ENERGY RESOURCES

ME 556

Lectures : 3 Year : III

Tutorial : 1 Part : II
Laboratory : 3/2

Course Objectives:
At the end of the course, the student will be able to understand
1. Different types of conventional energy resources
2. Different types of renewable energy resources
3. Energy conversion technologies

Course Outlines:

1. Fossil fuels and their characteristics (4 hours)

1.1.Classification of traditional fuels
1.2.Refining of crude oil
1.3.Properties of gasoline and diesel

2. Solar energy (6 hours)

2.1. Movement of earth and Solar radiation, solar radiation measuring devices.
2.2. Solar radiation fundamentals and solar angles
2.3. Flat plate collectors, solar water heaters, Solar Concentrators
2.4. Photovoltaic materials; Materials in bulk and thin film forms
2.5. Role of microstructure (single crystal, multi-crystalline, polycrystalline,
amorphous and nanocrystalline) in electrical and optical properties of the
materials
2.6. Applications of Photovoltaic for power generation

3. Bio energy (3 hours)

3.1. Biogas generation and factors affecting bio digestion or generation of gas
3.2. Biomass and biochemical conversion to fuels
3.3. Biogas plants

4. Wind energy (4 hours)

4.1. Principles of wind energy conversion
4.2. Types and characteristics of Horizontal & vertical axis wind turbines
4.3. Wind farming

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5. Micro and small hydro power systems (6 hours)
5.1. Micro/Mini hydropower systems, principles and related technologies
5.2. Site investigation
5.3. Determination of flow
5.4. Construction and operation of the different types of water turbines within the
range of micro and small hydro power systems
5.5. Characteristics of turbines used for micro and small hydro power plants

6. Non-conventional forms of energy and batteries (6 hours)

6.1. Introduction to fuel cells and Hydrogen fuel system
6.2. Hydrogen production processes
6.3. General introduction to infrastructure requirement for hydrogen production,
storage, and utilization
6.4. Battery fundamentals
6.5. Different types of batteries

7. Nuclear energy (6 hours)

7.1. Introduction
7.2. Nuclear fusion and reactions
7.3. Requirements for nuclear fusion
7.4. Health hazards
7.5. Radiation protection & shielding

8. Responsible development practices (4 hours)

8.1. World energy resources
8.2. Energy consumption pattern of different countries
8.3. Environment, Development and Society-comparative approaches to natural
resource management
8.4. Indigenous system of natural resource management-land, water, forest, air etc
8.5. Environmental ethics
8.6. Urbanization and Sustainability,
8.7. Environmentally responsible consumption

9. Energy audit (6 hours)

9.1. Energy audit concepts
9.2. Basic elements and measurements
9.3. Preparation and presentation of energy audit reports
9.4. Case study and potential energy savings

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Practical:
1. Measurement of Solar Radiation with Pyranometer
2. Determine the performance of liquid heating solar collector from open -loop
through flow test setup
3. Determination of the performance of Study of Solar Water Heater
4. Study the construction and operation of wind turbine
5. Study of Bio gas plant and its principle of operation
6. Study of Micro/Small hydro power systems

Evaluation Scheme:
There will be questions covering all the chapters of the syllabus. The evaluation
scheme for the questions will be as indicated in the table below:
Chapters Hours Marks distribution*
1 4 6
2 6 10
3 3 10
4 4 10
5 6 10
6 6 10
7 6 8
8 4 6
9 6 10
Total 45 80

* There may be minor deviation in marks distribution.

References:
1. H. P. Garg & J. Prakash, Solar Energy Fundamentals and Applications, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, new Delhi, India.
2. S. N. Bhadra, D. Kastha, S. Banerjee, Wind Electrical Systems, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, India.
3. G. D. Rai, Non-Conventional Sources of Energy, Khanna Publishers, India
4. J. A. Duffie, W.A. Beckman, Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, John Wiley &
sons.

