Toribio Minor National High School Quarter 2

Poblacion, Margosatubig, Zamboanga del Sur Biotechnology 8

S.Y. 2023-2024 Study Notes
Name: _________________________________________________________________ Date: December 4, 2023
Grade & Section: _____________________________________ Score: ____________
Cell Cycle: Cell Division
At the end of this worksheet, you are expected to:
1. identify and describe the different stages of the cell cycle.
2. compare and contrast between mitosis and meiosis.
3. predict the number of cells produced from mitosis or meiosis.
Study Notes:
What’s New:
Did you know that we lose about 30 to 40 thousand dead skin cells every minute? But do not think you will run out of skin
someday because new cells are formed to replace dead cells by cell division or cellular reproduction.
The diagram below shows the types of cellular reproduction.

What Is It?
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into
two or more daughter cells. It usually occurs as part of a larger cell
cycle.
The entire cell cycle is divided into two main stages:
interphase and M-phase where M stands for either mitosis or meiosis.
The interphase is further divided into three stages: G1 phase, S phase,
and G2 phase.

The major events during the interphase are summarized below:

G1 (Growth 1) Phase
● The cell at this stage is still young and it undergoes rapid growth
● Organelles and proteins are formed
● The longest phase in most cells
● Cells that are not dividing (muscle and nerve cells) remain at this stage throughout their life
S (Synthesis) Phase
● The DNA, the main composition of the chromosomes inside the nucleus of the cell, doubles at this stage by a process called
replication.
● At the end of this stage, each chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids attached at the centromere.
G2 (Growth 2) Phase
● Preparations for cell division
● Assembly of proteins, such as microtubules, hollow protein fibers that cause chromosomes to move during cell division
M (Mitosis/Meiosis) Phase
● The cell undergoes division. Division of the nucleus is called karyokinesis while division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.
How long does the cell cycle take?
Different cells take different lengths of time to complete the cell cycle. A typical human cell might take about 24 hours to
divide, but fast-cycling mammalian cells, like the ones that line the intestine, can complete a cycle every 9-10 hours when they're grown
in culture.
How do cells know when to divide?

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 The cells use a group of proteins called cell cycle checkpoints to check if the cell is capable of proceeding to the next stage or
not.
Check points
The cell cycle is usually regulated by checkpoints. These are the factors that a cell considers when deciding whether or not to
move forward through the cell cycle and include both external cues (like molecular signals) and internal cues (like DNA damage).
Cancer and Cell Cycle Regulation
Cancer
Cancer is a term that describes many different diseases caused by the same problem: uncontrolled cell growth. Most cancers
occur due to a series of mutations that make them divide more quickly, bypass checkpoints during cell division, and avoid apoptosis
(programmed cell death).
Common Mistakes and Misconceptions
● Interphase is not part of mitosis. Although we often talk about interphase and mitosis together, interphase is technically not part of
mitosis. However, both processes are part of the larger cell cycle, where interphase consists of the G1, S, and G2 stages of the cell
cycle.
● DNA replication occurs during interphase, not prophase. A common misconception is that DNA copies itself during prophase, but this
is not true. In prophase, the DNA has already been copied while the cell was in interphase.
● The chromosome number is the same in the daughter cells as it was in the parent cell. Because DNA is duplicated during interphase
before the cell undergoes mitosis, the amount of DNA in the original parent cell and the daughter cells are the same.
● Both genetics, as well as external factors, can play a role in the development of cancer. Many types of cancer have a genetic
component, so inheriting certain genes may make someone more likely to get these types of cancer. However, having these genes
does not necessarily mean that cancer will develop, as factors such as lifestyle and environment also play a part.

What’s More
Mitosis
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which the nucleus of the cell divides into two nuclei with identical genetic material and the
same number of chromosomes like the parent cell. As a result, two diploid (2 sets of chromosomes from paternal and maternal
chromosome sets) daughter cells will be produced after mitosis.
Mitosis occurs in eukaryotes, and it is used by multicellular organisms for growth and development, repair of tissues, and
asexual reproduction. It has four stages PMAT which stands for prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

Prophase
At this stage, the long and thread-like chromatids during the interphase starts to coil and
become visible under a compound microscope as
individual chromosomes. The nuclear membrane dissolves and the spindle fibers are formed.
Centrioles migrate at opposite poles of the cell.

Metaphase
Chromosomes move and align themselves at the center of the cell called metaphase plate. Spindle
fibers connect each chromosome on its centromere to the centrioles located at opposite poles.

Anaphase
The sister chromatids of each chromosome divide and move toward opposite poles due to
the shortening of the spindle fibers.

Telophase
The chromatids (now called chromosomes) are located on opposite poles. Nuclear membrane
forms around chromosomes which start to uncoil. The spindle fibers dissolve and disappear.

