PMI COLLEGES – QUEZON CITY

COLLEGE OF MARITIME AFFAIRS

Course Output

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Course

AUTO PORTFOLIO/CAPSTONE PROJECT

Under the Program

Bachelor of Science in Marine Engineering

Instructor: RME CHARLITO VILLAS

Date: 01/18/2024

The undersigned give PMI Colleges – Quezon City, College of Maritime Affairs, full
copyright permission to publish and use this paper.

Author/s Name and Signature:

SUBMITTED BY:
CEPREZ, JOHN WILBERT E.
JEREZ, KRIZEL P.
LEDESMA, GAN CARLO R.
MOLINA, GERALD P.
TULANG, KENT MATTHEW I.
VINGNO, SEAN JOHN N
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE……………………………………………………….….3
● Pressure Measurement
● Common Pressure Detectors

LEVEL MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL………………………………………………..11

● Sight Type Instruments

FLOW MEASURING DEVICES……………………………………………………………..14

● Flange Taps
● Vena Contracta Taps
● Pipe Taps
● Venturi Tubes

TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES AND CONTROLS……………………...……29

● Temperature measurement
● Filled-System Thermometers
● Bimetallic Thermometers
● Bimetallic Dial Thermometer
● Etc….

ANALYTICAL MEASURING DEVICES AND CONTROLS………………..…....……….33

● Conductivity Measurement
● Hydrogen-Ion Concentration (pH) Measurement
● Density and Specific Gravity Measurement
● Hydrometer
● Fixed-Volume Method
● Differential-Pressure Method
 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

Pressure:
Pressure is defined as the force applied per unit area. Mathematically, it is expressed as

In simpler terms, pressure is the amount of force exerted on a given area. It is a scalar
quantity and is typically measured in units like Pascals (Pa), atmospheres (atm), pounds
per square inch (psi), or bars (bar).

Applications of Pressure:

​ Industrial Processes:
● Pressure is widely used in industrial processes for tasks such as
compressing gases, powering machinery, and controlling fluid flow in
pipelines.
​
​ Pneumatics and Hydraulics:
● Both pneumatics (using compressed air) and hydraulics (using
pressurized fluids, usually oil) are essential in various industries for
powering tools, machines, and control systems.
​
​ Barometers and Weather Prediction:
● Barometers measure atmospheric pressure, which is used in weather
forecasting. Changes in atmospheric pressure are associated with
weather patterns, and monitoring pressure helps predict upcoming
weather conditions.
​
​ Blood Pressure Measurement:
● In medicine, blood pressure is a critical parameter for assessing
cardiovascular health. Blood pressure monitors measure the pressure
exerted by blood against the walls of the arteries.
​
​ Aviation:
● Aircraft instruments use pressure measurements for altitude control. The
decrease in atmospheric pressure with increasing altitude is used to
determine an aircraft's height above sea level.
​
​ Pressure Cookers:
● Pressure cookers use increased pressure to raise the boiling point of
water, allowing food to be cooked faster.
​
​ Automotive Systems:
● Pressure is crucial in automotive systems, such as in the operation of
 brakes (hydraulic pressure), tire pressure monitoring, and engine
combustion.
​ Scuba Diving:
● Diving equipment, like pressure gauges and dive computers, helps divers
monitor the pressure at different depths to ensure safe underwater
exploration.
​
​ Physics Experiments:
● In physics, pressure is a fundamental concept used in various
experiments, such as those involving gases and fluid dynamics.
​
​ Research and Laboratory Applications:
● Pressure measurements are used in laboratories for scientific research,
particularly in studies related to materials, chemistry, and physics.

Understanding and controlling pressure is essential across a wide range of industries

and scientific disciplines, contributing to technological advancements and improved
quality of life.

Pressure measuring devices are instruments designed to measure the force exerted by
a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface. Various types of pressure measuring devices exist,
each with its unique working principle. Here's an explanation of the basic working
principles for some common types:

​ Bourdon Tube:
● The Bourdon tube is a C-shaped, flattened tube made of metal.
● When pressure is applied, the tube tends to straighten out.
● The straightening of the tube causes the free end to move, which is
connected to a pointer or a mechanism that translates the movement into
a pressure reading.
​ Bellows:
● Bellows are flexible, accordion-like structures often made of metal.
● When pressure is applied, the bellows expand or contract.
● The movement of the bellows is linked to a pointer or a mechanism,
providing a measure of the pressure.
​ Diaphragm:
● The diaphragm is a flexible membrane usually made of metal or
elastomer.
● When pressure is applied, the diaphragm flexes.
● The movement of the diaphragm is then translated into a pressure reading
using a mechanical linkage or electronic sensor.

​ Capsule:
● A capsule consists of two thin, flexible diaphragms joined together at the
edges.
● The pressure difference between the inside and outside of the capsule
causes it to deform.
● The deformation is measured and converted into a pressure reading.
​ Strain Gauge:
● Strain gauges are devices that change resistance when subjected to
mechanical strain.
● A diaphragm or a membrane with a strain gauge attached deforms under
pressure, causing a change in resistance.
● The change in resistance is measured and used to determine the applied
pressure.
​

​
​
​
​
​
​ Capacitance Capsule:
● A capacitance capsule typically consists of two parallel plates separated
by a small gap filled with a dielectric material.
● The gap changes with applied pressure, altering the capacitance.
● The change in capacitance is measured and used to determine the
pressure.
Each of these devices has its own set of advantages and limitations, and the choice of
a particular type depends on factors such as the application requirements, pressure
range, accuracy, and environmental conditions.