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 SHORT NOTES
ON
FOSSIL FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
(4 HOURS COURSE WEIGHTAGE)

Course Content:
1.1. Classification of traditional fuels
1.2. Refining of crude oil
1.3. Properties of gasoline and diesel

1.1.1 Fossil Fuels: Introduction

Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the
remains of dead plants and animals. In technical dialogue, the term fossil fuel includes
hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived from animal or plant
sources. These are sometimes known instead as mineral fuels.
Fossil fuel is a general term for buried combustible geologic deposits of organic
materials, formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to crude
oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's
crust over hundreds of millions of years. The exact time of their formation is said to be
before the age of dinosaurs. The age fossil fuels were formed is referred to as the
carboniferous period, which is roughly about 286~360 million years ago. The places in
which they were formed were swampy and full of green vegetation including algae.
When these plants died, they sank all the way to the rock bottom and piled up to form
spongy materials known as peat.
The spongy material (peat) got covered by clay, sand particles and numerous other
minerals and hardened to form a sedimentary rock. As more rocked piled on it, the
peat in the rock got squeezed out as a fluid that turned out to be fossil fuel. This is
fossil fuel that humans use as coal, natural gas and oil.
The burning of fossil fuels by humans is the largest source of emissions of carbon
dioxide, which is one of the contributors to global warming. One report says that since
1900, the world's consumption of fossil fuels has nearly doubled every 20 years. The
utilization of fossil fuels has enabled large-scale industrial development and largely
supplanted water-driven mills, as well as the combustion of wood or peat for heat.
Crude oil is also referred to as fossil fuel and commonly called petroleum product.
Compared to coal, this is easier to extract from the ground through the use of pipes
thereby making it less costly to transport from one place to another.
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Natural gas has other uses apart from being burned in power plants to generate
electricity. Many people also use it in their home heating systems to provide warm air
during the cold winter season. Since everything has a bright and dark side, let’s have a
look at the advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels.
1.1.2 Advantages of fossil fuels
1. A Vital source of energy: Fossil fuels are combustible which makes them
valuable energy sources for domestic heating and cooking. They are also used to
power vehicles and other gadgets that rely operate with the use of fossil fuel
energy.
2. Powerful sources of energy. Fossil fuels are powerful enough to generate heat,
light and electrical energy for whole cities. A major advantage of fossil fuels is
their capacity to generate huge amounts of electricity in just a single location.
3. Their calorie value is high: Alternative energy sources are chosen depending on
their calorific value. Fossil fuels are highly preferred as they have a high calorific
value.
4. Usability. Fossil fuels are easy to use, as all that is needed is to burn them to
generate energy.
5. They are very stable: Fossil fuels have carbon and hydrogen bonding and this
makes them stable molecules that can be carried around. They can also be
stored for longer periods without forming other compounds.
6. They are cheap sources of energy: Their availability and less costly production
methods make fossil fuels cheaper energy alternatives.
7. Can be set up anywhere: Since setting up fossil fuel plants isn’t complicated; it
is easier to have them set up in any place around the world.
8. Easy storage and transportation: These are attributed to their stable chemical
composition that makes them easier to transport to other locations.
9. They are available in many places: Cheaper methods of production and
extraction and the fact that their plants can be set anywhere makes them
readily available.
10.They are reliable: In comparison to wind energy and a few others, you’ll find
fossil fuels to be reliable.
11.Well-developed extraction and production techniques: The technology used to
extract and refine fossil fuel is advanced and can be placed anywhere in the
world.

