Complete Biology

CELL (=THE UNIT OF LIFE) 2080

C Cell à Structural and functional unit of life. Take Your Notes:
C Cytology à study of cell organelles (living part of cell) and
cell inclusions (non-living part of cell) only.
C Cell Biology (=modern cytology) à study of cell organelles,
cell inclusions along with physiology of cell, chemistry of
cell and genetics of cells.
C The cell is unit of structure and function of living organisms.
Discovery of cell:
History of Cell
Year Scientist Events
1665 Robert Hooke Coined word “Cell”
First living cells observed in
1670– Anthony van
microscope - Structure of
74 Leeuwenhoek
bacteria
1831– Presence of nucleus in cells
Robert Brown
33 of orchid roots
1839 J.E. Purkinje Coined “protoplasm”
1838– Schleiden &
Cell theory
39 Schwann
Rudolph Cell theory ‘omnis cellula e
1858 Ludwig Carl
Virchow cellula’
Described chromosomes
Anton
1873 (Nuclear filaments) for the
Schneider
first time
Walther Coined the word mitosis;
1882
Flemming chromosome behaviour

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 Edouard Van Complete Biology
1883 Cell division in round worm 2080
Beneden
Theodor Centrosome; Chromosome Take Your Notes:
1888
Boveri Theory

v Robert Hook:
§ Studied thin slice of bottle cork à found small
compartment in it à called it cells.
§ Hooke actually discovered suberized cell not living cell.
§ Published his finding in book Micrographia.
§ His investigation kept the foundation of cytology (=Father
of cytology)

Cell theory
C Proposed by à ……………………………………………………
……………………………………

C Statements of cell theory:

• All organisms are made up of cells.
• New cells are formed by the division of pre-existing cells.
• Cells contains genetic material, which is passed on from
parents to daughter cells.
• All metabolic reactions take place inside the cells.
C Rudolf Virchow observed that new cells develop by division of
pre-existing cell; “omnis cellula e cellula" (= law of cell
lineage).
C Louis Pasteur successfully established that life originates from
preexisting cells.
C Cell principle/Cell doctrine/modern or modified Cell theory
= Cell theory + Cell lineage.

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 Exception of cell theory: Complete Biology
2080
C Virus (Obligate Parasites): made up of only nucleic acid and
Take Your Notes:
protein and lack protoplasm (sub-cellular in nature)
C Protozoans: and many thalophyta like Acetabularia have
uninucleate differentiated body.
C Algae and Fungi: The thali in alga like Vaucheria and hyphae
in fungi like Rhizopus and Mucor are coenocytic (multinucleate
and septate)

Size of Cells
C Smallest cell à
C The bacteriophages or viruses are still smaller in size but
cannot be considered as cells because of subcellular nature.
C Amongst the animal cells:
• Longest cell: ………………….

• Largest cell: ………………………

C Amongst plant cells:
• Longest cell: …………………………………
• Largest cell: ……………………………………

Note:
Metabolically active cells are smaller in size.

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 Cellular Totipotency: Complete Biology
2080
C Totipotency
………………………………………………………… Take Your Notes:
…………………………………………………………
……………….
C Idea of cellular totipotency was first given by
…………………………
C Phenomenon of cellular totipotency was proved by
…………………………………

C Explant used by steward à………………………………………..

C Coconut milk naturally contain ………………
Types of cells
C On the basis of the cellular organization and the nuclear
characteristics, the cell can be classified into
1. Prokaryotes
2. Mesokaryotes and
3. Eukaryotes

Figure: Cell types; A. Prokaryotic cells B.

Eukaryotic cell

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 Prokaryotic cell (Gr; Eukaryotic cell (Gr; Complete Biology
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Pro= primitive; karyon; Eu=well; karyon=
Take Your Notes:
nucleus) nucleus)
Genetic material (DNA) Genetic material (DNA)

Organelles Organelles

Reproduction: Reproduction:

Average size: Average size:

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 Prokaryotic cell (Gr; Eukaryotic cell (Gr; Complete Biology
2080
Pro= primitive; karyon; Eu=well; karyon=
Take Your Notes:
nucleus) nucleus)

§ Most extensively studied prokaryote is E.coli.

§ Chlamydia and Rickettsia have both RNA and DNA as
nucleic acid and are connecting link between virus and
bacteria.
§ Histone protein is positively charged.

Mesokaryotic cell:
C Discovered by Dodge and his coworkers
C These organisms share some of the characters of both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
C Contains well organized nucleus with nuclear membrane and
the DNA is organized into chromosomes but without histone
protein.
C Components divides through amitosis similar with prokaryotes.
C Examples: Protozoa like Noctiluca, some phytoplanktons like
Gymnodinium, Peridinium and Dinoflagellates.

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 Complete Biology
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Take Your Notes:

C Those organisms which have true nucleus are called

Eukaryotes (Eu – True; karyon – nucleus).
C The DNA is associated with histones forming the chromosomes.
C Membrane bound organelles are present.
C Few organelles may have risen by endosymbiosis which is a
cell living inside another cell. The Organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplast well support this theory.

Cell wall
C Cell wall is the outermost protective cover of the cell.
C Present in à bacteria, fungi and plants
C Absent in à animal cell.
C First observed by à Robert Hooke.
C Cell wall is product of à………………………
C Plant cell without cell wall is ……………………..
C Cell without cell wall is called protoplast.

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 Complete Biology
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Take Your Notes:

Figure: Cell Wall

Chemical Composition of cell wall:
1. Bacteria and cyanobacteria: cell wall is made up of
murein/mucopeptide/peptidoglycan.
• Polysaccharide part of peptidoglycan is the polymer of N-
acetyl glucosamine i.e. NAG and N-acetyl muramic acid i.e.
NAM.
2. Fungi: cell wall made up of chitin / fungal cellulose.
• Chitin (C22H54O21N4)n N-acetyl glucosamine = NAG (Amino
sugar).
3. Higher plants: cell wall made up of cellulose (β-D- glucose
unit), hemicellulose and pectin.
Structure of plant cell wall:
C Typical plant cell wall is made up of four layers; namely:
1. Middle lamella
2. Primary wall
3. Secondary wall
4. Tertiary wall
Middle lamellae:
C It is outermost layer of cell wall which forms ……………………
between two adjacent cells.
C First layer to be deposited at the time of cytokinesis.

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C Main compositionà………………………………… Complete Biology
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C Ripening of fruit is due to……………………
Take Your Notes:
C Middle lamellae is totally absent in all unicellular plant and all
fungi.
Primary cell wall:
C It is thin, delicate and elastic layer formed by protoplasm on
both the sides of middle lamella.
C The chief constituents of the primary cell à ……..
……………………………………………
C In thin walled cells (like meristematic cells, parenchyma,
collenchyma and mesophyll cell) primary cell wall remains
as a true cell wall and the only layer throughout.
C Primary cell wall is found universally in all cells having cell
wall.
C It is the first layer inner to middle lamella.
C Structure:
• It is thin, elastic and extensible.

