OpenStax Psychology

Chapter 2 Psychological Research

Study Guide

2.1 Why is Research Important?

a. Research is a mandatory process in validating claims. Without research, we would only have
intuition and groundless assumptions. Through research we are able to prove certain ideas
through study and testing. Because Psychology is a science, research is required to not only
further investigate something but provide verification and support of the findings.
i. Psychological research utilizes tools within the scientific method to process
observations and claims made. The two processes work interchangeably.
ii. In the process of inductive reasoning, new ideas are generated from empirical
observations. Through this, general ideas are derived from observations made.
iii. Deductive reasoning uses general ideas to create predictions to claims by testing
real-world observations.
iv. Through these processes, certain claims derive from the ideas generated.
1. A theory is a less refined set of ideas, more of a proposed explanation.
2. A hypothesis is a more concrete claim, typically an if-then statement. This
concrete quality in a hypothesis is what separates it from general ideas
gathering.

Questions:

1. What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?

2. The scientific method is often described as self-correcting and cyclical. Briefly describe your
understanding of the scientific method with regard to these concepts.

2. In this section, conjoined twins, Krista and Tatiana, were described as being potential participants in a
case study. In what other circumstances would you think that this particular research approach would
be especially helpful and why?

4. Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis.

5. Why do we treat some theories as "near facts" and others as less concrete and accepted?
2.2 Approaches to Research

Because the field of Psychology includes such a variety of research a variety of techniques are utilized to
approach these areas of study.

1. Clinical studies or case studies focus on one individual. The studied individual is typically in a
extreme or unique psychological circumstance that differentiates them for the general public.
Because these cases are so distinct, it is difficult to rely on previous findings in that such cases
require exclusive attention.
2. Naturalistic behavior is generally hidden under scrutiny or observation. To study the most
accurate and genuine behaviors, naturalistic observation proven most effective. Through
naturalistic observations, any feeling of performance or anxiety of the studied individuals is
eliminated. Establishment of clear criteria to observe should help eliminate observer bias.
3. Surveys can be used to gather a large amount of data from a sample from a population.
4. Some more expansive subjects of research require a stretched period of time to measure
changes or effects.
5. Through longitudinal research, gradual differences can be studied through a more prolonged
time of study.
6. E. Cross-sectional research creates cohorts of subjects over the same expanse of time, allowing
sectioned observations rather than continual.

Questions:

1. Aside from biomedical research, what other areas of research could greatly benefit by both
longitudinal and archival research?

2. What are some pros and cons of survey usage?

3. List some limitations of naturalistic behavior?

2.3 Analyzing Findings

Varied techniques are not limited only to data collection. Analysis of collected findings can be
approached differently as well.

A. Findings can be drawn from correlations found in the collected data. When two variables move
in the same direction, a positive correlation is apparent. When two variables move in different
 directions, a negative correlation is found. It is important to keep in mind that any correlations
found do not necessarily prove causation.
B. A hypothesis regarding cause and effect can be tested through experimentation.
a. An experiment should include an experimental group receiving experimental
manipulation and a control group that is not manipulated.
C. To eliminate any ambiguity or misinterpretation, operational definitions or clear descriptions
should be established.
D. Because experimenter biases can be apparent, techniques such as single blind and double-blind
can help eliminate any biases in researchers.
E. When findings are collected they are sorted between the independent variable, the
manipulated findings, and the dependent variable, the measured effect of the independent
variable.
F. Although experiments may require specific demographics, a random sample is used to ensure
that the sample pool was selected randomly without any biased dispositions.
G. A statistical analysis is used to study any meaningful differences between the groups within the
study.

Questions:
1. Who makes up the control group of an experiment, and how do they differ from the
experimental group?
2. Distinguish between positive and negative correlation.
3. How do single blind and double blind studies help eliminate the impact of bias?
4. What are demographics?
5. Recently a study was published in the journal, Nutrition and Cancer, which established a
negative correlation between coffee consumption and breast cancer. Specifically, it was found
that women consuming more than 5 cups of coffee a day were less likely to develop breast
cancer than women who never consumed coffee (Lowcock, Cotterchio, Anderson, Boucher, & El-
Sohemy, 2013). Imagine you see a newspaper story about this research that says, “Coffee
Protects Against Cancer.” Why is this headline misleading and why would a more accurate
headline draw less interest?
2.4 Ethics

Because psychological research is behavior based, a set of ethics and conduct is in order to ensure the
wellbeing of participants. These apply to all human and animal research subjects.

A. Research Involving Human Components: Any experiment involving the participation of human
subjects is strictly governed.
a. Guidelines ensure that experiment does not cause harm.
i. Any risks must be disclosed and participants must acknowledge them in an
informed consent document.
ii. Informed consent also ensures that participation is voluntary, data is
confidential, and participants can leave at any time.
b. Institutional review boards (IRB) required for any research institution that receives
federal support for research involving human participants.
c. Tuskegee study targeted Black men and tested them for syphilis (nearly 400 tested
positive). Since the purpose was to study untreated syphilis, the administrators
withheld both treatment and information about their disease, which led them to infect
others and suffer effects of the disease.
i. Started in 1932 by US Public Health Service, lasted 40 years.
ii. By 1947, penicillin was a treatment, but was not provided to those who had
tested positive.
iii. When the study was revealed in 1972 it led to significant changes in US law,
such as the guidelines discussed earlier.

Questions:

1. Describe the Tuskeegee study and its impacts on research laws and guidelines.

2. What is an IRB and who makes it up?

3. What guidelines are in place regarding animal studies?

4. What is informed consent?

5. Peer review is an important part of publishing research findings in many scientific disciplines. This
process is normally conducted anonymously; in other words, the author of the article being reviewed
does not know who is reviewing the article, and the reviewers are unaware of the author’s identity. Why
would this be an important part of this process?