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 12.Creates formal employment: Fossil fuel plants make use of human labor all the
way from the extraction process, refining, transporting and selling.
1.1.3 Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels
1. Pose risks to the environment: Carbon emission is a serious topic in the world
today. The Burning fossil fuel produces enough CO2. This leads to an increase in
the greenhouse effect. As they are carbon rich and hydrocarbon based, fossil
fuels contribute to the greenhouse effect. This is because when burned they
release large amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere.
2. Fossil fuels cannot be renewed: The non-renewable nature of fossil fuels makes
them hazardous.
3. Ecological imbalance: Coal mining results in the destruction of the ecosystem,
and this disrupts the balance that nature provides.
4. Affects the health of miners: It’s not easy to extract coal; particularly when it’s
in plenty as it’s a risky expedition.
5. Fossil fuels cause acid rain: Carbon dioxide emitted from fossil fuel plants
combine with hydrogen in the air forming acid rain which corrodes roofs and
kills plants.
6. Disrupts Marine Life: Fossil fuel spills contain toxins that interfere with the
water composition hence disrupts the life of marine organisms.
7. Their ever-fluctuating prices cause conflicts: Countries with huge deposits of
fossil fuels control market prices. When they decide to hike the prices, feuds are
bound to arise.
8. Aggravates our already polluted land: Pollution is a major topic and many
humanitarian organizations have jumped in to try and curb the problem. Fossil
fuel spills and carbon emission make the world a polluted habitat.
9. Unpleasant odors: Fossil fuels don’t smell nice and can lead to allergies in some
individuals.
10.Fossil fuels are not safe: Wind and solar energy alternatives are safer compared
to fossil fuels.
11.Pollution is a major disadvantage of fossil fuels. This is because they give off
carbon dioxide when burned thereby causing a greenhouse effect. This is also
the main contributory factor to the global warming experienced by the earth
today.

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 12.Coal also produces carbon dioxide when burned compared to burning oil or
gas. Additionally, it gives off Sulphur dioxide, a kind of gas that creates acid
rain.
13.Environmentally, the mining of coal results in the destruction of wide areas of
land. Mining this fossil fuel is also difficult and may endanger the lives of miners.
Coal mining is considered one of the most dangerous jobs in the world.
14.Power stations that utilize coal need large amounts of fuel. In other words,
they not only need truckloads but trainloads of coal on a regular basis to
continue operating and generating electricity. This only means that coal-fired
power plants should have reserves of coal in a large area near the plant's
location.
15.Use of natural gas can cause unpleasant odors and some problems especially
with transportation.
16.Use of crude oil causes pollution and poses environmental hazards such as oil
spills when oil tankers, for instance, experience leaks or drown deep under the
sea. Crude oil contains toxic chemicals which cause air pollutants when
combusted.
1.1.4 Classification of traditional fuels
These fuels can be classified into three main forms: natural gas, coal, and oil. Consider
the following table.

State of
Fossil Fuels Renewable Fuels
matter

Biomass: wood, cane, grass, etc (energy

Solid Coal: black, brown, lignite
plants and waste materials)

Crude oil: gasoline, Biomass: vegetable oil and bio-diesel,

Liquid
kerosene, diesel oil ethanol, methanol etc

Bio-gas: digester gas, pyrolysis-gas from

Gaseous Natural gas: CNG, LPG
gasifier

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1.1.5 Characteristic features of fossil fuels

1. Combustible. Fossil fuels are highly combustible in the presence of heat and
oxygen.
2. Natural formation. Fossil fuels are formed naturally over millions of years by the
pressure of rock and sediment on the bodies of plants and animals that died far
back in the geological past.
3. Abundance. Fossil fuels are abundant throughout the world. Russia is abundant
in natural gas, for instance, whilst Saudi Arabia has an abundance of oil. Fossil
fuels release a large quantity of CO2 into the atmosphere when burned.
4. Limited supply. Its true that the supply of fossil fuels are in abundance.
However, the supply of fossil fuels is not unlimited. The supply is limited as they
take such a long time to form.
5. Concentrated energy. Fossil fuels are powerful sources of energy.
6. Composition. Fossil fuels are very carbon rich.

1.2 Refining of crude oil

Crude oil is a mixture of different chemicals called hydrocarbons. Generally,
crude petroleum is heated and changed into a gas. The hot gases are passed into the
bottom of a distillation column and become cooler as they move up the height of the
column. As the gases cool below their boiling point, they condense into a liquid. The
liquids are then drawn off the distilling column at specific heights, ranging from heavy
resides at the bottom, raw diesel fuels in the mid-sections, and raw gasoline at the top.
These raw fractions are then processed further to make several different finished
products. Three major types of operation are performed to refine the oil into finished
products: separation, conversion and treating.