• Primarily consisting of loose network of cellulose

microfibrils in a gel matrix.

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 • In most plants the microfibrils are made up of cellulose Complete Biology
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oriented differently based on shape and thickness of the
wall. Take Your Notes:
• The matrix of the primary wall is composed of
hemicellulose, pectin, glycoprotein and water.
• Hemicellulose binds the microfibrils with matrix.
• Glycoproteins control the orientation of microfibrils
• Pectin serves as filling material of the matrix.
• Cells such as parenchyma and meristems have only primary
wall.

Secondary cell wall:

C It is additional thickening develops in the inner surface of
primary in some matured cells when their growth has stopped.
C It is made up of at least three layers (=tripartite) which are
named as S1, S2 and S3.
C The secondary cell wall may be thickened on account of the
deposition of substances like:
1. Cutin:

2. Suberin:

3. Lignin:

4. Wax:

Plasmodesmata:
C Living cytoplasmic strands à establish connections between
adjacent cells. [IOM 1998]
C Symplast à all the protoplasts of a living system are linked
to form a continuous system through plasmodesmata.

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 Pits Complete Biology
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C Unthickened area on secondary wall of plant cells appearing
as depressions. Take Your Notes:
C A pit has a cavity, or pit chamber and pit membrane which
consists of primary wall and middle lamella.
C Simple pits: ………………………………… ………
…………………………………………………………
C The bordered pits: ………………………………
………… ………………………………………… …
Tertiary wall:
C Sometimes tertiary wall is laid down on secondary wall, e.g.,
tracheids of gymnosperms.
C It is relatively more rich in xylan (a polymer of pentose sugar
D-xylose) than cellulose.
Growth of surface area of cell wall
C Growth of cell wall occur mainly by:
C Intusussception:…………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
………….………………………………………………
C Apposition:
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

Thickening of cell wall:

C The thickening and strengthening of the cell wall usually
takes place in prosenchymatous cells.
C The thickening is due lignin, which results in the death and
gradual disappearance of the cytoplasm, leaving a dead
thick-walled element.

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C Tissue formed of such cells is known as sclerenchyma. Complete Biology
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C Thickening may be of the following types:
1. Annular or ring like: localized deposition of lignin in the Take Your Notes:
ring form, e.g. protoxylem.
2. Spiral: lignin is deposited in the spiral form e.g.
protoxylem
3. Reticulate: lignin is deposited in both annular and spiral
manner forming network or reticulum, e.g., metaxylem.
4. Scalariform: lignin is deposited in the form of transverse
rods e.g. protoxylem.
5. Pitted: extensive deposition of lignin on the inner side of
the cell wall that only small circular unthickened areas
called pits are present.

Quick Digest:
@ Nature of cell wall is fully permeable membrane except
cork (= phellem) cell wall; which is completely
impermeable due to deposition of suberin.
@ Cotton contains highest amount of cellulose (90%) in
biosphere.
@ Cellulose is most abundant carbohydrate of Biosphere.
@ Chitin is the second most abundant carbohydrate.
@ Lignin remains undegraded by methanogen (type of

Archaebacteria) during the formation of biogas.

@ Young meristematic parenchymatous cells have thinnest and
xylem vessels have thickest cell wall.

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 Cell membrane/Plasma membrane/Plasmalemma Complete Biology
2080

Take Your Notes:

C The cell membrane is also called cell surface (or) plasma

membrane.
C Biomembraneà cell membrane + membrane of cell
organelles.
C This membrane was also called:
• Cell membrane à C. Nageli and C. Crammer.

• Plasma membrane by Pfelffer.

• Plasmalemma by Plower.
C Functions:
• It is living, selectively or differentially permeable
membrane.
• Compartmentalization and protection
• Exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Osmosis, diffusion active and passive transport.
• Locomotion
• Receptor componentsà it acts as sensory surface à
responds to hormone, drugs, neurotransmitters etc.
• It helps in bulk transport by phagocytosis [IOM 2001],

pinocytosis [BPKIHS 2005] and exocytosis.

C Physical nature à Flexible, quasifluid, water insoluble,
highly dynamic and regenerative structure.

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C Membrane also occurs inside cytoplasm of eukaryotic cell as Complete Biology
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covering of several cell organelles.
C Thickness of plasma membrane is 75Å. Take Your Notes:
Different models on structure of plasma membrane
“Sandwitch or Trilamellar” model of Danielli and Davson
C Biomembrane contains four molecular layers, two of
phospholipid and two of proteins.
C Protein à internal and external
C Bilayered phospholipid à middle
C P-L-L-P model
C Total thickness = 75-80A°
C Proteins in this model are globular type.

Robertson’s concept of Unit membrane model:

C Proposed by à ……………………………..
C Model is similar to previous model except …………………

Figure: Unit membrane model

Fluid mosaic model of Singer and Nicolson:

C Most widely accepted model of membrane structure ………
C Proposed by ………………………………..and
……………………………………………..[IND. EMB.]

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C This model differs from previous model in arrangement of Complete Biology
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protein.
P – L – P – L OR L – P – L – P. Take Your Notes:
C "Protein iceberg in sea of lipid" meaning lipid form continuous
layer and protein molecules are randomly arranged.
C Proteins are
• Extrinsic (surface, 25%)

• Intrinsic (Inner, 75%)

• Tunnel (in between extrinsic and intrinsic).
ATPase
eg. of extrinsic
protein
Spectrin (Gives biconcave shape to
RBC)

Cytoch
rome
eg. of intrinsic Permease (Acts as carrier
protein
protein)
Rhodo
psin

C Proteins are globular type in this model.

C The rotational movement of lipid molecule is called ………
………………………………..

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 Complete Biology
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Take Your Notes:

Figure: Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane

C Quick Digest
@ Proteins in fluid mosaic model are globular type.
@ Singer and Nicolsson took the help of freeze-fracture
technique for Fluid Mosaic model.
@ Spectrin is extrinsic protein that gives biconcave shape to
RBC
@ All carrier proteins are intrinsic protein.
@ Proteins between intrinsic and extrinsic proteins are called
Tunnel proteins.
@ The rotational movement of lipid molecules is called Flip-
flop mechanism.

C Beside phospholipid and protein, membrane also consist of

carbohydrate in its outer surface.
C Carbohydrate is complexed with protein or lipid and form
glycoprotein or glycolipid respectively and form a covering
around the cell called glycocalyx.
C On the basis of specificity of these glycoprotein or glycolipid
cell apparently recognize one another.
C The characteristic of cell membrane to recognize their own
kind is significant in immune response, blood grouping and
rejection of transplant organ.

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C Note: Complete Biology
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@ In general protein > lipid in cell membrane but in myelin sheath; lipid
(75%) > protein (25%). Take Your Notes:
@ Fluidity and elasticity of cell membrane depends upon lipid.
@ Cholesterol maintain fluidity of cell membrane.

