sustainability
Article
Research on Safety Design Strategy of Evacuation Stairs in
Deep Underground Station Based on Human Heart Rate and
Ascending Evacuation Speed
Gao Pan 1,2,3 , Mingxi Peng 4, *, Tiejun Zhou 1,2,3 , Zhanzhi Wan 5 and Zheng Liang 6
Citation: Pan, G.; Peng, M.; Zhou, T.;
Wan, Z.; Liang, Z. Research on Safety
Design Strategy of Evacuation Stairs
in Deep Underground Station Based
on Human Heart Rate and Ascending
Evacuation Speed. Sustainability 2023,
15, 10670. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su151310670
Academic Editor: Mario Fargnoli
Received: 23 May 2023
Revised: 30 June 2023
Accepted: 4 July 2023
Published: 6 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310670
1 Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China;
pangao@stu.cqu.edu.cn (G.P.); arch_ztj@cqu.edu.cn (T.Z.)
2 Smart Evacuation and Urban Safety Research Center, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
3 Key Laboratory of New Technology for Construction of Cities in Mountain Area, Chongqing 400045, China
4 Faculty of Smart Urban Design, Chongqing Jianzhu College, Chongqing 400072, China
5 School of Art and Design, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China;
20111513126@alu.cqu.edu.cn
6 Shanghai Urban Construction Design and Research Institute (Group) Co., Ltd., Shanghai 200125, China;
liangzheng@sucdri.com
* Correspondence: m_peng@cqjzc.edu.cn
Abstract: An effective evacuation staircase safety design strategy is an important measure to ensure
the safe evacuation of personnel in deep underground stations, and its design is influenced by
human heart rate (HR) and ascending evacuation speed. This study clarifies the relationship between
the ascending evacuation speed and human HR in deep underground stations by simulating an
emergency situation in a deep underground station and observing individuals evacuating via stairs. A
mathematical model of the ascending evacuation speed and HR at different heights is then established.
Through the identification and prediction of intelligent safety systems, a safety design strategy for
the rest area of evacuation stairs in deep underground stations was proposed. Rest areas of the
stairs allow people in a state of fatigue to pause their ascent, preventing tired people from causing
congestion and affecting the evacuation of less-tired people. This improves the overall evacuation
speed and ensures the safety of life and property.
Keywords: deep underground station; heart rate; ascending evacuation speed; staircase safety
design strategy
1. Introduction
Since the establishment of the first underground railway system in London in 1863,
underground rail transport has become a major part of contemporary public transport
systems in medium and large cities. By the end of 2017, metro networks had been built
in 178 cities across 56 countries, with an average daily passenger traffic of 168 million
people [1]. Due to complex line network crossings, existing urban facilities, and land
compensation, underground stations and rail networks are increasingly being constructed
at deeper levels. Compared with shallow stations, deep underground stations have a
more closed environment, greater internal depth, more levels, fewer entrances and exits,
long evacuation routes, poor ventilation and lighting conditions, a single direction of
safe escape, and difficulties in rescue and evacuation. Once a disaster occurs, major
casualties and property damage can easily occur. Past accidents in underground stations
include the 1986 fire at London’s King’s Cross station (a technical failure killed 32 people
and injured more than 150), the 2003 fire in the Daegu underground in South Korea
(killing at least 198 people and injuring 147) [2], and the 1995 sarin gas terrorist attack in
the Tokyo underground in Japan (causing more than 5000 injuries, some of which were
caused by evacuation and stampede) [3]. These tragedies have revealed that deficiencies
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 2 of 15

in the evacuation infrastructure and management of underground stations have serious