(a) Petroleum Refinery Process Plant on the basis of Boiling point and viscosity of
product
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(b) Petroleum Refinery Process Plant on the basis of Boiling point and viscosity of
product

An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is
processed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha,
gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas
as shown in figure (b) above.

Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional

distillation. It consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic
compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude
oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. The first part of
refining crude oil is to heat it until it boils. The boiling liquid is separated into different
liquids and gases in a distillation column. These liquids are used to make petrol,
paraffin, diesel fuel etc.
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Crude oil is unrefined liquid petroleum, which ranges in colour from yellow to black,
and may have a paraffin, asphalt or mixed base. Crude oil is composed of thousands of
different chemical compounds called hydrocarbons, all with different boiling points.
For example, a typical crude oil may begin to boil at 104° F to produce petroleum gas
used for heating and making plastics, and finish boiling at greater than 1112° F to
produce residuals such as petroleum coke, asphalt and tar.

Although all fractions of petroleum find uses, the greatest demand is for gasoline. One
barrel of crude petroleum contains only 30-40% gasoline. Transportation demands
require that over 50% of the crude oil be "converted" into gasoline. To meet this
demand some petroleum fractions must be converted to gasoline. This may be done
by cracking — breaking down large molecules of heavy heating oil and resides;
reforming — changing molecular structures of low quality gasoline molecules;
and isomerization — rearranging the atoms in a molecule so that the product has the
same chemical formula but has a different structure, such as converting normal
butane to isobutene.

1.2.1 Refining Process Units

Coker Unit: processes vacuum resid, which is heated to over 900° F and put into the
coke drums, where it undergoes thermal cracking as the oil decomposes under the
extreme heat. Products include butane and lighter material, naphtha for Reforming,
turbine and diesel fuel, gas oil for Cat Cracking, and fuel grade petroleum coke.

Reformer Unit: using heat, catalyst and moderate pressure, the reformer changes the
molecular structure of crude and coker naphthas to produce a high octane primary
gasoline blend stock called reformate.

Alkylation Unit: uses acid catalyst to combine small molecules into larger ones
collectively called alkylate, which has a high octane and is the cleanest burning of the
gasoline blendstocks.

Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit: uses heat and catalyst to break or “crack” large gas oil
molecules into a range of smaller ones, specifically gasoline, low quality diesel stocks,
and a residual oil called slurry (fuel oil).

Desulfurization Unit: a device used to remove sulfur from petroleum oil.

Hydrotreating: removes impurities by using hydrogen to bind with sulfur and nitrogen.

Hydrocracking: breaks or “cracks” diesel stock material into gasoline blending stocks
using heat, catalyst and hydrogen under very high pressure.
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Isomerization: rearranges the atoms in a molecule so that the product has the same
chemical formula but has a different structure, such as converting normal butane to
isobutane.

1.3 Properties of gasoline and diesel

(a) Chemical composition

Diesel is composed of about 75% saturated
hydrocarbons (primarily paraffins including n, iso, and cycloparaffins), and 25%
aromatic hydrocarbons (including naphthalenes and alkylbenzenes). The average
chemical formula for common diesel fuel is C12H23, ranging from approx. C10H20
to C15H28. Petrol consists of hydrocarbons with between 5 and 12 carbon atoms
per molecule but then it is blended for various uses. Overall a typical petrol sample
is predominantly a mixture of paraffins (alkanes), naphthenes (cycloalkanes),
aromatics and olefins (alkenes). The ratios vary based on a variety of factors.

(b) Volatility of petrol vs diesel

Petrol is more volatile than diesel, not only because of the base constituents, but
because of the additives that are put into it.

(c) Energy Content of petrol vs diesel

Gasoline contains about 34.6 megajoules per litre (MJ/l) while diesel contains
about 38.6 megajoules per litre. This gives a higher power to diesel.

(d) Global consumption of petrol vs diesel

The U.S. used about 510 billion litres (138 billion gallons) of petrol (called "gas") in
2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade. The U.S. annual
consumption of diesel in 2006 was about 190 billion litres (42 billion imperial
gallons or 50 billion US gallons).
Consider the following tables for comparative study of diesel and gasoline fuel
properties.

