao
has collected 21 samples of algae from icy cold running waters of Bhote Koshi,

20
Dudh Koshi, Imja and Lobuche rivers and still water of Muzamba and Dudh
Pokhari glacier lakes, all between Mt. Everest and Mt. Cho Oyu at an altitudinal
range from 3000 m to 5200 m. Later on, these samples were studied by Suxena
and Venkateswarlu (1968) and identified a total 69 species of diatoms from 6
samples. Of the taxa reported, 59 species were first time recorded from Nepal
and 2 species (Achnanthes rollae and Navicula santapauii), 6 varieties (Cyclotella
antique var. minor, Achnanthes crassa var. elliptica, A. kryophila var. sublinearis,
A. subaffinis var. dudhpodharii, Diploneis marginestriata var. minor and Navicula
subtilissima var. himalayensis) and 1 form (Achnanthes exigua var. constricta f.
subcapitata) was recognized as new to science. Suxena et al. (1972) have further
reported many diatoms from these samples. From the same collection, Subba
Raju and Suxena (1979) have further described a total of 68 taxa (Cyanophyta
19, Chlorophyta 43, Euglenophyta and Chrysophyta 3 each), out of which 5
taxa, 2 varieties and 3 forma were reported as new to Science.
Slowly study on algae from Tarai region began with the report of 6 taxa of
Chaetophorales, all new to the country and Chaetophora incrassata var. ajensis
newly described variety from Janakpur by Dwivedi (1985). Prasad et al. (1985)
have also reported four rare green algae viz., Characiosiphon rivularis Iyengar,
Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Br., Schizomeris leibleinii Kütz. and Cylindrocystis
depressa Turner from Karmaiya, Chandranigahpur (Chandi river) and Sagarnath.
Similarly, Sahay et al. (1992, 1993) have reported total 110 taxa (Cyanophyceae
35, Chlorophyceae 65 and Euglenophyceae 10) from Tarai and along the Indo
(North Bihar)-Nepal boundary, out of which 70 taxa (Cyanophyceae 15,
Chlorophyceae 47 and Euglenophyceae 8) were new for Nepal. Pradhanang et
al. (1988) have also collected Myxophycean (4), Chlorophycean (10),
Bacillariophycean (8) and Chrysophycean (1) genera from Narayani and Orahi
rivers. Similarly, Lacoul (1993) has studied fresh water algae in the rivers of
Chitwan National Park. Similarly, Prasad (1996) has reported 14 Cyanophycean
forms from Birganj including 8 new taxa (Anabaena azollae, Anabaenopsis
raciboroskii, Arthrospira platensis, Gloeocapsa rupestris, Gloeotrichia
intermedia, Nostoc commune, Phormidium lucidum and Raphidiopsis curvata)
for the country. Similarly, Pant and Gupta (1998, 1999) also have studied blue-
green algae from the rice fields of Lamjung.
Considerable works on the desmid flora of Nepal have also been done by Habib
and Chaturvedi (1995, 1997) who reported total 108 taxa from Mahendranagar
and Mahakali river and among them 68 were new to the country. Chaturvedi and
Habib (1996) further enumerated total 50 taxa of Chlorococcales from
Mahendranagar. Similarly, Das and Verma (1996) have recorded 26