consequences. It is foreseeable that deep underground stations will face greater safety
challenges than shallow or above-ground stations due to the long distances and increased
time required to travel upwards during the emergency evacuation. At present, stairs and
escalators are the only upward evacuation facilities at underground metro stations [4]. For
safety and psychological reasons, when a station is deeper underground, more people
choose to use the stairs to evacuate [5,6]. And the effective design of stairs can improve
evacuation efficiency and reduce the number of disasters and accidents [7–9]. Therefore,
exploring the evacuation safety design of staircases in deep underground stations and
proposing safety optimization measures for evacuation staircases are of great significance in
improving the safety efficiency of evacuation via staircases from deep underground stations.
Staircases are the most basic evacuation facility from underground stations. A study
by the National Land, Infrastructure, and Transport Agency of Japan in 1991 found that
the interior of underground halls and safety exits provide temporary evacuation safety
areas, that is, there is still a possibility of danger occurring in these spaces. The “Code
of Practice for Fire Protection in the Metro” [10] states that evacuation time calculations
should start from the station platform and extend to the outdoors at ground level (calculated
according to practical considerations). This code also states that sufficient stairs should be
provided in the temporary safety zone (station hall level) of the metro station to cope with
situations such as the fatigue of evacuees walking long distances upwards, and to ensure the
efficiency and safety of the evacuation process and rescue of people. The basis for stairway
evacuation safety comes from a series of studies on the dynamics of human movement
in stairs by Henderson, Pauls, Fruin, and other scholars in the 1950s and 1980s [11–14].
Based on these studies, a series of models were established for the relationship between
human movement and stairway engineering variables, such as speed [15,16], density/flow
rate [17,18], load capacity, and design parameters (e.g., width [15], slope [19,20], handrail
height [21]). These studies often used data obtained from downward stairs, as the early
view was that downward movement was associated with a greater risk than upward
movement [22]. However, with the continued development of crowded underground
places, attention is gradually moving to the differences between upward and downward
evacuation. Some recent studies have raised concerns about the safety of evacuation from
deep spaces via staircases, the main point being the differences in the characteristics of
people moving up and down long staircases, such as the obvious impact of fatigue on
the evacuation speed of people during upward evacuation [23–27]. The oversimplified
calculation models used to develop the current regulations of staircase design lack a factual
basis, demonstrating that further in-depth research is needed in related areas.
Among them, research on the physical characteristics of personnel has found that
human cardiorespiratory fitness limits the ability to evacuate upwards, and that changes in
the heart rate (HR) of personnel during exercise are an important indicator of the degree
of fatigue [28,29]. Ronchi et al. investigated the effect of fatigue on walking speed and
physiological performance (HR data) in the context of long upward evacuations on a
treadmill. The data showed an average maximum HR of 191 b/min (193 and 187 b/min for
men and women, respectively). The maximum HR may be related to the development of
fatigue, and the results suggest that physical work capacity affects walking speed during
prolonged upward evacuation. This should be considered in engineering design [30].
Velasco [31] compared the change in HR over time between a person carrying no weight
and a person carrying 8 kg to determine the metabolic rate and fatigue of people in different
situations. In a 20-story residential building, Chen et al. [32] conducted an experimental
study of individuals ascending parallel double-running staircases and found that the speed
tended to decrease over the first 14 floors, with the mean HR increasing from 85.4 b/min
to 135 b/min in men and from 88.7 b/min to 150 b/min in women. Mean relative HRs
increased to 60% and 70% for men and women, respectively. Lam [24] investigated the
ascending movement of individuals in a high-rise building in Hong Kong and found
that the ascent speed was related to the age of the subject and that the difference in HR
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 3 of 15

before and after the experiment was relatively large for older participants. In a study by
Halder et al. [29], HRs showed an initial sharp increase followed by a gradual stabilization,
with a mean maximum HR range of 162–174 b/min. Zhu et al. [33] conducted a long-
distance upward experiment at Chongqing Redland underground station. Their results
showed that HR changes sharply in the first 100 s and then remains stable (with stable
values of 135 b/min for men and 150 b/min for women). After a short period of rapid
increase, older women consistently displayed the highest average HR, indicating that older
women exhibit the strongest physiological response to the same evacuation distance and
became more fatigued. The above studies demonstrate that HR is related to a person’s
ability to exercise and affects evacuation speed.
However, there is currently a lack of research on the correlation between heart rate
and evacuation speed, as well as their impact on evacuation staircase design, and further
research and supplementation are needed. Moreover, most scholars currently do not
consider emergency panic states during evacuation in their research on heart rate and
ascending speed values. At the same time, empirical research on stair evacuation in deep
underground stations is relatively limited, with studies around HR and speed mainly
based on stair climbing or evacuation stairs in high-rise buildings, which are more likely
to be parallel double-running stairs, unlike metro stations, which are more likely to use
straight-running stairs for evacuation.
Thus, the correlation between HR and evacuation speed and the impact on the de-
sign of evacuation staircases require further research. For this study, to further explore
the correlation between HR and ascending evacuation speed, volunteers were recruited
and field validations were conducted. Data and relationships relating to ascending evac-
uation speed and HR were obtained through observational experiments simulating the
evacuation of a single person up a staircase in an emergency situation in a 56 m deep
underground station. Based on the data obtained from these experiments, a predictive
model for the variation of HR and ascending evacuation speed at different heights was
developed. This model was then used to explore a safe design strategy for evacuation stairs
in deep underground stations.

2. Methods
2.1. Experimental Methods
Current domestic and international studies of pedestrian levels and speeds in un-
derground spaces have mostly used field observations at peak flows or live evacuation
experiments in high-rise buildings [23,26,34,35]. However, observing pedestrian speeds in
underground stations during peak flows does not ensure high-quality and accurate data. In
this study, to obtain accurate upward evacuation experimental data, we conducted real-life
upward evacuation observation experiments in a deep underground station and recorded
the HRs of the evacuees in real time through the use of HR bands. The volunteers recruited
for the upward experiments were mainly young people, which is conducive to the safety,
ethics, and effective organization of the experiments.