A differential pressure transmitter is a device designed to measure the difference in

pressure between two points in a system. It is commonly used in industrial applications
where it's crucial to monitor and control pressure differentials. Here's a basic
explanation of its operation:

Components of a Differential Pressure Transmitter:

​ Pressure Sensing Elements:

● Differential pressure transmitters typically have two pressure sensing
elements connected to the high and low-pressure points of the system.
​
​ Isolation Diaphragm or Capsule:
● The pressure-sensing elements are often linked by an isolation diaphragm
or capsule. This diaphragm or capsule is exposed to the pressure
difference between the two points.
​
​ Electromechanical Transducer:
● The pressure-induced deflection of the isolation diaphragm or capsule is
converted into a mechanical movement by an electromechanical
transducer. This transducer is often a strain gauge, which changes its
electrical resistance in response to mechanical deformation.
​
​ Electrical Circuit:
● The change in resistance from the strain gauge is converted into an
electrical signal. This signal is then amplified and conditioned by an
electronic circuit within the transmitter.
​
​
​ Output Signal:
● The conditioned electrical signal is the output of the differential pressure
transmitter. Common output signals include 4-20 mA, 0-5 VDC, or 0-10
VDC, depending on the specific design and application.

Basic Operation:

​ Pressure Difference Applied:

● The differential pressure transmitter is installed in a system where there is
a pressure difference between two points. This could be across a filter, a
flowmeter, or any other component affecting pressure.
​
 ​ Isolation Diaphragm Deflection:
● The pressure difference causes the isolation diaphragm or capsule to
deflect. The deflection is proportional to the pressure difference across it.
​
​ Strain Gauge Deformation:
● The deflection of the diaphragm or capsule causes deformation in the
attached strain gauges. This deformation changes the electrical resistance
of the strain gauges.
​
​ Electrical Signal Generation:
● The change in resistance is converted into an electrical signal by the
transducer. This signal represents the differential pressure.
​
​ Amplification and Conditioning:
● The electrical signal is then amplified and conditioned by the electronic
circuitry within the transmitter to produce a stable and accurate output
signal.
​
​ Output Signal Transmission:
● The conditioned signal is sent as the output of the differential pressure
transmitter. This output can be used for monitoring, control, or further
processing in the control system.

In summary, a differential pressure transmitter converts the physical pressure difference

between two points into an electrical signal that can be easily interpreted and utilized for
various applications in industrial processes and control systems.

The operating environment, including factors such as pressure, temperature, and

humidity, can significantly affect the performance and accuracy of pressure detectors.
Different pressure-sensing technologies may respond differently to environmental
conditions. Here's an overview of how these factors can impact pressure detectors:

​ Pressure:

● Effects: The actual pressure at the measurement point is critical for

accurate readings. Changes in ambient pressure can affect the
performance of certain pressure sensors, especially those that rely on
atmospheric pressure as a reference.
● Compensation: Some pressure detectors incorporate compensation
mechanisms to account for changes in atmospheric pressure. Differential
pressure sensors are often less affected by absolute pressure changes
since they measure the difference between two pressure points.
​ Temperature:

● Effects: Temperature variations can influence the material properties of

the pressure sensing elements and the electronics within the pressure
detector. This can lead to changes in sensitivity, drift, or calibration shifts.
● Compensation: Many modern pressure detectors include temperature
compensation mechanisms. This can involve using temperature sensors
to adjust the readings based on the known temperature-dependent
characteristics of the sensor material.

​ Humidity:
● Effects: For certain types of pressure detectors, humidity can impact the
mechanical components, such as diaphragms and bellows. In some
cases, it may also affect the electrical properties of the sensor.
● Compensation: Some pressure detectors are designed to be resistant to
humidity effects. However, in high-humidity environments, additional
protective measures may be necessary. Humidity compensation or sealing
techniques may be applied to minimize these effects.

​ Corrosive Environments:
● Effects: Harsh or corrosive environments can degrade the materials used
in pressure detectors, leading to a reduced lifespan or performance
degradation. This is especially relevant for sensors in industrial
applications where exposure to corrosive substances is common.
● Compensation: Choosing materials resistant to corrosion or applying
protective coatings can help mitigate the impact of corrosive
environments.

​ Vibration and Mechanical Shock:

● Effects: Excessive vibration or mechanical shock can affect the structural
integrity of pressure detectors, leading to calibration shifts or damage.
● Compensation: Mounting and installation techniques, as well as the
design of the pressure detector, can include features to minimize the
impact of vibrations and shocks.
 ​ Altitude Changes:
● Effects: Changes in altitude can affect atmospheric pressure, potentially
impacting pressure readings.
● Compensation: Differential pressure sensors are less affected by
absolute pressure changes, and altitude compensation mechanisms can
be employed to correct for variations in atmospheric pressure.

When selecting a pressure detector for a specific application, it's essential to consider
the expected operating environment and choose a sensor that is designed or configured
to handle the particular conditions it will be exposed to. Additionally, regular calibration
and maintenance may be required to ensure accurate and reliable measurements over
time.
 LEVEL MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL

Level Measurement:

Definition: Level measurement involves determining the height of a substance, such as

a liquid or powder, within a container or vessel.