21
Cyanophycean, 23 Chlorophycean and 3 Euglenophycean forms from Chitwan
and Nawalparasi districts among which 14 Cyanophycean, 12 Chlorophycean
and 2 Euglenophycean forms were first time reported from the country. Algal
flora of Mahendranagar was also described by Habib (1997) alone reporting a
total 61 taxa (Cyanophyceae 19, Chlorophyceae 10, Bacillariophyceae 24 and
Euglenophyceae 8) including 36 taxa new to the country. Kargupta and Jha
(1997) have reported 4 taxa of Stigeoclonium (S. farctum, S. fasciculare, S.
flagelliferum and S. pachydermum) from North Bihar (India) and border area of
Nepal among which except S. flagelliferum, rest three were new to the country.
Many epilithic cyanophycean forms collected from the temples in Nepal have
been described by Tripathy et al. (1997).
The history of algal exploration shows that Nepalese algologists have also made
a lot of contributions to the study of algal flora of the country. Most of their
works were seen to be concentrated on Cyanophycean forms. According to the
available literature, Joshi (1977) was believed to be the first Nepalese to work
on algae, who has reported 5 species of Oscillatoria (O. amoena, O. chlorine,
O. formosa, O. jasorvensis and O. subbrevius) from Lalitpur and Kathmandu.
Of these species, O. chlorine, O. jasorvensis and O. subbrevius were new to
Nepal. Later, Joshi (1979) has reported further 16 taxa of Cyanophyceae from
Lalitpur, Kathmandu and Sindhupalchok districts including 7 new records
(Aphanocapsa pulchra, Calothrix fusca var. crassa, Cylindrospermum stagnale,
Microcystis robusta, Nostoc ellipsosporum, N. muscorum and Oscillatoria
limosa) to the country. Upadhyaya (1979) also reported O. princeps from
Narayani river at Narayanghat and O. proboscidea from hot spring of Tatopani
on the way to Jomsom in which the second species O. proboscidea was new to
the country.
Complied list of algal taxa was published by Shrestha and Manandhar (1983)
and the list content 48 algal taxa (Myxophyceae 13, Chlorophyceae 24,
Xanthophyceae 4, Bacillariophyceae 5, Charophyceae 1 and Rhodophyceae 1).
Among these species, 10 Cyanophycean (Aulosira implexa, Chroococcus
limneticus, Cylindrospermum majus, Holopedium irregulare, Lyngbya birgei,
Nostoc linckia, Nostochopsis lobatus, Phormidium autumnale, Rivularia
minutula and Scytonema arcangelii), 24 Chlorophycean (Chaetophora
incrassate, Chlorella ellipsoidea, Closterium moniliferum, Cosmarium circulare,
Draparnaldia glomerata, Groenbladia neglecta, Klebsormidium flaccidum,
Leptosira mediciana, Microspora willeana, Microthamnion kutzingianum,
Mougeotia viridis, Oedogonium cardiacum, Oedocladium caroliniamum,
Protococcus viridis, Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum, Steigeoclonium flagelliferum,

22
Schizomeris leibleinii, Schizogonium murale, Tetraspora cylindrical, Ulothrix
zonata, Volvox tertius and Zygnema pectinatum), 4 Xanthophycean (Bumilleria
sicula, Monocilia viridis, Tribonema utriculosum and Vaucheria sessilis), 1
Bacillariophycean (Navicula gracilis), 1 Charophycean (Chara excelsa) and 1
Rhodophycean (Batrachosper- mum moniliformae) forms new records for Nepal
from Kathmandu Valley.
Several student Malla (1982), Shrestha (1982), Raut (1994), Pradhan (1995),
Aryal (1996), Koirala (1996), Kushwaha (1996), Acharya (1997), Bhatt (1997),
Parajuli, B.P. (1997), Parajuli, S.P. (1997), Pokhrel (pandit) (1997), Pokhrel
(1997), Gyawali (1998), Panta (1998), Dabadi (1999) etc. from Central
Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University have completed their Masters
dissertation work on algal studies. Similarly students Sangraula (1999), Shrestha
(2005), Poudel (2007) have completed their Masters dissertation work on algae
from Department of Botany, Post Graduate Campus, T.U. Biratnagar.
Paddy field was other option to study algal flora. Baral et al. (1988) have identified
about a dozen of Cyanophycean forms from rice fields of Kathmandu valley
including Anabaena doliolum, A. fertilissima and Schizothrix pulvinata as new
species to the country. Thirteen genera of Cyanophyceae have been reported
from the rice fields of Butawal by Gyawali and Prasad (1999).
A complete list of algal flora of Nepal based on the history of algal explorations
Baral (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1996, 1999) published a collective checklist of 687
algal taxa (Cyanophyceae 141, Chlorophyceae 306, Chrysophyceae 201,
Euglenophyceae 38 and Rhodophyceae 1) under 150 genera and 50 families as
the total algal flora of Nepal till 1995. This was the first and authentically accepted
data on the algal flora of Nepal till now. But his list also did not included the
works of Carter (1926), Imahori et al. (1964), Förster (1965), Müller (1965),
Suxena and Venkateswarlu (1968), Suxena et al. (1972), Subba Raju and Suxena
(1979), Dwivedi (1985), Akiyama (1989), Nozaki and Kuroiwa (1990, 1991)
and Sahay et al. (1992, 1993).
Aryal and Locoul (1996) have identified total 19 Bacillariophycean species from
Punyamati river, Panauti and also noted Gyrosigma attenuatum, Melosira
granulata, Navicula cuspidata, Nitzschia palea, N. recta and Tabellaria binalis
as pollution tolerant species. Applications of biotic indices for the assessment
of water quality of Nepalese rivers have been studied by Sharma (1996) and
Sharma and Moog (1996). Prasad (1996) has described brief account on the
status of blue-green algal research in Nepal. Bhatt et al. (1999) have reported
some species of algae from Taudaha lake, Kathmandu.