Bulk transport across plasma membrane:

C Active transport à 2 types
C Exocytosis: removal or cell……………
C Endocytosis: entry of materials into cell and is of two types:
C Pinocytosis:……………………………………………
C Phagocytosis:……………………………………………
Modifications of cell membrane:
1. Mesosome: ………………………………… ………
…………………………………………………………
2. Lomasome: …………………………………………… ………………

3. Junction complex: It is found only in multicellular organism for

cell adhesion.
4. Desmosome (=macula adherens): specialized for cell-to-cell
adhesion.
5. Gap Junction à communicating junctions. à allows various
molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly pass through
a regulated gate between cells.
6. Interdigitationà interlinking between two adjacent cells.
7. Microvilli: Finger like evaginations (outfolds) in cells of
digestive tract for ultra-absorption of liquids.

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 Complete Biology
Protoplasm (The physical basis of life) 2080
C Protoplasm is the living substance present in all living cells. Take Your Notes:
C Purkinje coined the term Protoplasm.
C Von Mohl proposed fundamental unit of life to protoplasm.
C Max Schultz proposed protoplasmic theory ………………
C Huxley defined it as ……………………………………
……………………………………….
C Protoplasm = ………………………….. + ……………
C Best material to study protoplasm is …………………
C Protoplasm is the highly organised and most active chemical
system of nature with maximum energy conversion.
C The major organic constitutent of protoplasm is protein.
C The major inorganic constitutent of protoplasm is water.
C Constituent elements of protoplasm by weight.
C Oxygen 62% High
C Carbon 20%
C Hydrogen 10%
C Nitrogen 3% Low
C Protoplasm exists in two different forms à Sol (Inner) «
Gel (outer)
C Sol-gel interconversion is because of colloidal nature of
protoplasm.
C The conversion of plasmasol into plasmagel is a physio-
chemical phenomenon.

@ Note:
@ Protoplasm coagulates at above 60° or when treated with
concentrated acids/bases. [IOM 1996]

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 @ Protoplasm = cytoplasm + nucleus. Complete Biology
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@ Living beings differ from non-living in having protoplasm.
Take Your Notes:
@ Best material to study protoplasm is slime mould because of absence
of cell wall.

Cytoplasm:
C Cytoplasm is bulk of protoplasm excluding the nucleus.
Matrix
Cytoplasm consists of Cell organelles

Cell inclusions

C Deutoplasm is the non-living substance formed by the

protoplasm during metabolism, e.g. lipid droplets, yolk etc.

Figure: Cell organelles

@ Quick Digest
@ Largest cell component is nucleus.
@ Smallest cell component is peroxisome.

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 @ Largest cell organelle in plant – chloroplast. Complete Biology
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@ Largest cell organelle in animal – mitochondria.
@ 2nd Largest cell organelle in plant – mitochondria. Take Your Notes:
@ Smallest cell organelle is ribosome.
@ Smallest cell organelle with membrane is lysosome.

Cell Organelles
Endomembrane System
C The endomembrane system (endo- = “within”) is a group of
membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works
together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins.
C Comprises the plasma membrane, nuclear membrane,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and
vacuolar membranes (tonoplast).
C Endomembranes are made up of phospholipids with embedded
proteins that are similar to cell membrane which occur within
the cytoplasm.

Figure: Endomembrane System of Cell

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 Endoplasmic Reticulum Complete Biology
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C The largest of the internal membranes is à
C Discovered byà Take Your Notes:
C The name endoplasmic reticulum was given by à
C The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of much
branched, elaborate system of membrane bound cavities or
lumens, extending from nucleus to plasma membrane within the
cytoplasm.
C Found in the cytoplasm of all ……………………except:

Mammal's RBC
• Some eukaryotic cell Egg
Embryonic cell

C In electron micrographs, the cross-section of the endoplasmic

reticulum appears as two parallel membranes separated by a
narrow light space about 4 nm wide.

Figure: Endoplasmic Reticulum

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 @ Quick Digest Complete Biology
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@ Cisternae is not parallel in ER but they are parallel
in Golgi bodies. Take Your Notes:
@ ER forms more than 50% of total membranes in the
eukaryotic cells and occupies 10% of total cell
volume.
@ The broken part of ER produced during
ultracentrifugation is called microsome.
@ Nissl's granules is modification of RER / ribosome.
Nissl's granules are rich in RNA followed by protein.
@ Special type of ER in skeletal muscle cells are called
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (involves in release of Ca++)
@ RER in association with golgi complex gives rise to
lysosome.

C Unit membrane of all cavities of the ER appears to be

interconnected.
C The ER joins on one end with the nuclear membrane and on the
other end with the plasma membrane
C Their ends are never open to the cytoplasm.
C Endoplasmic reticulum is more developed in young cells.
C On the basis of morphology, endoplasmic reticulum is made up
of 3 type of structures:
1. Cisternae : These are long, flat, unbranched sheet-like sacs
running parallel to each other
2. Vesicles: These are oval or rounded sacs which appears as
small vacuoles. They remains isolated in cytoplasm and are
also called microsomes.
3. Tubules: They are tube like extensions which may be
connected with cisterna or vesicles to form reticular system.

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 Types of ER Complete Biology
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Rough ER
C The rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) gets its name Take Your Notes:
from the bumpy ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface.
C As these ribosomes make proteins, they feed the newly forming
protein chains into the lumen.
C Some proteins are transferred fully into the ER and float
inside, while others are anchored in the membrane.
C Inside the ER, the proteins fold and undergo modifications,
such as the addition of carbohydrate side chains. These
modified proteins will be incorporated into
o Cellular membranes
o Membrane of the ER or those of other organelles
o Or secreted from the cell.
C If the modified proteins are not destined to stay in the ER,
they will be packaged into vesicles, or small spheres of
membrane that are used for transport, and shipped to the Golgi
apparatus.
C The rough ER also makes phospholipids for other cellular
membranes, which are transported when the vesicle forms.
C Since the rough ER helps modify proteins that will be secreted

from the cell, cells whose job is to secrete large amounts of

enzymes or other proteins, such as liver cells, have lots of
rough ER.
Smooth ER
C The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) is continuous

with the rough ER but has few or no ribosomes on its

cytoplasmic surface. Functions of the smooth ER include:
• Synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones

• Detoxification of medications and poisons

• Storage of calcium ions

C In muscle cells, a special type of smooth ER called the

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 sarcoplasmic reticulum is responsible for storage of calcium Complete Biology
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ions which are needed to trigger the coordinated contractions
of muscle fibers. Take Your Notes:
C There are also tiny "smooth" patches of ER found within the
rough ER. These patches serve as exit sites for vesicles
budding off from the rough ER and are called transitional ER
Difference between RER and SER
RER SER
• Forms 2/3rd of total ER • Forms 1/3rd of total ER
• 80s ribosomes are • Lacks attached
attached by their largest ribosomes.
subunit with the help of
glycoprotein called
Ribophorin [IND. EMB.]
• Mainly consists of • Mainly consists of
cisternae and a few network of tubules and
tubules. vesicles.
• Arises from nuclear • Arises from RER.
membrane.
• Function: protein • Function: lipid
synthesis and metabolism.
glycosylation.