2.2. Experimental Subjects

The experimental procedure was based on the experiments conducted by Ronchi
et al. [23,30,34]. All 54 subjects (27 male, 27 female) were healthy university students (aged
18–29). A summary of the volunteers in terms of gender, age, height, and weight, derived
from actual measurements taken on each experimental subject, is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. General information of participants.

Gender Number of People Average Age Average Height (cm) Average Weight (kg)
Female 27 23.15 1.63 53.48
Male 27 23.52 1.74 71.96
Total 54 23.33 1.69 62.72
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 4 of 15

2.3. Experimental Setup

2.3.1. Selection of Experimental Sites
The site chosen for this experiment is the Minan Avenue Station on the Chongqing
Metro Circle Line in China. The station is a typical deep underground station, with a
difference of 54.6 m between the station concourse level and ground level. The station has a
total of five entrances, named 1A, 1B, 3A, 3B, and 4A, each consisting of a straight staircase
and 2–3 sets of escalators. According to the code conditions, the typical form of the station
concourse, and the underground evacuation staircase, the experimental site was selected as
exit 4A at the concourse level. The experimental site is shown in Figure 1 and described in
Table 2.

Table 2. General information of experimental site.

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16
Stairs Total Rise Height
Number of Tread Depth Flight Length Step Height Flight Height
No. Width (Clear (Along the Stair
Steps (mm) (m) (mm) (m)
Width, mm) Height, m)
T1 1500 17 300.00information of4.80
Table 1. General participants. 150.00 2.55 2.55
T2 1500 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 5.10
T3 1500 17 Gender Number
300.00 of People4.80Average Age 150.00Average Height (cm)2.55 Average Weight 7.65 (kg)
T4 1500 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 10.20
T5 1500 17
Female 300.00 27 4.80
23.15 150.00
1.63 2.55
53.4812.75
T6 1500 17 Male 300.00 27 4.80 23.52 150.00 1.74 2.55 71.9615.30
T7 1500 11 Total 300.00 54 3.00 23.33 145.45 1.69 1.60 62.7216.90
T8 1500 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 19.45
T9 1500 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 22.00
T10 1500 17 2.3. Experimental
300.00 Setup 4.80 150.00 2.55 24.55
T11 1500 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 27.10
2.3.1. Selection of Experimental Sites
T12 1500 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 29.65
T13 1500 17 The site chosen for this4.80
300.00 experiment is the Minan Avenue
150.00 Station on the Chongqing
2.55 32.20
T14 1500 15 Metro Circle 300.00 4.20 station is a typical
Line in China. The 150.00 deep underground
2.25 34.45a dif-
station, with
T15 1500 15 300.00 4.20 150.00 2.25 36.70
T16 1900 17 ference of 54.6 m between the
300.00 station concourse
4.80 150.00level and ground
2.55 level. The station39.25has a
T17 1900 17 total of five300.00
entrances, named4.801A, 1B, 3A, 3B,150.00
and 4A, each consisting
2.55 of a straight41.80
staircase
T18 1900 17 and 2–3 sets 300.00 4.80
of escalators. According 150.00conditions, the
to the code 2.55
typical form of the 44.35
station
T19 1900 17
concourse,300.00 4.80
and the underground evacuation150.00 2.55
staircase, the experimental site was46.90
selected
T20 1900 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 49.45
T21 1900 17 as exit 4A at the concourse level.
300.00 4.80 The experimental
150.00 site is shown
2.55in Figure 1 and described
52.00
T22 1900 18 in Table 2. 300.00 5.10 144.44 2.60 54.60

Figure 1. Staircase plan diagram.

Figure 1. Staircase plan diagram.

Table 2. General information of experimental site.

Stairs Total Rise

Width Tread Flight Step Flight Height
Number
No. (Clear Depth Length Height Height (Along the
of Steps
Width, (mm) (m) (mm) (m) Stair
 T17 1900 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 41.80
T18 1900 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 44.35
T19 1900 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 46.90
T20 1900 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 49.45
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 T21 1900 17 300.00 4.80 150.00 2.55 52.00
5 of 15
T22 1900 18 300.00 5.10 144.44 2.60 54.60

2.3.2.Experimental
2.3.2. ExperimentalEquipment
Equipment
Theexperimental
The experimentalequipment
equipment consisted of ofan
anHRHRbelt and
belt and a digital video
a digital camera
video (Fig-
camera
ure 2). Before the experiment started, the participants were fitted with HR
(Figure 2). Before the experiment started, the participants were fitted with HR belts, belts, allowing
the changes
allowing in HR throughout
the changes the experiment
in HR throughout to be recorded
the experiment (HR data
to be recorded (HRrecorded at 1 Hz).
data recorded
atAfter
1 Hz).completion of the of
After completion experiment, the video
the experiment, and related
the video datadata
and related were collated
were and
collated the
and
changes
the changes in in
evacuation
evacuation speed
speedand HR
and HR were
wereanalyzed.
analyzed.