Units: Levels can be measured in various units, such as inches, centimeters, or as a

percentage of the vessel height.

Methods of Level Measurement:

​ Direct Measurement:
● In some cases, levels can be directly observed using graduated markings
on the side of a transparent or translucent vessel.
​
​ Floats and Displacer Devices:
● Floats or displacers are suspended in the liquid, and their position
changes with the liquid level. Sensors detect this position change to
determine the level.
 ​ Pressure-based Methods:
● Hydrostatic pressure is measured at the bottom of the vessel and used to
calculate the liquid level.
​
​ Radar and Ultrasonic Sensors:
● Radar sensors emit microwave signals or ultrasonic pulses that bounce off
the liquid surface. The time taken for the signal to return is used to
calculate the distance and, consequently, the level.
​
​ Capacitance and Conductance Probes:
● These probes measure the capacitance or conductance between the
probe and the liquid to determine the level.

Applications of Level Measurement:

​ Industrial Processes:
● Level measurement is critical in industrial processes involving liquids or
powders, such as chemical manufacturing, food processing, and
pharmaceutical production.
​
​ Storage Tanks:
● Tanks storing liquids, including water, oil, and chemicals, require accurate
level measurements for inventory management and process control.
​
​ Wastewater Treatment:
● Monitoring the level of sewage and wastewater in treatment plants helps
ensure proper processing and prevents overflow.
​
​ Petroleum Industry:
● Oil and gas storage tanks and pipelines require accurate level
measurements for safety, inventory management, and process control.
​
​ Food and Beverage Industry:
● Level measurement is used in brewing, dairy, and other food processing
industries to monitor ingredients and manage production.
​
​ Pharmaceuticals:
● Precise level measurements are necessary in pharmaceutical
manufacturing to ensure the correct quantities of ingredients are used.
​
​ Water Management:
● Monitoring water levels in reservoirs, rivers, and dams is crucial for water
resource management and flood control.
​
 ​ Chemical Processing:
● In chemical plants, accurate level measurements are essential for
maintaining the correct proportions of chemicals in various processes.
​
​ Power Generation:
● In power plants, level measurements are used in boilers, condensers, and
cooling systems to optimize efficiency and ensure safe operation.
​
​ Environmental Monitoring:
● Level measurement is used in environmental studies to monitor water
levels in rivers, lakes, and oceans.

Level measurement in various types of vessels can be achieved using different

technologies, and the way the level signal is derived depends on the specific
characteristics of the vessel and the measurement requirements. Here's an explanation
for open vessels, closed vessels with dry reference legs, and closed vessels with wet
reference legs:

1. Open Vessel:

In an open vessel, the liquid level is exposed to the atmosphere. Common methods for
level measurement in open vessels include:

● Floats and Displacer Level Transmitters:

● A float or displacer is suspended in the liquid, and its position changes
with the liquid level.
● The movement of the float or displacer is detected by a sensor, and the
signal is used to determine the level.
● The level signal can be directly proportional to the displacement of the
float or displacer.
● Radar Level Sensors:
● Radar sensors emit microwave signals that reflect off the liquid surface.
● The time taken for the signal to return is used to calculate the distance to
the liquid surface, providing a level measurement.
● Ultrasonic Level Sensors:
● Ultrasonic sensors use sound waves to measure the distance to the liquid
surface.
● The time taken for the sound wave to travel to the liquid surface and back
is used to determine the level.

2. Closed Vessel with Dry Reference Leg:

In closed vessels with a dry reference leg, the pressure at the bottom of the vessel is
measured relative to the pressure at the top. Common methods include:
 ● Differential Pressure Transmitters:
● A differential pressure (DP) transmitter measures the pressure difference
between the bottom and top of the vessel.
● The level is calculated based on the hydrostatic pressure difference,
considering the density of the liquid.
● Capacitance Level Transmitters:
● Capacitance-based sensors measure the dielectric constant between the
liquid and a reference electrode.
● As the level changes, the capacitance changes, and this change is used
to infer the level.

3. Closed Vessel with Wet Reference Leg:

In closed vessels with a wet reference leg, a liquid-filled pipe connects the bottom of the
vessel to the measurement device. This allows for the compensation of variations in
vapor pressure or temperature. Common methods include:

● Guided Wave Radar:

● Guided wave radar sends microwave signals down a probe or cable.
● The time taken for the signal to reflect back from the liquid is used to
determine the level.
● Buoyancy Force Transmitters:
● These instruments measure the buoyant force exerted on a probe by the
liquid.
● The buoyant force is proportional to the liquid level.
● Hydrostatic Pressure Transmitters with Liquid-Filled Reference Leg:
● Similar to the dry reference leg, but with the reference leg filled with a
liquid.
● This compensates for changes in temperature or vapor pressure in the
reference leg.