SER in liver cell helps in ddetoxification of harmful chemicals,

glycogenesis and glycogenolysis.
@ Glycogenesis: Formation of glycogen from glucose.
@ Glycogenolysis: Breakdown of glycogen into glucose

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 Functions of ER Complete Biology
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1. Support: By dividing the fluid content of the cell into
compartments, the ER provides supplementary mechanical Take Your Notes:
support for the colloidal structure of the cytoplasm.
2. Synthesis of proteins: ER is associated with the ribosomes and
thus it plays a fundamental role in the storage and processing
of proteins.
3. Circulation: It act as mean of quick intracellular transport
of various substances.
4. Synthesis of lipids: SER manufactures different types of
lipids, including cholesterol.
5. Detoxification: The SER brings about detoxification of many
endogenous and exogenous compounds.
6. Storage of glycogen: SER forms fine tubules in regions rich in
glycogen.
7. Formation of nuclear membrane and cell membrane, so called
membrane factory of cell.
8. Formation of vacuoles, lysosomes, glyoxysome, golgi bodies,
exine of pollen grain.
The Golgi Complex
C Discovered by:…………………………………
C In plant cells they are termed as dictyosomes.
C Golgi apparatus is a stack of flat membrane enclosed sacs.
C It is absent in all prokaryotic cell and some eukaryotic cells
like …………………………………………
C Golgi complex is morphologically very similar in both plant and
animal cells however, in plant cells Golgi complex is formed of
number of unconnected units called dictyosome.
C Golgi apparatus is made up of following three membranous
components:

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1. Cisternae: It form the central or flattend or disc-shaped part Complete Biology
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of Golgi body. They appear like stacks of parallel double
membranes or lamellae. Take Your Notes:
• Margins of each cisterna are gently curved to give
polarity to Golgi apparatus.
• One face of the apparatus is convex called forming face
while the other is concave known as maturing face. This
polarization is often referred to as the cis-trans axis of the
Golgi complex.
• The forming face receive (transitional) vesicles from ER.
The content pass through various cisternae and reach
maturing face.
• Maturing face, which is generally towards the plasma
membrane gives out these content in the form of Golgian
vacuoles having transformed material.
2. Tubules: These are found in clusters and arise from the
periphery of cisternae.
3. Vesicles: Vesicles are small sacs found attached to the tips of
tubules.
• They are of two types, i.e., smooth and coated.
• The coated (= rough) vesicles elaborate proteins and are
found at the ends of cisternae.
• The smooth vesicles contain secretory substances and
therefore called the secretion vesicles.

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 Complete Biology
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Take Your Notes:

Figure: Golgi apparatus

Functions of Golgi apparatus

1. Secretion: Helps in secretion and storage of secretion.
• That is why Golgi bodies are found in larger numbers in
secretory cells.
2. Cell plate formation: Vesicles of Golgi complex separate out
from the main body and collect in the cell plate region and form
a new cell plate.
3. Cell wall formation: Polysaccharides (hemicellulose and
pectin) are synthesized in the Golgi apparatus and then
transported by vesicles to the cell surface.
4. Production of hormones: In the endocrine glands of animals
the Golgi bodies help in the secretion of hormones.
5. Formation of acrosome during spermatogenesis
6. Helps in Glycosylation and glycosylation
Protein + carbohydrate Glycosylation Glycoprotein

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 Lipid + carbohydrate Glycosidation Glycolipid. Complete Biology
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Lysosome (polymorphic organelle) Take Your Notes:

C Also called à ……………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………
C Discovered by …………………………………………
C Structure:

• Spherical bodies enclosed by the single unit membrane.

• Containing a number of hydrolytic enzymes that are
active at an acidic pH.
• Hydrolytic enzymes or acid-hydrolases are active in acidic
medium.
• The membrane of lysosome is resistant to the enzymes that
it encloses (protects the rest of the)
C They contain about 50 different kinds of powerful
hydrolytic digestive enzymes.
C The pH lysosome is about 5, substantially less than that of
the cytosol pH 7.2.

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 Complete Biology
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Take Your Notes:

C All the enzymes in the lysosome work, best at an acidic pH.

This reduces the risk of digesting their own cells in case they
escape from the lysosomes.
C Lysosomes are of four types:
1. Primary (1°) lysosome (=storage granules): Newly formed
from golgi bodies.
2. Secondary (2°) lysosome (=heterophagosomes): Primary
lysosome + food vacuole.
3. Residual body: lysosome with undigested food material.
4.Autophagic lysosome (=autophagosomes= cytolysosomes):
When lysosome digest cell organelle.
Functions of Lysosome
C Intracellular digestion: digest food obtained from phagosomes.
C Extracellular digestion: release enzyme outside through
exocytosis to perform extracellular digestion.
C Autolysis: In case of disease the lysosomes destroy the
cells.
C Fertilization: Head of sperms contains a packet of lysosomal
enzymes, called acrosome, which digest the outer covering of
the egg leaving a hole through which the sperm can reach the
egg nucleus.
C Trigger of cell division

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 Complete Biology
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Vacuole
C Vacuoles are membrane bound space found inside cytoplasm. Take Your Notes:
C Single membrane surrounding vacuole is called
………………………. and is ……………………..
C Commonly found only in mature plant.
C Occupy up to 90% of the volume of matured plant cell.
C Known as storehouses or repositories of the cells.
C The fluid present inside vacuole is called
……………………………..
C Reserve food material found in vacuole is inulin (fructose)
soluble.
C Vacuole contains a water soluble pigment
………………………………...[NEET 2016]
C Anthocyanin pigment is also called vegetable chamelion.
C Anthocyanin acts as a shield for chloroplast and protoplasm
from strong sunlight.
Quick Digest:
@ Red colour of rose and purple colour of beet root (Beta

vulgaris) is due to Anthocyanin pigment. [IE 2003]

@ UV rays stimulate formation of Anthocyanin pigment.
@ The most common element in vacuole is K+.
@ Vacuole helps in Osmoregulation.
@ Gas vacuoles present in some prokaryotes regulate buoyancy
of the cell.
Mitochondria
C Concerned principally with the generation of energy (power
house or ATP mills of cells)
C Rudolph Kolliker ………………………………………

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C The term "Mitochondria" was coined by Benda. Complete Biology
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C Altman used the term bioplast for mitochondria.
Take Your Notes:
C Also called as endosymbiont of cell or prokaryotic cell within
eukaryotic cell or cell within cell.
Ultrastructure
C The envelop à is made up of a double unit membrane
C The space between the two membrane à inter membranous
space or perimitochondrial space.