Figure2.2.Polar
Figure PolarHR
HRband
bandexperimental
experimentalequipment
equipmentand
andspecific
specific wearing
wearing mode.
mode.

2.4.Experimental
2.4. ExperimentalProcedure
Procedure
The
Theexperiment
experimenttotoobserve
observethe theupward
upwardevacuation
evacuationprocedure
procedurevia viastairs
stairswas
wascarried
carried
out
outinina real
a realmetro
metro station environment.
station environment. Before thethe
Before experiment
experiment started, the the
started, relevant staffstaff
relevant in
the
in station werewere
the station contacted, and the
contacted, andexperiment
the experimentwas carried out at out
was carried the at
least-crowded time
the least-crowded
totime
ensure the smoothest
to ensure experimental
the smoothest procedure
experimental possible.
procedure The participants
possible. were informed
The participants were in-
offormed
the requirements and the evacuation
of the requirements area, i.e., that
and the evacuation area,during theduring
i.e., that evacuation exercise, they
the evacuation exer-
could adopt relevant behaviors such as using handrails and stopping
cise, they could adopt relevant behaviors such as using handrails and stopping to restto rest if necessary. Allif
participants wore an HR band and the final data were downloaded
necessary. All participants wore an HR band and the final data were downloaded to an to an Excel spreadsheet.
AtExcel
the start of the experiment,
spreadsheet. At the startthe ofparticipants
the experiment, had the
beenparticipants
standing athad the been
entrance to theat
standing
staircase for 1 to
the entrance min thetostaircase
ensure their
for 1HR minhas
to stabilized.
ensure theirThe HRstaff
has gave instructions
stabilized. at gave
The staff the
start of the experiment
instructions at the startand started
of the video recording.
experiment and started When
videothe participants
recording. When reached the
the partici-
designated exit position, the evacuation process ended and
pants reached the designated exit position, the evacuation process ended and thethe data were recorded as
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 ofdata
16
a were
validrecorded
sample (Figure 3). Each participant rested for 1–2 h after the first
as a valid sample (Figure 3). Each participant rested for 1–2 h after the firstround of the
experiment,
round of the and then continued
experiment, withcontinued
and then the next round.
with the next round.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. On-site
On-site experimental
experimental record
record of ascending staircase
of ascending staircase during
during the
the experiment.
experiment.

2.5. Data Collection

2.5.1. Ascending
2.5.1. Ascending Evacuation
Evacuation Speed
Speed Calculation
Calculation
The evacuation
The evacuation speed
speed up
up aa staircase
staircase is
is the
the main
main focus
focus of
of this
this experiment.
experiment. TheThe method
method
of calculating
of calculating the
the speed
speed has
has aa significant
significant impact
impact on
on the
the data
data analysis.
analysis. There
There are
are currently
currently
two methods of expressing the speed of people walking up a flight of stairs:
two methods of expressing the speed of people walking up a flight of stairs: the the first method
first
uses the speed along the stairs in an oblique direction, whereas the second method uses
method uses the speed along the stairs in an oblique direction, whereas the second method
the speed along the vertical direction. We believe that the speed in the oblique direction
uses the speed along the vertical direction. We believe that the speed in the oblique direc-
better reflects changes in the ascending evacuation speed; additionally, the speeds currently
tion better reflects changes in the ascending evacuation speed; additionally, the speeds
currently specified in the relevant codes in China are all oblique speeds. Therefore, the
ascending evacuation speed for this experiment was calculated as the ratio of the length
of the sloping distance of the stair section to the evacuation time:
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 6 of 15

specified in the relevant codes in China are all oblique speeds. Therefore, the ascending
evacuation speed for this experiment was calculated as the ratio of the length of the sloping
distance of the stair section to the evacuation time:

V = L/T (1)

where V is the evacuation speed (m/s), L is the slope evacuation distance (m), and T is the
evacuation time (s).
In this experiment, the total number of stairs is 22 runs. The measuring points of the
stair ascending speed were positioned at intervals of 2–3 runs, with a total of 10 speed
measuring points (H1 –H10 ). The height of each speed measuring point is listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Heights of speed measuring points (m).