SIGHT-TYPE INSTRUMENTS

There are three common sight-type level sensors: glass gauges, displacers, and tape
floats. Glass gauges are the most widely used instruments for measuring the level in a
process tank.
 ● Glass Gauges
Two types of level glass gauges are used to measure liquid level: tubular and flat. The
tubular type works in the same way as a manometer, that is, as the liquid level in a
vessel rises or falls the liquid in the glass tube will also rise or fall. The gauges are
made of glass, plastic, or a combination of the two materials. The material from which
the transparent tubes are made must be able to withstand the pressure in the vessel,
and they are generally limited to 450 psig at 400°F. Figure 6-1 shows two common
applications of
tubular sight glasses: an open or vented process vessel and a pressurized vessel. For
the pressurized tank, the upper end of the tube is connected to the tank. This creates an
equilibrium pressure on both ends of the tube, and the liquid in the tube rises to the
same level as the liquid in the vessel. A calibrated scale is normally mounted next to the
sight gauge to indicate the level in the tank.

Figure 1. Tubular sight glass gauges

The bodies of flat sight gauges are either made of metal castings or forgings and a
heavy glass or plastic front for viewing the level. A typical flat gauge design is shown in
Figure 2. There are two basic types of flat sight gauges: reflex and transparent. The
reflex-type gauge produces a dark area where liquid is present and a light area where
vapor is present. The reflex type gauge is normally chosen for liquids that are colorless,
clear, and nonviscous. The transparent gauge is generally used when the liquid is
colored, viscous, and corrosive.
 ● Tape Float
Figure 4 shows one of the simplest, most direct methods for measuring level: the tape
float. In the unit shown, a tape is connected to a float on one end and to a
counterweight on the other to keep the tape under constant tension. The float motion
makes the counterweight ride up and down a direct-reading gauge board. The gauge
board is calibrated to indicate the liquid level in the tank. Standard floats are normally
cylindrical for top-mounted designs and spherical or oblong for side-mounted designs.
Small-diameter floats are used in higher-density materials; larger floats are used to
detect liquid-to-liquid interfaces or for lower-density materials.

Displacers
Displacer level gauges operate on Archimedes’ principle: they use the change in
buoyancy force acting on a partially submerged displacer; The principle states that a
body fully or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced. In equation form, Archimedes’ principle for the buoyancy force, B, is
given by the following:
A bubbler system is a method of measuring liquid levels in both open and closed tanks.
It operates based on the principle that the pressure required to force a gas (usually air)
through a submerged pipe into a liquid is proportional to the liquid level. Here's how a
bubbler system derives a level signal for both open and closed tanks:

Bubbler System for Open Tanks:

​ Installation:
● In an open tank, the bubbler system typically consists of a small-diameter
tube or pipe that is submerged in the liquid. The open end of the pipe is
placed below the liquid surface.
​ Gas Supply:
● Compressed air or another gas is supplied to the submerged pipe through
a control valve. The pressure of the gas is regulated.
​ Bubbling Process:
● The gas is released at the submerged end of the pipe, creating bubbles.
The rate at which the gas bubbles rise is influenced by the pressure of the
gas and the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid.
​ Pressure Measurement:
● The pressure required to overcome the hydrostatic pressure and force the
gas through the liquid is measured. This pressure is proportional to the
liquid level in the open tank.
 ​ Level Signal Derivation:
● The pressure measurement is converted into a level signal using
appropriate instrumentation and calibration. Typically, higher pressure
corresponds to a greater liquid depth, providing a direct indication of the
liquid level.

Bubbler System for Closed Tanks:

​ Installation:
● In a closed tank, the bubbler system includes a small-diameter tube or
pipe submerged in the liquid, similar to the open tank configuration.
However, in this case, the top end of the pipe is connected to the top of
the tank.
​ Gas Supply:
● Compressed air or another gas is supplied to the submerged pipe through
a control valve, similar to the open tank setup.
​ Bubbling Process:
● Gas is released at the submerged end of the pipe, creating bubbles.
However, in a closed tank, the gas is also allowed to escape from the top
end of the pipe into the headspace of the closed tank.
​ Pressure Measurement:
● The pressure required to overcome the hydrostatic pressure and force the
gas through the liquid is measured, as in the open tank configuration. The
pressure measurement is a function of both the liquid level and the gas
pressure in the headspace.
​ Level Signal Derivation:
● The pressure measurement is converted into a level signal using
instrumentation and calibration. The gas pressure in the headspace of the
closed tank also affects the pressure measurement, and compensation is
often applied to provide an accurate level indication.

Advantages of Bubbler Systems:

● Bubbler systems are suitable for measuring the level of corrosive or viscous
liquids.
● They can provide continuous level measurement.
● Bubbler systems are adaptable to various tank shapes and sizes.

Considerations:

● Proper calibration and compensation are crucial for accurate level

measurements, especially in closed tanks where headspace pressure variations
can affect readings.
● Care must be taken to prevent clogging of the bubbler pipe with debris or air
bubbles.
Bubbler systems offer a reliable method for measuring liquid levels in both open and
closed tanks, making them versatile in various industrial applications.

FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

The study of fluids in motion, or flow, is one of the most complex branches of
engineering. This complexity is reflected in such familiar examples as the flow of a river
during a flood or a swirling cloud of smoke from a process plant smokestack. Each drop
of water or each smoke particle is governed by Newton's laws, but the equations
for the entire flow are very complicated. Fortunately, idealized models that are simple
enough to permit detailed analysis can represent most situations in process control.
There are various methods used to measure the flow rate of steam, water, lubricants,
air, etc., in a nuclear generating station. However, this module will look at the most
common, namely the DP cell-type flow detector. Also in this section, we will discuss the
application of a square root extractor and cut-off relay plus the possible sources of
errors in flow measurements and different failure modes that can occur.
A flow measuring device, also known as a flow meter or flow sensor, is an instrument
designed to quantify the rate of fluid flow (liquid or gas) through a conduit or pipeline.
Flow meters are essential in various industries and applications where accurate
monitoring and control of fluid flow are crucial. These devices provide valuable
information about the amount of fluid passing through a system, enabling better process
control, optimization, and efficiency. Here's an overview of flow measuring devices and
their applications:

Types of Flow Measuring Devices:

​ Differential Pressure (DP) Flow Meters:

● Principle: Measure the pressure drop across a constriction in the flow
path.
● Applications: Orifice plates, venturi tubes, flow nozzles, and elbow taps.
● Use Cases: Common in industrial processes, water treatment, and HVAC
systems.
​ Positive Displacement Flow Meters:
● Principle: Measure the volume of fluid displaced per unit of time.
● Applications: Piston meters, oval gear meters, and rotary vane meters.
● Use Cases: Suitable for measuring low to moderate flow rates in
industries like oil and gas, chemicals, and water utilities.
​
​ Velocity Flow Meters:
● Principle: Measure the velocity of the fluid to determine the flow rate.
● Applications: Turbine meters, electromagnetic meters, and vortex
shedding meters.
● Use Cases: Used in various industries, including water and wastewater
treatment, chemical processing, and food and beverage.
​ Mass Flow Meters:
● Principle: Measure the mass flow rate of fluid directly.
● Applications: Coriolis meters and thermal mass flow meters.
● Use Cases: Ideal for applications where mass flow measurement is
critical, such as chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, and food
production.
​
​ Ultrasonic Flow Meters:
● Principle: Use ultrasonic waves to measure the velocity of the fluid.
● Applications: Transit-time and Doppler ultrasonic flow meters.
● Use Cases: Common in water and wastewater, HVAC, and industrial
processes.
​
​ Open Channel Flow Meters:
● Principle: Measure the flow of liquids in open channels, such as rivers or
 streams.
● Applications: Weirs, flumes, and ultrasonic sensors.
● Use Cases: Environmental monitoring, water resource management, and
hydrology studies.

Applications of Flow Measuring Devices:

​ Industrial Processes:
● Monitoring and controlling fluid flow in manufacturing processes, chemical
plants, and refineries.
​
​
​ Water and Wastewater Treatment:
● Measuring water flow in distribution systems, monitoring wastewater flow
in treatment plants, and managing water resources.
​
​ Oil and Gas Industry:
● Measuring the flow of crude oil, natural gas, and various fluids in
extraction, transportation, and refining processes.
​
​ HVAC Systems:
● Balancing air and water flow in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
systems for efficient temperature control.
​
​ Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology:
● Precise measurement of liquid flow in pharmaceutical manufacturing and
bioprocessing.
​
​ Food and Beverage Production:
● Monitoring and controlling the flow of ingredients, liquids, and gases in
food and beverage processing.
​
​ Aerospace:
● Measuring fuel flow in aircraft engines and spacecraft propulsion systems.
​
​ Environmental Monitoring:
● Studying and managing water flow in rivers, lakes, and oceans for
environmental conservation.
​
​ Research and Laboratory Applications:
● Accurate measurement of fluid flow in various scientific experiments and
studies.
​
​ Mining and Minerals Processing:
● Monitoring the flow of liquids and slurries in mining and minerals
processing operations.
Flow measuring devices play a crucial role in a wide range of industries, providing
valuable information for process optimization, quality control, and resource
management. The choice of a specific flow meter depends on factors such as the type
of fluid, flow rate range, accuracy requirements, and the environmental conditions of the
application.
When an orifice plate is installed in a flow line (usually clamped between a pair of
flanges), an increase in fluid flow velocity through the reduced area at the orifice
develops a differential pressure across the orifice. This pressure is a function of the flow
rate.

FlangeTaps

Flange taps are the most widely used pressure-tapping location for orifices. They are
holes bored through the flanges, located one inch upstream and one inch downstream
from the respective faces of the orifice plate. A typical flange tap installation is shown in
Figure 3. The upstream and downstream sides of the orifice plate are connected to the
high-pressure and low-pressure sides of a DP transmitter. A pressure transmitter, when
installed to measure flow, can be called a flow transmitter. As in the case of level
measurement, the static pressure in the pipe-work could
Corner Taps

Corner taps are located right at upstream and downstream faces of the orifice plates

Vena Contracta Taps

Vena contracta taps are located one pipe inner diameter upstream and at the point of
minimum pressure, usually one half pipe inner diameter downstream (Figure 5)

Pipe Taps
are located two and a half pipe inner diameters upstream and eight pipe inner diameters
downstream. When an orifice plate is used with one of the standardized pressure tap
locations, an on-location calibration of the flow transmitter is not necessary. Once the
ratio and the kind of pressure tap to be used are decided, there are empirically derived
charts and tables available to facilitate calibration. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Orifice Plates

Venturi Tubes
For applications where high permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, a venturi tube
(Figure 6) can be used. Because of its gradually curved inlet and outlet cones, almost
no permanent pressure drop occurs. This design also minimizes wear and plugging by
allowing the flow to sweep suspended solids through without obstruction.