Figure: Mitochondria (Animal)

Quick Digest
@ Mitochondria are stained with Janus green B stain (=vital

stain) which imparts green color to mitochondria without

killing them.
@ All enzymes of respiratory chain (Electron Transport System)
and oxidative phosphorylation are present on the cristae.
[NEET 2019, IOM]
@ Enzymes of Krebs cycle are found in matrix of mitochondria
except Succinic dehydrogenase which remains bounded with
inner membrane of mitochondria.
@ Mitochondria are absent in all prokaryotes
@ Present in all eukaryotes except mature mammalian RBC,
sieve tube of phloem.
@ Matrix of mitochondria is rich in Mn++.

31
@ Oxysomes are called functional unit of mitochondria. Complete Biology
2080
@ About 70% of total cell enzymes are found in mitochondria.
Take Your Notes:
[BPKIHS 2005, NEET 2016]
@ Mitochondria and chloroplast are semi-autonomous organelles
which contains DNA, RNA and ribosomes. [NEET 2016, BPKIHS]

C The outer membrane has porinsà freely permeable to small

.
C Intermembranous space has composition similar to the
……………………………………..
C The inner membrane is folded inwards forming partition called
………………………………………….
C Cristae contains many tennis-racket like small particles
called F1 particles or elementary particles or inner membrane
subunits or oxysomes. [IOM 2016]

Figure: Molecular organization of inner membrane of

mitochondria and Oxysome

C Each particle have ………………………………………

and play an important role in oxidations and phosphorylation

32
 reactions. [IOM 2015] Complete Biology
2080
C All enzymes of respiratory chain (Electron Transport System
Take Your Notes:
= ETS) and oxidative phosphorylation are present on the
cristae.
C Mitochondrial matrix has all enzymes of Krebs' cycle, DNA
(double-stranded and circular), ribosomes and RNA. [IOM
1996,1997]
• DNA is simple, circular, double stranded.
• Ribosomes are 70s type. [IOM 2007, 1995]
• Also called Endosymbionts of cell or prokaryotic cell
within eukaryotic cell or cell within cell.
C Mitochondria are semiautonomous, self-replicating, and divide
to increase in number. They contain their own genetic system
which is separate and distinct from the nuclear genome of the
cell. [NEET 2019]
Function of mitochondria:
C Power houses of the eukaryotic cells à ATP is synthesized
from ADP (oxidative phosphorylation).
C Take part in maternal inheritance
C Biosynthesis of many amino acids.
Plastids
C Mainly found in plants and certain protists, absent in fungi,
blue green algae and bacteria.
C Schimper used the word "plastid" for organelle involved in
synthesis and storage of carbohydrates.
C All plastids develop from proplastids (=Eoplast).
C Three main types à Leucoplast, chloroplast and chromoplasts.

33
 Complete Biology
2080

Take Your Notes:

Figure: Development and interconversion of Plastids

C Proplastids à various types of plastids according to the need
of differentiated cells.
• Photosynthetic cells à …………………………… This change
occurs only in presence of light.
• If plants are kept in darkà differentiation is arrested at
an intermediate stage called ………………………
• If dark grown plants are then exposed to light, the
etioplasts continue their development into chloroplast.
• Storage cellsà………………………………………..
• Colored cellà ……………………………………..
• Each plastids can change from one type to another.
Leucoplast
C Colourless, largest à found in underground parts (unexposed
parts).
C Function: Storage of reserve food material.
1. Amyloplast: Stores Starch, e.g. Potato, Rice, wheat
2. Proteinoplast / Aleuronoplast: Stores protein, e.g. Maize
3. Elaioplast/oleosome: Stores oil / fat, e.g. Ricinus (castor
seeds)
Chromoplasts
C Plastids with a dominance of red and yellow pigments are
called ……………………….

34
C As fruits ripen on trees and leaves prepare to fall in the end Complete Biology
2080
of summer, the chloroplasts change from green to red, orange
or yellow pigments known as the carotenoids. Take Your Notes:
C Other coloured plastids are:
i. Rhodoplastà ………………………………………
ii. Phaeoplastà ………………………………………
Chloroplast:
C Discovered by Sachs but named chloroplasts by Schimper.
C These are green plastids usually found in mesophyll cells of
leaves and chlorenchyma cells in stems.
Note:
@ No. of chloroplast is maximum in: mesophyll cells of leaf.

C Common in all photosynthetic organism except ……………

…………………………………………..
C In photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria pigments are
found in chromatophore.
C Discoid or tablet shaped chloroplast is usually present in
higher plant.
Different shape of chloroplast:
@ Cup shaped : Chlamydomonas, Chlorella.
@ Spiral/Ribbon Shaped : Spirogyra [IOM]
@ Girdle or Ring or collar or horse shoe shaped: Ulothrix
@ Reticulate : Oedogonium.
@ Stellate or star shaped : Zygnema (double star)
@ Discoid shaped : Vaucheria, Chara @ VCD
@ Biconvex/oval shaped : in higher plant

Structure of chloroplast:

35
 Complete Biology
2080

Take Your Notes:

Figure: Chloroplast

C Chloroplast has a double membrane; the outer membrane and

the inner membrane separated by a space
called ……………………………………..
C The space enclosed by the inner membrane of chloroplast is
filled with gelatinous matrix, lipo-proteinaceous fluid
called ……………………….
C Inside the stroma there is flat interconnected sacs
called ………………………..
C The membrane of thylakoid enclose a space called thylakoid
lumen.
C Grana (singular: Granum) are formed when many of these
thylakoids are stacked together like pile of coins.
C Light is absorbed and converted into chemical energy in the
granum, which is used in stroma to prepare carbohydrates.
C Different grana are connected with the help of tubular
connections called stroma lamellae or frets. Each chloroplast
contains 40-60 grana.
C Membrane of grana lamellae is made up of proteins and
phospholipids and contains chlorophyll and carotenoids.
C Inner wall of thylakoids contains small granules called

36
 quantasomes. Quantasomes are the smallest, morphologically Complete Biology
2080
distinct and photosynthetically functional units.
C Each quantasome has about 230 chlorophyll molecules. Take Your Notes:
Structure chlorophyll molecule: See chapter; Photosynthesis
Lomasomes
C It is present in between cell wall and cell membrane of fungal
hyphae.
C It is probably responsible for laying down the cell wall.

Microbodies
C Microbodies are variety of small, spherical, single unit
membrane-bound bodies in plant and animal cells.
1. Peroxisomes/Uricosomes
• Term peroxisomes was given due to their significant
peroxidative activity.
• These are small spherical bodies found in all eukaryotic
cells.
• Contents enzyme for the formation and breakdown of each to
H2O2.
• In plants, peroxisomes contains the enzyme glycolic acid
oxidase associated with……………………………….
• In animals helps in ………………………………..of fat
(conversion of fatty acid into Acetyl CoA).
• Enzyme present in peroxisomes are catalase and peroxidases.
2. Glyoxysomes

• Glyoxysomes are special plant organelles involved in the

metabolism of stored lipids.
• Usually found in castor bean seeds which store fats as a
reserve material.
• Largest of all microbodies.