H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9 H10
5.10 10.20 16.90 22.00 27.10 32.20 36.70 41.80 46.90 54.60

2.5.2. HR Measurement
In the process of upward evacuation, speed is governed by physical characteristics,
fatigue, and physical exertion. Current research suggests that the main indicators for
measuring physical exertion and fatigue are exercise HR and blood pressure. Some scholars
use exercise HR to measure the degree of exercise fatigue [29]. This method of calculation
is used here. The exercise HR was measured at the same 10 points as the speed measure-
ments. Both the resting HR and the maximum HR at the completion of the exercise were
also measured.

3. Results
3.1. HR in Relation to Evacuation Speed
Table 4 compares the data and Pearson correlation coefficients for each of the experi-
mental subjects. HR is significantly correlated with ascending evacuation speed (p < 0.01).
Males and females exhibit a similar gradual upward relationship in terms of HR change
with respect to ascending evacuation speed. The mean upward HR is 145.99 b/min for
males and 151.48 b/min for females. The mean upward ascending speed is 0.82 m/s and
0.71 m/s for males and females, respectively, with a range of 0.56–1.18 m/s for males and
0.52–1.06 m/s for females. HR is significantly correlated with evacuation time (p < 0.01),
with men requiring significantly less time to evacuate than women.

Table 4. Pearson correlation coefficients of HR and ascending speed.

Total Male Female

Correlation Correlation Correlation
(N = 54) (N = 27) (N = 27)
23.33 23.52 23.15
Age, years −0.200 −0.498 ** 0.392 *
(1.59) (1.52) (1.63)
1.69 1.74 1.63
Height, m 0.591 ** −0.214 −0.320
(0.06) (0.03) (0.02)
62.72 71.96 53.48
Weight, kg 0.654 ** −0.050 −0.270
(9.97) (4.32) (3.06)
Resting HR, 76.39 71.81 80.96
−0.404 ** 0.086 0.185
b/min (7.17) (5.61) (5.42)
Average HR, 150.36 145.99 151.48
0.042 ** 0.792 ** 0.536 **
b/min (6.24) (5.27) (5.52)
Maximum 180.00 180.00 180.00
0.377 ** 0.678 ** 0.509 **
HR, b/min (4.95) (5.86) (3.83)
Ascending 0.76 0.82 0.71
0.042 ** 0.792 ** 0.536 **
speed, m/s (0.07) (0.04) (0.05)
Evacuation 182.69 170.19 195.19
−0.955 ** −0.725 ** −0.506 **
time, s (16.09) (7.08) (12.45)
* Values are mean. SD: Standard deviation. Pearson correlation coefficients.* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 7 of 15

3.2. Analysis of HR and Ascending Evacuation Speed at Different Heights

Table 5 presents the parameters of ascending evacuation speed with height and the
correlation with HR. The maximum HR values during the upward evacuation for men
and women do not differ significantly, with a maximum of 180 b/min reached after 27.1 m
for men and 22 m for women. The HR values for evacuees are above 150 b/min, i.e.,
the evacuees are already significantly fatigued. The average ascending evacuation speed
gradually decreases with increasing upward height. The mean ascending evacuation speed
for males decreases from 1.12 m/s at 5.1 m to 0.63 m/s at 54.6 m. The mean ascending
evacuation speed for females decreases from 0.92 m/s at 5.1 m to 0.57 m/s at 54.6 m. When
the height parameter is included, the ascending evacuation speed is significantly correlated
with HR from the outset for both males and females. In contrast, for females, speed and
HR display some correlation from 5.1 to 22 m and are significantly correlated from 27.1
to 54.6 m. For males, speed is significantly correlated with HR from 10.2 to 46.9 m, but
is not correlated after 54.6 m. Thus, the overall correlation between HR and ascending
evacuation speed becomes insignificant for male subjects after a certain height, whereas the
correlation between HR and ascending evacuation speed remains significant for females.
For males, after evacuation to 54.6 m, HR is no longer the main factor influencing ascending
evacuation speed.

Table 5. Association between HR and ascending speed at different heights.