Flow Nozzle
A flow nozzle is also called a half venturi. Figure 7 shows a typical flow nozzle
installation. The flow nozzle has properties between an orifice plate and a venturi.
Because of its streamlined contour, the flow nozzle has a lower permanent pressure
loss than an orifice plate (but higher than a venturi).

Elbow Taps
Centrifugal force generated by a fluid flowing through an elbow can be used to measure
fluid flow. As fluid goes around an elbow, a high-pressure area appears on the outer
face of the elbow. If a flow transmitter is used to sense this high pressure and the lower
pressure at the inner face of the elbow, the flow rate can be measured. Figure 8 shows
an example of an elbow tap installation. One use of elbow taps is the measurement of
steam flow from the boilers, where the large volume of saturated steam at high pressure
and temperature could cause an erosion problem for other primary devices.

The indicated flow signal from various flow measuring devices can be affected by
changes in process fluid temperature, process fluid pressure, and erosion. Here's an
explanation of how each factor influences the flow signals from the mentioned devices:

1. Change in Process Fluid Temperature:

a. Differential Pressure (DP) Flow Meters:

● Orifice, Venturi, Flow Nozzle, Elbow:
● The density of the fluid changes with temperature, affecting the calculation
of flow based on the pressure drop.
● Compensations or corrections may be required to account for variations in
fluid density.

b. Positive Displacement Flow Meters:

● Piston, Oval Gear, Rotary Vane:
● The volume of fluid displaced by positive displacement meters is
influenced by fluid viscosity, which can change with temperature.
● Calibration adjustments may be needed to account for changes in
viscosity.
c. Velocity Flow Meters:
● Turbine, Electromagnetic, Vortex Shedding:
● Changes in fluid temperature can alter the fluid's viscosity and affect the
accuracy of velocity-based flow measurements.
● Some meters may require temperature compensation to maintain
accuracy.

d. Mass Flow Meters:

● Coriolis, Thermal Mass Flow Meters:
● Thermal mass flow meters are sensitive to changes in temperature, and
compensation is typically required.
● Coriolis meters may also require compensation to account for variations in
fluid density with temperature.

e. Ultrasonic Flow Meters:

● Transit-time, Doppler Ultrasonic Meters:
● temperature changes can affect the speed of sound in the fluid, impacting
the accuracy of ultrasonic flow measurements.
● Compensation algorithms may be employed to correct for temperature
variations.

f. Open Channel Flow Meters:

● Weirs, Flumes, Ultrasonic Sensors:
● Changes in fluid temperature can impact the viscosity and density of the
fluid, affecting the accuracy of open-channel flow measurements.
● Calibration adjustments or compensation may be necessary.

2. Change in Process Fluid Pressure:

a. Differential Pressure (DP) Flow Meters:

● Orifice, Venturi, Flow Nozzle, Elbow:
● Changes in pressure affect the density of the fluid, influencing the
pressure drop across the device.
● Compensation or correction may be required to maintain accurate flow
measurements.

b. Positive Displacement Flow Meters:

● Piston, Oval Gear, Rotary Vane:
● Changes in pressure can affect the compressibility of the fluid, impacting
the accuracy of displacement-based flow meters.
● Compensation or correction may be necessary.
c. Velocity Flow Meters:
● Turbine, Electromagnetic, Vortex Shedding:
● Changes in pressure can affect fluid density and viscosity, impacting the
accuracy of velocity-based flow meters.
● Compensation or correction may be needed.

d. Mass Flow Meters:

● Coriolis, Thermal Mass Flow Meters:
● Changes in pressure can influence the density of the fluid, requiring
compensation to maintain accurate mass flow measurements.

e. Ultrasonic Flow Meters:

● Transit-time, Doppler Ultrasonic Meters:
● Pressure changes may affect the speed of sound in the fluid, necessitating
compensation for accurate flow measurements.

f. Open Channel Flow Meters:

● Weirs, Flumes, Ultrasonic Sensors:
● Pressure changes can impact fluid density and viscosity, influencing the
accuracy of open-channel flow meters.
● Compensation or correction may be necessary.

3. Erosion:

a. Differential Pressure (DP) Flow Meters:

● Orifice, Venturi, Flow Nozzle, Elbow:
● Erosion of the flow measurement device can alter the shape and
dimensions of the constriction, affecting pressure drop and accuracy.
● Regular maintenance and replacement may be necessary to mitigate
erosion effects.

b. Positive Displacement Flow Meters:

● Piston, Oval Gear, Rotary Vane:
● Erosion can lead to wear and changes in the internal geometry, impacting
the accuracy of positive displacement flow meters.
● Regular maintenance and inspection are essential.

c. Velocity Flow Meters:

● Turbine, Electromagnetic, Vortex Shedding:
● Erosion can affect the rotor, impeller, or sensor surfaces, leading to
inaccuracies in velocity-based flow meters.
 ● Regular inspection and replacement may be required.

d. Mass Flow Meters:

● Coriolis, Thermal Mass Flow Meters:
● Erosion can impact the sensor surfaces or disrupt the flow paths, affecting
the accuracy of mass flow meters.
● Regular maintenance and inspection are crucial.

e. Ultrasonic Flow Meters:

● Transit-time, Doppler Ultrasonic Meters:
● Erosion of the pipe or sensor surfaces can affect the propagation of
ultrasonic waves, impacting the accuracy of ultrasonic flow meters.
● Regular inspection and maintenance are necessary.

f. Open Channel Flow Meters:

● Weirs, Flumes, Ultrasonic Sensors:
● Erosion can alter the geometry of weirs or flumes and affect the accuracy
of open-channel flow meters.
● Regular inspection and maintenance are essential.

