Thermodynamics

19th Jan 2024

 Ideal Brayton Cycle
● Developed in 1870 by George
Brayton and still in use today for gas
turbine engines
● 4 internally reversible processes
● Flow is assumed as steady state
● 1-2 Isentropic Compression (in a
compressor): Fresh air at ambient
conditions enters compressor (P & T
increases)
● 2 - 3 Constant Pressure Heat
Addition (from external source). High
T gas then enters turbine
● 3-4 Isentropic Expansion (in a Closed cycle gas turbine engine
turbine): expand to atmospheric
pressure while producing power
● 4 -1 Constant pressure heat rejection
to ambient air, T decreases
Ideal Brayton Cycle
Energy balance for a steady flow process As processes 1-2 and 3-4 are
is: isentropic, and P2 = P3 and P4 = P1:

Heat transfers to and from the working

fluid are:
Substituting the above in the thermal
efficiency equation and simplifying
gives:
The thermal efficiency of the cycle
becomes:
 Ideal Brayton Cycle
Main factor limiting thermal efficiency:

● T3 (turbine inlet temperature) is

the highest temperature in the
k = specific heat ratio (of the working fluid)
cycle
rp = pressure ratio (P2/P1) (of the gas ○ Limited by the max T the
turbine); ranges between 11 to 16 turbine blades can withstand
■ This also limits the max
Therefore, thermal efficiency increases
pressure ratios
when:

● k increases
● Pressure ratio increases
Gas Turbine Engines
● Open cycle
● Used in
○ aircraft propulsion: turbine produces enough power to drive the
compressor and aux power unit
■ Light, compact
■ High power to weight ratio
■ High velocity exhaust gases produce thrust
○ electric power generation
● High back work ratio of upto 50% (compressor work/turbine
work) as gas is being compressed (Or how much work
produced by the turbine is consumed by the compressor)
● Greater power for a given size and weight
● High reliability
● Long life
● Engine start up time approx 2 minutes (compared to 4 hours
for a steam propulsion system)
Brayton Cycle with Intercooling & Reheating

Net work of a gas-turbine cycle = Turbine work output - compressor work input

Increase net work by:

● Decreasing compressor work,

○ Multistage compression with intercooling: compressor stages &
cool gas inbetween
○ Compression process becomes nearly isothermal
● Increasing turbine work
○ Multistage expansion with reheating: max T in cycle does NOT
increase
○ Expansion becomes nearly isothermal
● Both of the above
 Ideal Jet Propulsion Cycle
Difference between Ideal Jet Propulsion Cycle & Ideal
Brayton Cycle:
● Gases are not expanded to ambient pressure in the
turbine
○ Expanded to a pressure so power produced by turbine is
enough to drive the compressor and auxiliary equipment
○ Net work output = 0
● Open Cycle
● Operate at higher pressure ratios (10-25)
● Fluid passes through a diffuser (to decelerate &
increase P) before entering compressor
Gases exit the turbine at relatively high pressure,
accelerated in a nozzle to provide thrust to propel the aircraft
Ideal Turbojet Engine
Operating Principle:

a. Greatly accelerate a small mass of fluid in the

opposite direction to motion
b. 1-2: Air decelerates in diffuser (P rises)
c. 2-3: Air is compressed by the compressor, T, P
increases
d. 3-4: combustion at constant pressure
e. 4-5: High P, high T gases partially expand in turbine
(producing just enough power to drive compressor
and aux. equipment)
f. 5-6: T & P decrease as air expands in nozzle to
ambient pressure and leaves at high velocity
g. Ideal cycle: Isentropic processes in diffuser,
compressor, turbine & nozzle
● Suitable for high-speed, high-altitude flights
Turbofan Engine

● Most widely used aircraft engine

● Operating Principle:
a. Large fan driven by turbine forces air through a duct (cowl), increasing velocity
of the air
b. This high speed air is mixed with lower speed air
i. Higher velocity fan exhaust increases total thrust
ii. Mixing high speed exhaust gases and low speed air, causes noise
reduction
● Bypass ratio: ratio of mass flow rate of air bypassing combustion chamber to that of
air flowing through it (bypass ratio between 5 and 6)
● Suitable for subsonic and supersonic aircraft:
a. Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 Engine (used in Boeing 787)
Turboprop Engine
● Increasing bypass ratio, increases thrust
● No cowl around the fan
● Typical bypass ratio of upto 100
● Efficient for lower-speed, short to
medium-haul flights (0.82 Mach & 12,200m
altitude)
● Efficiency decreases at high speeds and
altitudes
● Common in regional and cargo aircraft:
a. ATR 72 Aircraft equipped with Pratt &
Whitney Canada PW100 Engines
Ramjet Engine

● Operates at supersonic speeds (above Mach 2)

● Lacks moving parts like compressors or turbines
● Used for high speed propulsion of missiles and aircraft
● Operating Principle:
a. Incoming high speed air ‘rams’ against a fixed barrier
b. The air slows down to about Mach 0.2 and a pressure
rise occurs
c. Fuel is added to high pressure, low velocity air and
burned
d. Combustion gases are expanded and accelerated in a
nozzle
Further reading
Example 9-5 in textbook (Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach by Yunus A.
Cengel & Michael A. Boles, 5th Edition)