Male Female
Hi Mean Mean
(m) Ascending HR (SD) Correlation Ascending HR (SD) Correlation
Speed (SD) Speed (SD)
54.6 0.63 (0.04) 180.00 (5.86) 0.374 0.57 (0.04) 180.00 (3.83) 0.559 **
46.9 0.65 (0.04) 178.00 (5.45) 0.492 ** 0.59 (0.04) 178.00 (4.85) 0.508 **
41.8 0.67 (0.04) 174.00 (4.97) 0.645 ** 0.61 (0.05) 176.00 (5.45) 0.628 **
36.7 0.72 (0.03) 170.00 (6.03) 0.604 ** 0.63 (0.05) 173.93 (5.51) 0.591 **
32.2 0.76 (0.04) 161.92 (7.73) 0.575 ** 0.66 (0.06) 169.11 (6.19) 0.525 **
27.1 0.85 (0.05) 155.00 (6.36) 0.517 ** 0.71 (0.06) 164.67 (6.63) 0.506 **
22.0 0.88 (0.06) 145.69 (6.11) 0.618 ** 0.74 (0.06) 156.38 (7.38) 0.473 *
16.9 0.93 (0.06) 134.00 (6.98) 0.677 ** 0.82 (0.06) 143.00 (5.48) 0.412 *
10.2 0.97 (0.06) 120.38 (7.61) 0.663 ** 0.87 (0.07) 128.00 (9.28) 0.475 *
5.1 1.12 (0.06) 105.00 (7.29) 0.447 * 0.92 (0.07) 109.00 (6.84) 0.383 *
* Values are mean. SD: Standard deviation. Pearson correlation coefficients.* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

3.3. Mathematical between HR and Ascending Evacuation Speed

Five intervals were delineated according to the amount of exercise, HR, and phys-
ical fatigue of the personnel: ultra-low exercise (HR ≤ 120), no fatigue; low exercise
(120 < HR ≤ 140), slight fatigue; medium exercise (140 < HR ≤ 160), moderate fatigue; high
exercise (160 < HR ≤ 180), severe fatigue; and extra-high exercise (HR > 180), extreme
fatigue. Figures 4–8 depict the speed of upward evacuation for men and women in different
HR groups as a function of the height of upward evacuation. Regression lines have been
fitted using the relevant data. Comparing the regression lines in each graph shows that the
two gender curves generally have a similar trend, with the speed decreasing with increasing
upward height and HR. The curve is higher for male subjects than for females in all five HR
groups, and there is a more significant difference in the slope of the curve for males than
for females (Figures 4–8). In the intervals 120 < HR ≤ 140 (Figure 5) and 140 < HR ≤ 160
(Figure 6), there is a strong similarity between the two genders, but in the other three
groups, HR ≤ 120 (Figure 4), 160 < HR ≤ 180 (Figure 7), and HR > 180 (Figure 8), there are
more significant differences. Although some correlation between ascending evacuation
speed and gender exists at different levels of significance, the trend is more dependent on
HR. In addition, after evacuation to a certain height, the ascending evacuation speed tends
to be equal and stable for both males and females, and HR no longer affects the ascending
evacuation speed.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
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Figure 4. Relationship between HR (HR ≤ 120) and ascending speed and height.
Figure4.4.Relationship
Figure Relationshipbetween
betweenHR
HR(HR
(HR≤≤ 120)
120) and
and ascending
ascending speed
speedand
andheight.
height.

HR ≤≤140)
Figure 5. Relationship between HR (120 << HR 140)and
andascending
ascendingspeed
speedand
andheight.
height.
Figure 5. Relationship between HR (120 < HR ≤ 140) and ascending speed and height.
 Sustainability2023,
Sustainability 2023,15,
15,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1010ofof1616
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 9 of 15

Figure 6. Relationshipbetween
Figure between HR(140
(140 < HR≤≤160)
160)and
andascending
ascendingspeed
speedand
andheight.
height.
Figure6.6.Relationship
Relationship betweenHR
HR (140<<HR
HR ≤ 160) and ascending speed and height.

Figure 7. Relationship between HR (160 < HR ≤ 180) and ascending speed and height.
Figure7.7.Relationship
Figure Relationshipbetween
betweenHR
HR(160
(160<<HR
HR≤≤180)
180)and
andascending
ascendingspeed
speedand
andheight.
height.
 Sustainability2023,
Sustainability 2023,15,
15,10670
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
10 of 16

Figure8.8.Relationship
Figure Relationshipbetween
betweenHR
HR(HR
(HR>> 180)
180) and
and ascending
ascending speed
speed and
andheight.
height.

The following is a prediction numerical model for the ascending evacuation speed
The following is a prediction numerical model for the ascending evacuation speed
(m/s) based on the upward movement HR grouping.
(m/s) based on the upward movement HR grouping.
when
whenHRHR≤ ≤ 120:
Ymale= =0.89
Ymale 0.89−−0.41/[1
0.41/[1 +
+ (x/5.47) 3.2]
(x/5.47)3.2 R2male
] R2 male = =0.8297
0.8297 (2)
(2)

Yfemale = 0.73 − 0.27/[1 + (x/7.85)1.6] R2female = 0.83907 (3)