In summary, changes in process fluid temperature, pressure, and erosion can have
significant effects on the accuracy and reliability of flow measurement devices. Periodic
calibration, compensation, maintenance, and, in some cases, replacement are essential
to ensure accurate and consistent flow measurements in various industrial applications.
This equation reflects the fact that the output signals
the sensor's output and the actual flow rate, providing a more straightforward and linear
response for the control system. In practical terms, this square root relationship is often
implemented in the control system or the signal-processing electronics associated with
the flow meter. The purpose is to ensure that the control system receives a signal that is
directly proportional to the actual flow rate, facilitating accurate and responsive control
actions. The use of a square root extractor is common in flow control systems where the
flow sensor's output is inherently proportional to the square of the flow rate. This
arrangement helps improve the linearity of the control system and enhances its
performance in maintaining the desired flow setpoint.

TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES AND

CONTROLS
Temperature Measurement
both at home and at work, is influenced by temperature. Temperature measuring
devices have been in existence for centuries. The age-old mercury in glass
thermometer is still used today and why not? The principle of operation is as ageless as
the device itself. Its operation was based on the temperature expansion of fluids
(mercury or alcohol). As the temperature increased the fluid in. a small reservoir or bulb
expanded and a small column of the fluid was forced up a tube.
You will find the same theory is used in many modern thermostats today. In this module,
we will look at the theory and operation of some temperature-measuring devices
commonly found in a generating station. These include thermocouples, thermostats,
and resistive temperature devices.
Thermocouples (T/C) and resistive temperature devices (RTD) are generally connected
to control logic or instrumentation for continuous monitoring of temperature.
Thermostats are used for direct positive control of the temperature of a system within
preset limits.

Filled-System Thermometers
Many physical properties change with temperature, such as the volume of a liquid, the
length of a metal rod, the electrical resistance of a wire, the pressure of a gas kept at
constant volume, and the volume of a gas kept at constant pressure. Filled-system
thermometers use the phenomenon of thermal expansion of matter to measure
temperature change.

Figure 1. In this system, the filling fluid, either liquid or gas, expands as temperature
increases. This causes the Bourdon tube to uncoil and indicate the temperature on a
calibrated dial.

Figure 1. Filled bulb thermometer, the filling or transmitting medium is a vapor, a gas,
mercury, or another liquid.

Bimetallic Thermometers
A bimetallic strip curves or twists when exposed to a temperature change, as Figure 7-2
shows, because of the different thermal expansion coefficients of the metals used in it.
Bimetallic temperature sensors are based on the principle that different metals
experience thermal expansion with temperature changes. To understand thermal
expansion, consider a simple model of a solid, the atoms of which are held together in a
regular array of forces that have an electrical origin. The forces between atoms can be
compared to the forces that would be exerted by an array of springs connecting the
atoms. At any temperature above absolute zero (-273.15°C), the atoms of the solid
vibrate. When the temperature is increased, the amplitude of the vibrations increases,
and the average distance between atoms increases. This leads to an expansion of the
whole body as the temperature is increased.

Bimetallic Dial Thermometer

Figure 3 shows a typical bimetallic dial thermometer using a spiral wound element. The
spiral element provides a larger bimetallic element in a smaller area, and it can measure
smaller changes in temperature. It is a low-cost instrument but has the disadvantages of
relative inaccuracy and a relatively slow response time. It is normally used in
temperature measurement applications that do not require high accuracy.

Figure 3. Bimetallic dial thermometer

Thermocouples
Thermoelectric Circuit
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is heated, a continuous current flows in the "thermoelectric" circuit. Thomas
Seebeck made this discovery in 1821. This thermoelectric circuit is shown in Figure
4(a). If this circuit is broken at the center, as shown in Figure 4(b), the new open-circuit
voltage (known as "the Seebeck voltage") is a function of the junction temperature and
the compositions of the two metals. For small temperature changes, the Seebeck
voltage is linearly proportional to temperature:
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Every type of metal has a unique composition and has a different resistance to the flow
of electrical current. This is termed the resistively constant for that metal. For most
metals, the change in electrical resistance is directly proportional to its change in
temperature and is linear over a range of temperatures. This constant factor called the
temperature coefficient of electrical resistance (short-formed TCR) is the basis of
resistance temperature detectors. The RTD can actually be regarded as a
high-precision wire wound resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. By
measuring the resistance of the metal, its temperature can be determined. Several
different pure metals (such as platinum, nickel, and copper) can be used in the
manufacture of an RTD. A typical RTD probe contains a coil of very fine metal wire,
allowing for a large resistance change without a great space requirement. Usually,
platinum RTDs are used as process temperature monitors because of their accuracy
and linearity.
Several different pure metals (such as platinum, nickel, and copper) can be used in the
manufacture of an RTD. A typical RTD probe contains a coil of very fine metal wire,
allowing for a large resistance change without a great space requirement. Usually,
platinum RTDs are used as process temperature monitors because of their accuracy
and linearity.
To detect the small variations of resistance of the RTD, a temperature transmitter in the
form of a Wheatstone bridge is generally used. The circuit compares the RTD value with
three known and highly accurate resistors.
A Wheatstone bridge consisting of an RTD, three resistors, a voltmeter, and a voltage
source is illustrated in Figure 1. In this circuit, when the current flow in the meter is zero
(the voltage at point A equals the voltage at point B) the bridge is said to be in null
balance. This would be the zero or set point on the RTD temperature output.
As the RTD temperature increases, the voltage read by the voltmeter increases. If a
voltage transducer replaces the voltmeter, a 4-20 mA signal, which is proportional to the
temperature range being monitored, can be generated