37
 • Contains enzymes of a β-oxidation of fatty acids and for Complete Biology
2080
glyoxylate cycle.
Take Your Notes:
• Contain catalase and also called “ Highly specialized
peroxisomes”.
• Acetyl CoA (end product of β- o0xidation) is converted
through enzymes of glyoxysomes into carbohydrates. Thus
involved into gluconeogenesis.
3. Sphaerosomes:
• In seeds of some plants, e.g. in castor bean seeds, the

reserve material is stored in lipid-containing bodies known as

sphaerosomes.
• They are considered homologous to lysosomes of animal

cell.
• They differ from lysosome in their specific lipidic nature.

• Their main functions are collection, translocation and

synthesis of fatty substances.

Transosome
C It is triple membrane bounded cell organelle found in ovarian
follicle of bird and takes part in synthesis of yolk (=
vitellogenesis).
C Note: In other animal vitellogenesis takes place with the help
of Golgi bodies.

Cilia and Flagella

C Microtubular projection from cell
C Common in protozoans
C Absent in plant cells except motile cells
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic flagella/cilia
flagella/cilia

38
 Complete Biology
2080

Take Your Notes:

Cell Organelles without Unit Membrane

Ribosome
C Non-membranous, smallest cell organelle
C Foundà both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, chloroplast,
mitochondria and nucleus.
C Ribosomes contain ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and many ribosomal
proteins.
C The r-RNA is synthesized by DNA in the nucleolus. [KU 2010]

39
C Reported by ………………………in animal cells à Complete Biology
2080
awarded Nobel Prize.
Take Your Notes:
C Ribosomes are either bound on the wall of endoplasmic
reticulum or are present freely in cytoplasm (free
ribosomes).
C Ribosomes are the site of …………………………..
C Free ribosomes synthesis structural and enzymatic protein
used inside the cell while the attached ribosome synthesis
protein for transport.

Prokaryotic ribosome Eukaryotic ribosome

Figure: Types of Ribosomes

Quick Digest:
@ Ribosomes are unmembranous, electron microscopic and most
abundant cytoplasmic organelle.
@ The smallest membrane bounded cell organelle is lysosome.
@ Ribosomes are formed inside Nucleolus.
@ Ribosomes are isolated from other cell organelle by
fractionation and ultra-centrifugation.
@ Ribosome helps in protein synthesis.
40 [MOE 2000,
2002,2008,2009, IOM 2012]
 Complete Biology
2080

Take Your Notes:

v On the basis of sedimentation coefficient they are of two

types:
1. 70S Ribosome: Smaller in size and their sedimentation

coefficient is 70S.
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell ……………
…………
30s has single r-RNA
Sub-units
50s has two r-RNA

2. 80S Ribosome: Sedimentation coefficient is 80S and are

found in eukaryotic cells. [KU 2014, 2003]
Freesynthesize non secretory non export
protein
RER are
C Both parts of a ribosome synthesize
attachedsecretory
togetherexport
withprotein
the help
40s has single r-RNA
………………………………
ofSub-units 60s has 3 r-RNA
...
C Polyribosomes (=polysomes) à …………………………
…………………………………………………………
[NEET 2016, 18, BPKIHS, IE 2002]
Centrosome (=cell centre)
C Centrosome lies just outside the nuclear envelope at one pole
in the cytoplasm of interphasic cell.
C Present in animals and some algae, fungi, moss and fern.

41
C Centrosome contains centrioles, a pair of small granules or Complete Biology
2080
short rods.
Take Your Notes:

Figure: Centrioles and T.S. of centriole

C Each centrosome is made up of two ………………………………

C Two centrioles of a pair are called diplosome (situated at an
angle of 90° with one another).
C Each centriole is comprised of nine sets of ………………………….
C Each triplet contains three ………………………...
C Strands of material extend inward from each tubule and join
together at the central hub.
C There is a clear area around the centrioles which is called
centrosphere.
C The centrioles and centrosphere together constitute the
microcentrum or centrosome.
C Around centrosphere are found rays radiating in all directions
and called aster (= Astrosphere).
C At the time of mitosis, centrosome ………
…………………………………………………………
Quick Digest:
@ Centrioles + centrosphere (space surrounding centriole) =

42
 centrosome. Complete Biology
2080
@ Arrangement of microtubules in the centrioles as well as
centrosome is 9 + 0. Take Your Notes:
@ Aster rays arises from centrosphere.
@ Replication of centrosome i.e. centriole occurs during S-phase
of interphase.
@ Division of centrosome occurs during prophase.
@ When a centriole is attached at the base of cilia or flagella,
it is called as basal body / blepharoplasts / kinetosome /
basal granules and also show 9 + 0 arrangement of microtubule
triplets.
@ Basal bodies are found in algae, motile spores of fungi
(zoospore), antherozoids of Bryophytes and Pteridophytes.

Cytoskeleton structure
C Electron microscope confirms the presence of cytoskeleton
within the cytoplasmic matrix.
C They are tubular structure which forms the structural
framework within the cell.
C They maintain shape of the cell and its extension.
C Cytoskeleton are of following types.
1. Microtubules:
• Elongated, tube like (hollow), unbranched cylindrical
structures.
• Each microtubule shows ………………………………
• Chemically each protofilament is made up of
……………… protein.
• Found in many plant and animal cells, i.e., centrioles, cilia
and flagella, spindle fibres (in plants), basal body. [NEET

43
 2016] Complete Biology
2080

2. Microfilaments: Take Your Notes:

• Long, cylindrical, solid, proteinaceous rods.
• Made up of protein …………………………………
• Helps in ……………………………………………
…… …………
3. Intermediate filaments:
• Made up of structural proteins, i.e., keratin, vimentin and
desmin.
• Helps nucleus in maintaining its position within the cell.

Nucleus (= the control centre of the cell)

C Nucleus was discovered by ………………………………
in root cell of orchid.
C They are also called controlling center of cell/brain of
cell/director of cell.
C Important function of the nucleus is that it is the carrier of
parental characters to offspring.
C The nucleus determines morphological character of cell and
ultimately of individual was proved by Hammerling's on the
basis of his studies on algae Acetabularia.
Quick Digest:
@ Nucleus is largest component of cell.
@ The synonym term of nucleus is Karyon and branch dealing
with its study is called karyology.
@ It is present in all eukaryotic cell with exception of matured
sieve cells of vascular plants, red blood corpuscles of
mammals which have nucleus only during early stage of their
development.

44
@ Well organized nucleus is absent in bacteria and blue green Complete Biology
2080
algae.
Number of Nucleus per cell: Take Your Notes:
C Usually there is a single nucleus per cell, i.e., mononucleate
condition.