Yfemale = 0.73 − 0.27/[1 + (x/7.85)1.6 ] R2 female = 0.83907 (3)
when 120 < HR ≤ 140,
when 120 < HR ≤ 140,
Ymale = 0.69 − 0.36/[1 + (x/19.41)3.03] R2male = 0.87447 (4)
Ymale = 0.69 − 0.36/[1 + (x/19.41)3.03 ] R2 male = 0.87447 (4)
Yfemale = 0.72 − 0.3/[1 + (x/9.32)1.92] R2female = 0.91333 (5)
Yfemale = 0.72 − 0.3/[1 + (x/9.32)1.92 ] R2 female = 0.91333 (5)
when 140 < HR ≤ 160,
when 140 < HR ≤ 160,
Ymale= − 15.3 + 16.68/[1 + (x/2190.67)0.77] R2male = 0.93633 (6)
Ymale = − 15.3 + 16.68/[1 + (x/2190.67)0.77 ] R2 male = 0.93633 (6)
Yfemale = 0.53 − 0.44/[1 + (x/20.94)3.5] R2female = 0.92236 (7)
3.5 2
180, = 0.53 − 0.44/[1 + (x/20.94) ] R female = 0.92236
when 160 < HR ≤Yfemale (7)
when 160 < HR ≤ 180,
Ymale = 0.58 − 0.69/[1 + (x/25.64)4.06] R2male = 0.93461 (8)
4.06 2
Ymale = 0.58 − 0.69/[1 + (x/25.64) 4.15] R male = 0.93461 (8)
Yfemale = 0.53 − 0.29/[1 + (x/31.24.96) ] R2female = 0.92586 (9)
Yfemale = 0.53 − 0.29/[1 + (x/31.24.96)4.15] R2female = 0.92586
when HR > 180, (9)
Ymale = 0.63 − 0.19/[1 + (x/40.53)10.61] R2male = 0.84344 (10)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 11 of 15

when HR > 180,

Ymale = 0.63 − 0.19/[1 + (x/40.53)10.61] R2male = 0.84344 (10)

Yfemale = 0.59 − 0.07/[1 + (x/44.91)19.51] R2female = 0.85635 (11)

where R2 male is the male variance, R2 female is the female variance, x represents the upward
evacuation height of the stairs (m), and y represents the upward heart rate (b/min).

4. Discussion
4.1. Mathematical Relationship between HR and Ascending Evacuation Speed for Safe Evacuation
Design of Stairs in Deep Underground Stations
This study has found that the HR during evacuation from deep underground stations
shows an initial sharp increase and then gradually stabilizes at the highest HR, which is
consistent with previous findings [29,33]. At the same time, this study has confirmed that
the ascending evacuation speed from deep underground stations is significantly correlated
with HR (p < 0.01), confirming the findings of previous studies.
The findings of this study may differ from those of previous research for several
reasons, such as the use of a treadmill as the experimental apparatus by Ronchi et al. [30]
and the parallel double-running staircase in the experiment by Chen et al. [32]. The
type of evacuation staircase and the realism of the experimental scenario will clearly
influence the experimental results. In the study by Zhu Kongjin [33] et al., the demographic
characteristics and level of effort of the experimental population are possible reasons. In
addition, the correlation between male ascending speed and HR is significantly different
from that of females, thus proving the impact of gender on ascending speed.
Another important finding of this study is that the correlation between ascending
evacuation speed and HR increases and then decreases as the evacuation height increases.
For males, HR is no longer a major factor in evacuation speed at a height of 54.6 m, with
the male ascending evacuation speed remaining consistent at 0.63 m/s. For females, the
correlation between ascending evacuation speed and HR remains constant, with ascending
evacuation speed maintained at around 0.57 m/s at a height of 54.6 m. For males, the
stair speed distribution ranges from 0.56 to 1.18 m/s, while for females the range is
0.52–1.06 m/s.
This study used individuals as the experimental subjects and did not consider the
influence of age differences. The evacuation speed during the upward movement along the
evacuation staircase was chosen as the subject of the study as this is consistent with the
general characteristics of upward evacuation from deep underground stations. In addition,
the ascending evacuation speed provides an overall understanding of the evacuation
behaviors of people of different genders and HRs and their physical functions decline
during the upward movement. To enhance the generalizability of the study results, the
most common straight-running staircase found in deep underground stations was used.
Overall, these findings provide new insights into the relationship between HR and
ascending evacuation speed, i.e., HR provides a good indicator of ascending evacuation
speed. Thus, the relationship between ascending evacuation speed and HR can be used as
a basis for the safe design of evacuation stairs in deep underground stations.