After karyokinesis, cytokinesis will start.

Cytokinesis in animal cell starts at the exterior of
the cell moving inwards until the cell is divided

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into cells by a process called cleavage furrow formation. In plant cell, it starts at the middle of the cell and moves outward by a process
called cell plate formation.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a type of cell division used by multicellular organisms in the formation of reproductive cells (gametes) such as
sperm cells, egg cells, or spores. Meiotic process has the same four basic steps as mitosis and that karyokinesis is followed by
cytokinesis. However, meiosis differs from mitosis in several ways:
Meiosis results in the production of daughter cells containing half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. The resulting
daughter cell is called a haploid cell.
The daughter cells that are produced after meiosis are not alike because of the manner the chromosomes divide.
There are 4 daughter cells produced after one meiotic process because the cell divides twice in meiosis.
Meiosis has two successive cell divisions where the first part is called meiosis I or reductional division in which half of the number of
chromosomes is produced. The second part is very similar to mitosis thus it is called equational division or meiosis II.
GAMETOGENESIS
Gametogenesis is the process by
which gametes, or germ cells, are produced
in an organism. The formation of egg cells, or
ova, is technically called oogenesis, and the
formation of sperm cells, or spermatozoa, is
called spermatogenesis.
OOGENESIS
Oogenesis, in the human female
reproductive system, growth process in which

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the primary egg cell (or ovum) becomes a mature ovum. In any one human generation, the egg’s development starts before the female
that carries it is even born; 8 to 20 weeks after the fetus has started to grow, cells that are to become mature ova have been
multiplying, and by the time that the female is born, all of the egg cells that the ovaries will release during the active reproductive years
of the female are already present in the ovaries. These cells, known as the primary ova, number around 400,000. The primary ova
remain dormant until just prior to ovulation, when an egg is released from the ovary. Some egg cells may not mature for 40 years;
others degenerate and never mature.
The egg cell remains as a primary ovum until the time for its release from the ovary arrives. The egg then undergoes a cell
division. The nucleus splits so that half of its chromosomes go to one cell and half to another. One of these two new cells is usually
larger than the other and is known as the secondary ovum; the smaller cell is known as a polar body. The secondary ovum grows in the
ovary until it reaches maturation; it then breaks loose and is carried into the fallopian tubes. Once in the fallopian tubes, the secondary
egg cell is suitable for fertilization by the male sperm cells.

SPERMATOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis, the origin and development of the sperm cells within the male reproductive organs, the testes. The testes
are composed of numerous thin tightly coiled tubules known as the seminiferous tubules; the sperm cells are produced within the walls
of the tubules. Within the walls of the tubules, also, are many randomly scattered cells, called Sertoli cells, that function to support and
nourish the immature sperm cells by giving them nutrients and blood products. As the young germ cells grow, the Sertoli cells help to
transport them from the outer surface of the seminiferous tubule to the central channel of the tubule. Sperm cells are continually being
produced by the testes, but not all areas of the seminiferous tubules produce sperm cells at the same time. One immature germ cell
takes as long as 74 days to reach final maturation, and during this growth process there are intermittent resting phases.
The immature cells (called spermatogonia) are all derived from cells called stem cells in the outer wall of the seminiferous
tubules. The stem cells are composed almost entirely of nuclear material. (The nucleus of the cell is the portion containing the
chromosomes.) The stem cells begin their process by multiplying in the process of cell duplication known as mitosis. Half of the new
cells from this initial crop go on to become the future sperm cells, and the other half remain as stem cells so that there is a constant
source of additional germ cells. Spermatogonia destined to develop into mature sperm cells are known as primary sperm cells. After a
resting phase the primary cells divide into a form called a secondary sperm cell. During this cell division there is a splitting of the
nuclear material. In the nucleus of the primary sperm cells there are 46 chromosomes; in each of the secondary sperm cells there are
only 23 chromosomes, as there are in the egg. When the egg and sperm combine and their chromosomes unite, the characteristics of
both individuals blend and the new organism starts to grow.
The secondary sperm cell still must
mature before it can fertilize an egg;
maturation entails certain changes in the
shape and form of the sperm cell. The nuclear
material becomes more condensed and oval in
shape; this area develops as the head of the
sperm. The head is covered partially by a cap,
called the acrosome, which is important in
helping the sperm to enter the egg. Attached to
the opposite end of the head is the tailpiece.
The tail is derived from the secondary sperm
cell’s cytoplasm. In the mature sperm, it
consists of a long, slender bundle of filaments
that propel the sperm by their undulating
movement. Once the sperm has matured, it is
transported through the long seminiferous
tubules and stored in the epididymis of the
testes until it is ready to leave the male body.

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