23
Recent Period (2000 to 2010)
In the recent period also there was study on limnology done by Maeda and
Ichimura (2007) from Phewa, Begnas and Rupa lakes in Pokhara valley and
identified many algal forms. Snow algae in a shallow ice core from Yala glacier
(28º142 -152 N, 85º362 -382 E, 5100-5700 m) in Langtang region have been
examined for potential use as environmental markers in ice-core analysis
(Yoshimura et al. 2000, 2004, 2006).
Takeuchi et al. (2001, 2009) have studied 5 algae (Cyanophyta 2, Chlorophyta
3) from AXO10 glacier (4950-5380 m), Shorong region of East Nepal including
4 reported from Yala glacier and 7 algae (Cyanophyta 4, Chlorophyta 3) from
Rikha-Samba glacier near Mt. Dhaulagiri, West Nepal and concluded that the
structure of the algal mat play important role in the glacier ecosystem and the
biological activities on the glacier substantially affects the albedo of the glacier
surface.
In recent times algae from several places have been studied by Jüttner et al.
(2004) and they recorded 7 new Gomphonema species viz. G. pararhombicum
from a tributary to the Churta Khola between Mani Sangu and Rimi village,
Jumla; G. nepalense from a tributary to the Tamur river between Tapethok and
Hellok village, Taplejung; G. nediense from Nedi Khola, a tributary of the Arun
river between Nepale danda and Agrakhe village, Bhojpur; G. incognitum from
a tributary of Kasuwa khola, north of Sinduwa, Sankhuwasabha; G. makaluense
from Nedi Khola; G. saccatum from a tributary to Tamur river between Mitlung
and Sinwa village, Taplejung; and G. sinestigma from a tributary to the Kasuwa
khola, north-east of Sinduwa and north-west of Hedangna, Sankhuwasabha.
Cantonati et al. (2001) have reported 182 diatoms from high mountain streams
from Simikot-Rara lake area, Jumla-Dunai area, Manaslu circuit, Makalu area
and Kanchanjunga area (all located above 3500 m).
Similarly, Shrestha (2005), Paudel (2007), Adhikari (2010) and Udas (2010)
from Department of Botany, Post Graduate Campus, Biratnagar carried out their
M.Sc. dissertation works on algae. Pant et al. (2006) have identified 29 species
of Cyanophyceae from rice field of Lamjung among which Anabaena flosaquae,
Lyngbya confervoides, Microcoleus lacustris, Oscillatoria curviceps, O.
laetevirens, Phormidium jadinianum and P. stagnina were new records for Nepal.
Rai (2000) has studied the limnology of Phewa, Begnas and Rupa lakes.
From eastern Koshi-basin, Sunsari, Jha and Kargupta (2001) have reported 24
taxa under 11 genera of Cyanophyceae among which 15 taxa (Anabaena
naviculoids, Aphanocapsa biformis, Arthrospira gomontiana, Chroococcus