1.3 What are gasoline fuels?

Gasoline or petrol is a fuel, derived from petroleum crude oil, for use in spark-ignited
internal combustion engines. Conventional gasoline is mostly a blended mixture of
more than 200 different hydrocarbon liquids ranging from those containing 4 carbon
atoms to those containing 11 or 12 carbon atoms. It has an initial boiling point at
atmospheric pressure of about 35 °C (95 °F) and a final boiling point of about 200 °C

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(395 °F). Gasoline is used primarily as fuel for the internal combustion engines in
automotive vehicles as well in some small airplanes.
1.3.1 Octane Rating

If the gasoline spontaneously ignites and detonates (i.e., explodes) before it is ignited
by the spark plug, it causes an abnormal phenomenon known as knocking, pinging or
spark knock. The knocking is quite audible and prolonged knocking will damage an
engine.
As briefly mentioned above, the most important performance characteristic of a
gasoline is its octane rating, which is a measure of how resistant the gasoline is to
knocking. In fact, the octane rating is sometimes referred to as the Anti-knock Index.
Iso-octane with a branched structure and a high resistance to knocking, has arbitrarily
been assigned an octane rating of 100. N-heptane with a straight-chain structure and
poor resistance to knocking has arbitrarily been assigned an octane rating of 0.

The octane rating of a specific gasoline is measured by using it in a single-cylinder test

engine with a variable compression by a knock-meter. If the gasoline test results
match those of a mixture containing 90 volume % iso-octane and 10 volume % n-
heptane, then the octane rating of the gasoline is taken to be 90.

1.3.2 Vapor pressure

the vapor pressure of a gasoline is a measure of its propensity to evaporate (i.e., its
volatility) and high vapor pressures result in high evaporative emissions of smog-
forming hydrocarbons which are undesirable from the environmental viewpoint. The
gasoline must be volatile enough that engines can start easily at the lowest expected
temperature. Too high a volatility could cause excessive vapor leading to vapor locking
in the fuel pump and fuel piping.

1.3.3 Sulfur content

When gasoline is combusted, any sulfur compounds in the gasoline are converted into
gaseous sulfur dioxide emissions which are undesirable from the environmental
viewpoint. Some of the sulfur dioxide also combines with the water vapor formed
when gasoline combusts and the result is the formation of an acidic, corrosive gas that
can damage the engine and its exhaust system. Furthermore, sulfur interferes with the
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efficiency of the on-board catalytic converters.

Thus, sulfur compounds in gasoline are highly undesirable from either the
environmental viewpoint or the engine performance viewpoint. Many countries now
mandate that the sulfur content of gasoline be limited to 10 ppm by weight.

1.3.4 Storage stability

Gasoline stored in fuel tanks and other containers will, in time, undergo oxidative
degradation and form sticky resins referred to as gums. Such gums can precipitate out
of the gasoline and cause fouling of the various components of internal combustion
engines which reduces the performance of the engines and also makes it harder to
start them. Relatively small amounts of various anti-oxidation additives are included in
end-product gasoline to improve the gasoline stability during storage by inhibiting the
formation of gums.

Other additives are also provided in end-product gasolines, such as corrosion

inhibitors to protect gasoline storage tanks, freezing point depressants to prevent
icing, and color dyes for safety or governmental regulatory requirements.[1][3][11]

Many gasolines today now contain ethanol which is an alcohol. Gasoline is insoluble in
water but ethanol and water are mutually soluble. Thus, end-product gasolines
containing ethanol will, at certain temperatures and water concentrations, separate
into a gasoline phase and an aqueous ethanol phase.[15]

For example, the graph below shows that phase separation will occur in a gasoline, at
temperatures of 5 to 16 °C (40 to 60 °F), containing 10 volume percent ethanol and as
little as 0.40 to 0.50 volume percent water.

For the same temperature range, the fraction of water that an ethanol-containing
gasoline can contain without phase separation increases with the percentage of
ethanol. Thus, gasolines containing more than 10 volume percent ethanol will be less
likely to experience phase separation

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