C Binucleated cell is present in Paramecium Dimorphic

nucleus
2° mycelium of
Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes

C Certain cells may contains many nucleus (=Multinucleated

cell).
• In animal, the multinucleate cells are called as syncytial
cells. These are formed due to loss of cell boundaries
during the course of development.
fused

(Syncyte)

Bone marrow
Example: Striated muscles
Ascaris (Epidermis)

• The multinucleate cells of plant represents a coenocytes

which is usually formed due to rapid nuclear division
without cytokinesis.

Repeated nuclear
Division (Coenocyte)

Hyphae of phycomycetes Botrydium

Example: Xanthophyceae

45 Vaucheria
Latex cells
 Complete Biology
2080

Take Your Notes:

• In some cells as sieve tubes of plants and mammalian

erythrocytes nucleus is present at early stage but
degenerates at maturity.
Note: mammalian RBC with nucleus: Camel, Lama

Chemical Composition of Nucleus

v Chemically nucleus consists of :
1. Protein — 80%
a) Non-histones — 70%
b) Histones — 10%
2. DNA — 9-12%
3. RNA — 5%
4. Lipids —3-5%
5. Residual matter Mg, K, Na — 2-3%

Structure of Nucleus

46
 Complete Biology
2080

Take Your Notes:

Figure: Nucleus

C The nucleus can be distinguished into four parts:

1. Nuclear membrane = Nuclear envelope = Karyotheca.
2. Nuclear sap = Nucleoplasm = Karyolymph
3. Nucleolus
4. Chromatin threads or chromosomes

Nuclear envelope:

C Nucleus is surrounded on all sides by a membrane called

nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope, made up of two unit
membranes (bilayered).
C The two membrane is separated by perinuclear space or
cisterna of 100-150 A0 width.
• Outer membrane is covered with the ribosomes and shows

structural continuity with the endoplasmic reticulum at

some places.
• Inner nuclear membrane is internally supported by

fibrous structure of uniform thickness, which is known as

fibrous lamina/Honey comb layer or internal dense

47
 lamella. Complete Biology
2080
C In addition to providing structural support to the nucleus, the
nuclear lamina is thought to serve as a site of chromatin Take Your Notes:
attachment.
C The nuclear membrane has minute octagonal pore enclosed by
circular structures called annuli. The pores and annuli are
together designated as pore complex.
C Pore complex takes part in exchange of different substances
between nucleus and cytoplasm.
C This channel contains a protein nucleoplasmin which
facilitates the nucleocytoplasmic traffic through the pore.

Nucleoplasm/Nuclear sap/Karyoplasm/Karyolymph:
C The nucleoplasm is that part of the protoplasm which is
enclosed by nuclear membrane.
C It is semi-solid granular substance and is also called

karyolymph.
C Large number of ribosomes, chromatin threads and nucleolus

are embedded in nucleoplasm.

C Besides ribosomes and chromatin the nucleoplasm also contains

histone and non-histone proteins, lipids, enzymes and minerals

and nucleic acid in the form of nucleoproteins and confined to
chromatin network.
C Minerals like phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, sodium are

also present in traces.

Nucleolus:
C The nucleolus is a dark amorphous body suspended in the

nucleoplasm.
C It was first discovered by Fontana but the term nucleolus was

given by Bowman.
Note:
@ Usually one nucleolus is present in each nucleus but
sometimes more than one nucleoli are present, e.g. in the

48
 nucleus of onion. Complete Biology
2080
@ If more than one nucleoli are seen in the nucleus of a cell
then there will be the possibility of the presence of false Take Your Notes:
nucleoli along with true nucleoli.
C Nucleolus is attached to specific region of a particular

chromosomes, this region is called nucleolar organizer or

secondary constriction.
C It is made up of following components:

1. An amorphous matrix: It is homogeneous substance having

protein granules and fibrils scattered in it (Pars amorpha).
2. Granular portion: It is made up ribonucleoprotein granules
(rRNA and protein present in the ratio of 2:). These are
thought to be precursors of ribosomes and sometimes called
nucleolar ribosomes.
3. Fibrillar portion: It is made up of ribonucleoprotein.
4. Chromatin: It is feulgen positive and represented by
chromatic material.
• Perinucleolar chromatin: It surrounds nucleolus like a
shell.
• Intranucleolar chromatin: Tubules projecting into
nucleolus.

C Function of nucleolus: Nucleolus is the site of r-RNA

transcription and processing and of ribosome assembly. It is a
ribosome production factory designed to fulfil the need for
large scale production of r-RNAs and assembly of ribosomal
subunits.
C Chemical Composition of Nucleolus
• Protein — 84%
• DNA — 5%
• RNA — 11%

49
 Chromatin threads: Complete Biology
2080
C The nucleoplasm contains several fine thread like basophilic
structures scattered in it, which are known as chromatin Take Your Notes:
fibres. These can be seen only during interphase.
C During mitosis or meiosis these threads become thick and
conspicuous and are then called as chromosomes.
C On the basis of their staining properties two types of chromatin
materials have been identified viz.
C Heterochromatin: These are dark staining and condensed
regions of chromatin, which can be identified by acetocaramine
or Feulgen stain.
• These regions are sometimes called as chromocentres or
karyosomes or false nucleoli.
• Heterochromatin occurs around the nucleolus and at the
periphery of nucleus and contains relatively small
amounts of DNA and large amount of RNA (= metabolically
and genetically inactive).
• Heterochromatin is of two types, i.e.,
a. Constitutive heterochromatin is found in those regions of
chromosomes which are proximal to centromere and are con-
stant, thus, serve as chromosome markers. Constitutive DNA is
highly repetitive and it was originally called as satellite
DNA.
b. Facultative heterochromatin is represented by sex chromosomes
which becomes heterochromatic only at certain stages.

Heterochromatin Euchromatin
It stains dark and appears It is light stained
condensed and appears
diffused

50
 Amount of DNA is less than Contains relatively Complete Biology
2080
euchromatin larger amount
of DNA Take Your Notes:
Late replicating, i.e., Replicates during
replicates at the end of s- early stage of
phase S-phase
It is affected by age of Relatively stable
parents, sex, temperature and not
etc influenced by
such factors
Genetically and metabolically Contains more gene
less active so more active
More unstable More stable
Cross over frequency is less Cross over
frequency is
more
C Euchromatin: It is the light stained and diffused region of the
chromatin which contains relatively larger amounts of DNA
and is genetically as well as metabolically active.

Function of nucleus:
C Controls the cell metabolism
C Plays an important role in heredity
C Required for cell division
Chromosomes
See genetics
Quick Digest
Organelles Functions
Rough endoplasmic 1.Synthesis of proteins
reticulum 2.Degradation of worn out
organelles
Rough endoplasmic 1.Synthesis of lipids and steroids.