24
hansgirgi, Microcoleus lacostris, Oscillatoria chalybea, O. hamelii, Phormidium
molle, P. rubroterricola, Rivularia aquatica, Spirulina meneghiniana, S. princes,
S. subsalsa, S. subtilissima and Synechocystis aqualitis) were new records for
Nepal. Later, in the year 2006 also they reported 11 Cyanobacteria from the
same localities including 3 new records for the country. Prasad and Prasad (2001)
have also studied 27 Cyanophycean forms from Narayani (Bara, Parsa, Rautahat
and Chitawan districts) and Bagmati (Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur and
Dhading districts) zones.
Water quality of middle hill springs using diatoms was studied by Dahal and
Jüttner (2004). Similarly, Simkhada (2006) has studied diatoms as indicators of
environmental change in lakes and ponds of low lands, middle hills and high
Himalaya of Nepal and concluded that species richness was highest in
Kathmandu (213 species) in contrast to Koshi Tappu (119 species) and high
altitude lakes (77 species). Later on, Simkhada and Jüttner (2006) and Simkhada
et al. (2006) have studied diatoms of 12 ponds and 4 lakes of Kathmandu valley
and ponds of Koshi Tappu, respectively including their relationships with hydro-
chemical and habitat characteristics.
Rai (2005), and Rai and Rai (2005) have recognized 10 and 12 diatoms from
Mai Pokhari lake and Biratnagar, respectively out of which 8 from first and 5
from latter were new records to Nepal. Gurung and Prasad (2005) found that
Anabaena azollae inoculated in rice field increased grain yield by 14% and
straw yield by 6%. Rai (2006 a, b; 2009), Rai and Misra (2007, 2008, 2010), Rai
and Rai (2007 a, b; 2010) and Rai et al. (2008) have carried out a detail
investigation on the algal flora of Eastern Nepal and described morpho-taxonomy
of total 317 algal taxa (Cyanobacteria 51, Chlorophyta 179, Bacillariopyta 85
and Charophyta 2) from different lotic and lentic habitats including 165 taxa
new for Nepal. Recently, a total 36 desmids including 11 new taxa for Nepal
have been reported from Bees Hazaar Tal, Chitwan (Rai et al. 2008). Similarly,
a total 19 diatoms have been recorded from 19 streams (Bhalle khola to Sangta
khola) and one pond (Chhyo Pema), upper Mustang.
Discussion
The history of algal exploration in Nepal showed that many phycologists from
nation and abroad has been involved and most of the studies were carried out
sporadically in different times and only in limited areas (Map 1). Phycologist
generally came to the country as tourist and during their Himalayan expedition
they collected the algae along their route as secondary work, due to this central
Nepal is more explored than the other region (Map 1 and Fig 2). Exploration on

25
 70 65

Exploration of algae (number)

60

50
41
38
40

30

20

10

0
Terai Mountain Himalaya

Ecological regions
Fig. 1: Exploration of algae on different ecological regions of Nepal

mountain region was more than other ecological zone (Fig. 1, Map 1). Because
of more exploration work in Central Nepal, distribution of algae is seen more in
this region compared to other parts of Nepal (Fig 1, Map 1).

Map 1. Distribution of algae in Nepal

Similarly, mid western and far western region of Nepal were least explored
(Fig. 2). The tarai region, rich in aquatic environment and warm and humid
climate, favourable for algal growth is also not studied properly. The extensive
exploration of algal flora of Nepal still needs to be carried out in these areas
from where the data is lacking.
Based on literatures, the total algae reported from Nepal is 998. The largest
division is chlorophyta with 415 algae, followed by Cyanophyta (277) and
Bacillariophyta (235) given in table 1.

26
Table 1. Total algae of Nepal
SN Division Number of species
1 Cyanophyta 277
2 Chlorophyta 418
3 Bacillariophyta 235
4 Chrysophyta 7
5 Euglenophyta 50
6 Dinophyta 1
7 Xanthophyta 5
8 Charophyta 1
9 Rhodophyta 4
Total 998