Thermistors
Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature-sensitive resistor. The name
thermistors is derived from the term "thermally sensitive resistors," since the resistance
of the thermistor varies as a function of temperature.
You can approximate an individual thermistor curve very closely by using the
Steinhart-Hart equation:
You can find the constants A, B, and C by selecting three data points on the published
data curve and solving the three simultaneous equations. When you choose data points
that span no more than 100°C within the nominal center of the thermistor's temperature
range, this equation approaches a remarkable +0.01°C curve fit.

Radiation Pyrometers
A pyrometer is any temperature-measuring device that includes a sensor and a readout.
However, in this section, we will discuss only radiation-type pyrometers. A radiation
pyrometer is a noncontact temperature sensor that infers the temperature of an object
by detecting its naturally emitted thermal radiation.

Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors

Integrated-circuit temperature transducers are available in both voltage and
current-output configurations Both supply an output that is linearly proportional to
absolute temperature. Typical values are one microampere of current per one-degree
temperature change in Kelvin (1 µA/K) and ten millivolts per one-degree change in
Kelvin (10 mv/K).

ANALYTICAL MEASURING DEVICES AND

CONTROLS
Conductivity Measurement
Measuring conductivity means determining a solution's ability to conduct electric
current. This ability is referred to as specific conductance or, simply, conductivity and is
expressed in "mhos," which is the reciprocal of ohm (the unit used to express
resistance). Aqueous solutions of acids, bases, or salts are known as electrolytes; they
are conductors of electricity. Conductivity measurements are generally made to detect
electrolytic contaminants around water and. waste-treatment areas.
The degree of electrical conductivity of such solutions is affected by three factors: the
nature of the electrolyte, the concentration of the solution, and the temperature of the
solution. A measurement of the conductivity at a fixed temperature can be a
measurement of the solution's concentration, expressed in percentage terms by weight,
parts per million, or other applicable units.
Hydrogen-Ion Concentration (pH) Measurement
The symbol pH represents the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It is a measure of a key
ingredient of aqueous solutions of all acids and bases the hydrogen-ion concentration.
Earlier techniques for measuring the hydrogen-ion concentration used paper indicators.
When the indicator was added to the sample, it would produce a certain color change in
the pH value. The result could then be compared with a standard to evaluate the
hydrogenion concentration.
Such a method does not lend itself well to automatic measurement, nor can it be used
with liquids that are normally colored. For these reasons, a method of measurement
was. developed that was based on the potential created by a set of special electrodes in
the solution. This method has become the standard pH measurement for indicating,
recording, and/ or control purposes. However, to understand this method you must
know what pH is and be familiar with the fundamentals of a solution's properties.

Density and Specific Gravity Measurement

Control of the more common variables, such as flow, temperature, and pressure, is the
basic criterion for process control. However, there are cases where measuring density
or specific gravity (SG) is the best way to determine and control the concentration of a
process solution. For a fluid, density is defined as the mass per unit volume and is
usually expressed in units of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) or pounds per cubic
foot (lb/ft3). The specific gravity of a fluid is the ratio of the density of the fluid to the
density of water at 60°F (15.56°C).

Hydrometer
A hydrometer onboard is crucial for measuring the density of liquids, aiding in tasks like
checking fuel quality, monitoring battery electrolyte levels, and assessing overall fluid
conditions in marine systems. Regular calibration ensures accurate readings for
informed decision-making in maritime operations. The importance of hydrometers
onboard lies in their role as critical tools for maintaining operational efficiency and safety
at sea. They enable precise monitoring of fuel quality, battery conditions, fluid health,
and compliance with environmental regulations. Hydrometers contribute to preventive
maintenance, emergency preparedness, and overall optimization of maritime systems,
ensuring smooth and reliable ship operations.

Fixed-Volume Method
A common continuous density-measuring device that utilizes the fixed volume density
principle is the so-called displacement meter, which is schematically illustrated in Figure
2. In this device, liquid flows continuously through the displacer chamber, with the
buoyant body, or displacer, completely immersed. The buoyant force is exerted on the
displacer. It is dependent on the weight of the displaced liquid and, in turn, is a function
of the volume and specific gravity.

Figure 1. Photoelectric hydrometer

Figure 2 Buoyancy-type density measurement

Differential-Pressure Method
One of the simplest and most widely used methods of continuous density measurement
uses the pressure variation produced by a fixed height of liquid. As Figure 8-6 shows,
the difference in pressure between any two elevations below the surface is equal to the
difference in liquid pressure (head) between these elevations, regardless of the
variation in level above the higher elevation.

Figure 3 Differential pressure density measurement method