51
 reticulum 2.Role in cellular metabolism Complete Biology
2080
3.Storage and metabolism of
calcium Take Your Notes:
4.Catabolism and detoxification
of toxic substances
Golgi apparatus 1.Processing, packaging,
labelling and delivery of
proteins and lipids
Lysosomes 1.Degradation of macromolecules
2.Degradation of worn out
organelles.
3.Removal of excess of
secretory products
4. Secretion of perforin,
granzynes, melanin and
serotonin.
Peroxisomes 1.Breakdown of excess fatty
acids
2.Detoxification of H202 and
other metabolic products
3.oxygen utilization
4.Degradation of purine to uric
acids
5.Role in formation of myelin and
bile acids
Centrosomes 1.Movement of chromosome
during cell division
Mitochondria 1. Production of energy
2.Synthesis of ATP
3.Initiation of apoptosis
Ribosomes 1.Synthesis of proteins
Cytoskeleton 1.Determination of shape of the
cells

52
 2.Stability of cell shape Complete Biology
2080
3.Cellular movements
Nucleus 1.Control of all activities of the Take Your Notes:
cell
2.synthesis of RNA
3.Sending genetic information to
cytoplasm for protein synthesis
4. Formation of subunit of
ribosomes
5.Control of cell division
6.Storage of hereditary
information in genes(DNA)

Cell inclusions / Ergastic substances

C Non-living material produced, due to metabolic activities in the
cells.
C Includesà reserve food material, secretory products and
excretory substance and inorganic crystals.
Reserve food material:
C These materials are synthesized in the plant body from CO2
and H20 and accumulate in the cells. They can be divided into
the following groups:
1. Carbohydrates (Saccharides)
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds containing carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen
• These are produced in green parts of plants by
photosynthesis.
• Some carbohydrates are soluble in water while others are
insoluble.

53
 • Depending on their structure, following are the main Complete Biology
2080
carbohydrates :
a. Monosaccharides (Simple sugars): Soluble in water and sweet Take Your Notes:

in taste.
• Glucose (C6H12O6), a hexose, is one of the first products
of photosynthesis and is present in all green plants.
• Fructose (C6H12O6) is found in fruits
• Other hexoses are mannose and galactose.

b. Disaccharides: Disaccharides consist two monosaccharides

linked together by glycosidic bonds.
• It is found in storage organs, e.g. sugarcane and sugar
beet.
• Example; sucrose (= cane-sugar). Besides sucrose the
other common disaccharides are maltose and lactose.
Note:
@ The primary members of carbohydrates, e.g. monosaccharides
and disaccharides are referred to as sugars because they are
sweet in taste.
c. Polysaccharides: These are the largest and most complex

carbohydrates, which are long chains of many

monosaccharides. Important polysaccharides are:
• Starch: in plant cells.
• Inulin (Dahlia starch): in root tubers of Dahlia.
• Glycogen: in animal cells and fungi.
• Aleurone grains: in endosperm of cereal grains.
• Cellulose: a constituent of cell wall. Cotton fibres and
paper are cellulose.
Note: Largest starch grain is found in Canna and Smallest in rice.
2. Lipids

54
 • All living plant cells contain lipids (fats and fat-like Complete Biology
2080
substances) in their cytoplasm and in some cells, fatty
Take Your Notes:
compounds are present in the cell walls.
• Cutin and suberin are lipid materials that function in

protecting the plant against excessive water loss.

3. Nitrogenous Matter:
• Proteins: Present in the protoplasm of all living cells.
Cytochromes which are essential for electron transport
are made up of iron and proteins. All proteins are formed
of 20 different units, the amino acids.
• Amides: Asparagine and glutanine are the examples. They
are present in aleurone grains in the form of storage
granules. Aleurone grains are present in all cereal grains
below the seed coat.
Secretory Products:
1. Colouring matter (Pigments): May be water-soluble pigments

(=usually found in vacuoles) and lipid-soluble pigments

(=occur in the plastids).
• Anthocyanins and anthoxanthins are vacuolar pigments.
• The principal pigment in the chloroplasts of higher plants
are the green chlorophylls, chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-
b and the yellow & red carotenoides, the carotenes and the
xanthophylls.
2. Enzymes: are organic proteinaceous catalysts.
3. Nectar: sweet substance secreted by different parts of the
flower. This is a mixture of sucrose, glucose and fructose.
Nectar helps in pollination by attracting insects.

Excretory products:
v These substances are produced as a result of metabolism and

55
 are of no use to plants. Complete Biology
2080
v Plants eliminate these substances by removal of old leaves,

bark and flowers. Take Your Notes:

v Chief excretory products of plants are:

1. Alkaloids: These are nitrogen containing substance; insoluble

in water but are soluble in alcohol. Some alkaloids are used
as medicines, e.g. ,
Alkalloids Source Used in
Quinine bark of Cinchona Medicine for
malaria
Reserpine roots of Sarpgandha Medicine for
(Rauwolffia reducing blood
serpentina) pressure).

Nicotine leaves of tobacco Acts as narcotic

Caffeine roasted seeds of Activates nervous
coffee (Coffea system and
arabica) relieves pain).

Strychnine seeds of nux vomica Provides strength

(Strychnos nux-vomica) to body
Morphine unripe fruits of poppy- Used as pain
(Papaver somniferum reliever and Helps
in sound sleep
(Opium)
Atropine roots of Atropa Activates
belladona. sympathetic
nervous system,
dilates the pupils
of eyes

2. Glucosides: produced by degradation of carbohydrates and

some are used as medicines.

56
 • Digitoxin, a glucoside used for heart diseases, is obtained Complete Biology
2080
from Digitalis purpurea.
3. Tannins: found in vacuolar sap, cell wall, bark and leaves. Take Your Notes:
They are found mostly in unripe fruits and decrease as the
fruit ripens.
4. Latex: It is colloidal substance used in healing of wounds in
plants.
• Rubber of commerce is made from latex of Hevea brasilensis
(Para rubber).
• Some other example of rubber are:
• Manihot ® cera rubber
• Ficus elastica ® Indian rubber
• Castella elastica ® panama rubber

• Latex of papaya contains enzyme papain.

• Papain helps in protein digestion.
• Latex of banana contains Tannins.
5. Gums: these are produced by disintegration of cellulose of
cell wall.
• Source of gum Acacia Senegal (Gum tree).
6. Resin: These substance are the derivatives of carbohydrates
and produced by oxidation of essential oils.
Types:
(i) Oleoresin: e.g. Canada balsam: used as a mounting medium for
preparation of permanent slide.
• Source plant of Canada balsam Abies balsamea.
(ii) Gum Resin: e.g. Assafoetida (Hing)
• From roots of Ferula assafoetida.
7. Organic acids:
• Citric acid (in fruits of citrus)

57
• Malic acid (from apples) Complete Biology
2080
• Oxalic acid (oxalis) Take Your Notes:
• Tartaric acid (fruit of Tamarindus).
8. Mineral crystals: The most common crystals are of calcium
oxalate found in storage tissues, i.e., pith and cortex.
• Raphids: are needle shaped, e.g. Pistia, Eichhornia.
• Sphaeraphides/Druses: are star shaped, e.g. Colocasia,
Dioscorea.
• Aggregate crystals of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are
called cystoliths and are found in leaf cells of Ficus
(Banyan tree).

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