Detail studies in western, mid western and far western may adds significant
number of species in algae. Past research, after 1882 by Dickie, mid time
(between 1950 to 2000) was very significant. Japanese worker Hirano made a
major contribution on Nepalese algae focusing on central and eastern Nepal
and added five species new to science. Watanabe also contributed significantly
focusing on eastern Nepal and added new desmid flora for Nepal. Watanabe et
al. also made a major contribution in Cyanophycean flora basically of Kathmandu
valley and Sagarmatha National Park. He reported twelve new species for Nepal
and five species new to the world.
Yoshimura et al. also played a significant role in studying snow algae of Yala
Glacier. Forster (1965) also reported algae of Himalayan region. He added
eighteen species new to world. Indian phycologist also contributed to Nepalese
algal flora, with their studies focused in tarai region. They reported fifty nine
(59) species new to Nepal and two species new to the world.
Little work has been done in Far-western part of Nepal (Fig. 2) (Map 1,2,3 and
4). Habib (1997) alone reported 61 taxa form Mahendranagar with 36 taxa new
to Nepal. Habib et al reported 108 taxa from Mahakali River. Nepalese algologist
also contributed significantly on algal flora. Shrestha and Manandhar (1983)
reported 48 taxa with new record. Baral studied algal diversity over a long
period of time and published collective checklist of 687 algal taxa which is the
first data on algal flora acceptable till now.
Central Department of Botany, Kirtipur and Post Graduate Campus, Biratnagar
also played an important role in algal flora by conducting dissertation work
related to algae. Aryal and Lacoul (1996), Pradad (1996) also reported diatom
flora with new record Kathmandu and Birjung.

27
 Shrestha and Manandhar (1983) reported 48 taxa with new record. Baral st
over a long period of time and published collective checklist of 687 algal ta
data on algal flora acceptable till now.
70
63
Central Depar

Algal exploration (number)

60

50
Kirtipur and Po
43
40
Biratnagar also
30
role in algal f
20
21
dissertation wo
10 6 4
Aryal and Laco
0
(1996) also re
Eastern Central Western Mid Western Far Western with new reco
Development regions
Birjung.
Fig. 2: Algal exploration on different Development Regions of Nepal

60 58
Rai (2005) and Rai et al. (2010) made some contribution in algae flora with Rai his
54

50 (2005) an
work focused in eastern region. He reported 165 species new to Nepal.made
43 If we some co
look at the algal
40
studies Development region-wise, Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta flora with his
Nepal

and Bacillariophyta
30 were explored more than other group like Rhodophyta, eastern region
Xanthophyta and20
Euglenophyta (Fig. 3) (Map 2,3,4). species new to
60
10 58
10 the algal stu
54
1
3
1 region-wise,
Number of explorations from

50
0
Cyanophyta 43
Chlorophyta Bacillariophyta Xanthothyta Charophyta Rhodophyta Euglenophyta
Chlorophyta a
40 Algal classes were explored
group lik
Nepal

Fig. 3: Number of exploration of different classes of algae from Nepal

30

20
10
10
3
1 1
0
Cyanophyta Chlorophyta Bacillariophyta Xanthothyta Charophyta Rhodophyta Euglenophyta

Algal classes
Fig. 3: Number of exploration of different classes of algae from Nepal

Xanthophyta and Euglenophyta (Fig. 3) (Map 2,3,4).

Map 2. Distribution of Cyanobacteria in Nepal

Map 2. Distribution of Cyanobacteria in Nepal

28
 Map 2. Distribution of Cyanobacteria in Nepal
Map 2. Distribution of Cyanobacteria in Nepal

Map 3. Distribution of Chlorophytes in Nepal

Map 3. Distribution of Chlorophytes in Nepal
Map 3. Distribution of Chlorophytes in Nepal

Map 4. Distribution of Bacillariophytes in Nepal

Map 4. Distribution of Bacillariophytes in Nepal
Map 4. Distribution
Endemic species: of Bacillariophytes
Endemic species represents in Nepal
only native to the particular coun
area.
Endemic Total twenty
species: nine
Endemic(29) species
species of algae
represents were reported as the
endemic species.
counT
Endemic species: Endemic species represents onlyonly native
native to
to the particular
particular
Chlorophyta,
area. nine
Total twenty from
nine Cyanophyta,
(29)twenty
species four
of (29)from Bacillariophyta
algaespecies
were reported were
as endemic reported
species.asT
country or geographic
Two species each area.
from Total
Rhodophyta nine
and of algae were reported
Chlorophyta,
as endemic species.nine
Twelvefrom Cyanophyta,
species fourEuglenophyta
of Chlorophyta,fromnine
are also mentioned
Bacillariophyta
from Cyanophyta, werefour as ende
reported as
list of endemic species are as follows;
Two species each from Rhodophyta and Euglenophyta are also mentioned as ende
from Bacillariophyta were reported as endemic species. Two species each from
list of endemic species are as follows;
Rhodophyta and Euglenophyta
Cyanophyta : are also mentioned as endemic species. The list
of endemic 1. species are aspapillosa
Anabaena follows;
Cyanophyta :
2. Blennothrix ganeshii
Cyanophyta 1. Anabaena papillosa
3. Blennothrix
2. Chlorogloeaganeshii
simplex
1. Anabaena papillosa
4. Entophysalis
3. Chlorogloea rubra
simplex
2. Blennothrix
5. Eucapsis ganeshii
himalayansis
4. Entophysalis
3. Chlorogloea simplex rubra
6. Eucapsis
5. Schizothrix radius-solis
himalayansis
4. Entophysalis
7. Schizothrix
Scytonema rubracontorta
6.
5. Eucapsis himalayansisradius-solis
8.
7. Scytonema
Scytonema fertilia
contorta
6. Schizothrix
9. Scytonema radius-solis
Woronichinia kuselae
8. fertilia
7. Scytonema contorta
9. Woronichinia kuselae
8.Chlorophyta:
Scytonema fertilia
9. Woronichinia
1. Chaetomnion kuselae nakaoi
Chlorophyta:
1. Chaetomnion nakaoi 29
Chlorophyta
1. Chaetomnion nakaoi
2. Chaetophora incrassata var. ajensis
3. Cosmarium aequale var. nepalens
4. Cosmarium bireme var. asiaticum
5. Pleurotaenium granuliferum
6. Pleurotaenium intermius
7. Spirogyra kushii
8. Spirogyra madhubensis
9. Spirogyra nepalensis
10. Staurastrum crenulatum var. nepalensis
11. Staurastrum lacustre var. nepalens
12. Volvulina compacta
Bacillariophyta
1. Achnanthes imanishii
2. Cyclotella kathmanduensis
3. Gomphonema turris var. nepalensis
4. Puncticulata versiformis
Rhodophyta
1. Sheathia indonepalensis
2. Sheathia dispersa
Euglenophyta
1. Phacus crenatus
2. Phacus makii
Conclusion
More exploratory work is yet to be done in the western parts of Nepal to discover
more accurate pattern of distribution of algae. Perusal of literature showed that
the works were sporadic and mostly pertains to the Himalaya and Mountain
regions of Central Nepal especially in and around Kathmandu valley. Large
areas, especially western half (Mid Western and Far Western Development
Regions) of the country still needs to be explored. Moreover, taxonomic
investigation on algal flora of Nepal has not been done comprehensively in
comparison to higher plants.
The exploration of algae according to ecological regions showed that Mountain
was highest explored than Himalaya and Tarai. It shows that maximum
explorations of algae were held in Mountain and the least in Tarai. The Tarai

30
belt of Nepal which supports luxuriant growth and diversity of algae, due to hot
and humid climate, awaits detailed investigation. Similarly, the explorations
according to Development Regions, Central was highest than other region.
Eastern, Central and Western Development Regions were more and densely
explored. Exploration pattern of the three individual classes of algae viz.
Cyanophytes, Chlorophytes and Bacillariophytes in Nepal was more or less
similar to the exploration pattern of whole algae as described above. Among the
classes, Chlorophytes were highly explored and Xanthophytes and Rhodophytes
were the least explored algal group. The class wise exploration showed the
following pattern: Chlorophyta showed highest explored than other group.
Second highest was Cyanophyta. Nepal does not have latest and updated data of
total algae of Nepal in published form. We have an updated data of only cyano-
prokaryotes reported from Nepal till 2010, i.e. 274 (Rai and Misra 2010). But
according to Baral (1999), Rai et al. (2010), Prasad (2011), and Necchi et al.
(2016), we can say that the total number of algae species of Nepal is 998. Among
them there are 29 species of algae endemic to Nepal.
An up to date entirety data of all biological levels is the unequalled wealth of the
nation. It is the foundation for all the diverse fields of researches. Thus, nationwide
exploration of algal flora and preparation of algal database is very essential for
the utilization and conservation of algal heritage of the country. Molecular
analysis should also be adopted for algal identification system. Many unidentified
and confused algae should be confirmed or revised accordingly.
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