4.2. Safety Design Strategy of Evacuation Stairs Rest Area

Following the above discussion, we now propose a safety design strategy for evacua-
tion staircases in deep underground stations based on a mathematical and theoretical model
of ascending evacuation speed and HR. The design is based on predictions of the upward
travel speed and HR fatigue of each person in the staircase, enabling the location and height
range of congested areas to be calculated. One or more scattered rest areas can then be
placed at the side of the evacuation staircase, providing evacuees with appropriate zones
to recover while evacuating from a deep underground station. This avoids fatigued people
 and its layout is designed in accordance with the requirements of various national codes
for deep underground spaces. Pedestrian recognition devices and HR sensors are installed
in the same spatial area at the entrance to the evacuation staircase, allowing HR detection
and real-time recognition of external attributes of the evacuees, as well as the detection
and collection of personnel characteristics. The central manager is installed in the control
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 12 of 15
center of the deep underground station, and collects, stores, and analyzes information.
The rest areas are located at the side of the stairs and are connected to the platform. The
rest areas are closed off during normal station use to avoid situations where the rest area
creating
space unnecessary
is occupied andcongestion on the during
cannot function stairs and
an affecting
emergency theevacuation,
evacuation and of non-fatigued
to prevent
the use and damage of the life-saving equipment placed within them. Eachand
people, thus increasing the overall speed of evacuation and safeguarding life restproperty.
area is
The design
equipped with an consists
access of evacuation
control module,stairs, pedestrian
which recognition
opens the rest areadevices, HR sensors,
upon receipt of an
a central manager,
emergency evacuation
alarm signaling that signs,
peoplecameras,
are tiredand rest areas(Figure
or when the density of9).people
The evacuation
is close to
staircase
the maximum.is thePeople
main route for ascending
are directed evacuation
to the rest from the
areas through signsdeep underground
on the evacuationstation,
stairs,
effectively solving the problem of congestion. At the same time, the rest areascodes
and its layout is designed in accordance with the requirements of various national are
for deep underground
equipped with camerasspaces.
that arePedestrian
connectedrecognition devices
to the control center and
forHR sensors are installed
communication. In the
in the same spatial area at the entrance to the evacuation staircase, allowing HR detection
case of emergency evacuation, the camera can view the people in the rest areas and dy-
and real-time recognition of external attributes of the evacuees, as well as the detection
namically guide them to evacuate.
and collection of personnel characteristics. The central manager is installed in the control
The most important point of this safe design is that it can be applied in new deep
center of the deep underground station, and collects, stores, and analyzes information.
underground stations to improve evacuation safety efficiency and employed during the
The rest areas are located at the side of the stairs and are connected to the platform. The
renovation of existing deep underground stations to reduce the need to adjust the build-
rest areas are closed off during normal station use to avoid situations where the rest area
ing structure and layout. Multiple rest areas can be located on the same side of the stair-
space is occupied and cannot function during an emergency evacuation, and to prevent
way platform, thus reducing the space required for evacuation routes in the underground
the use and damage of the life-saving equipment placed within them. Each rest area is
station and lowering construction costs. At the same time, the locations of the rest areas
equipped with an access control module, which opens the rest area upon receipt of an
are designed to correspond with the minimum upward fatigue HR height and the crowd
emergency alarm signaling that people are tired or when the density of people is close to
density at different heights. This accounts for differences in the physical ability of different
the maximum. People are directed to the rest areas through signs on the evacuation stairs,
categories
effectivelyof pedestrians,
solving making
the problem the designed
of congestion. Atrest
theareas
same more
time, humane, scientific,
the rest areas and of
are equipped
practical
with cameras that are connected to the control center for communication. In the case of
application value. The timely diversion of fatigued people and the avoidance of
congestion
emergencyon the stairs the
evacuation, are camera
expectedcanto view
greatly
theimprove
people inthethesafety level and
rest areas of underground
dynamically
spaces.
guide them to evacuate.

Figure
Figure9.
9.Staircase
Staircasesafety
safetydesign
designstrategy
strategydiagram.
diagram.

The most important point of this safe design is that it can be applied in new deep
5. Conclusions
underground stationsexperiments,
Through real-life to improve evacuation safety
a significant efficiency
correlation (p <and employed
0.01) during the
was demonstrated
renovation of existing deep underground stations to reduce the need to adjust
between ascending evacuation speed and HR in deep underground stations. Furthermore,the building
structure and layout. Multiple rest areas can be located on the same side of the stairway
platform, thus reducing the space required for evacuation routes in the underground
station and lowering construction costs. At the same time, the locations of the rest ar-
eas are designed to correspond with the minimum upward fatigue HR height and the
crowd density at different heights. This accounts for differences in the physical ability of
different categories of pedestrians, making the designed rest areas more humane, scien-
tific, and of practical application value. The timely diversion of fatigued people and the
avoidance of congestion on the stairs are expected to greatly improve the safety level of
underground spaces.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 13 of 15

5. Conclusions
Through real-life experiments, a significant correlation (p < 0.01) was demonstrated
between ascending evacuation speed and HR in deep underground stations. Furthermore,
the degree of the correlation between HR and ascending evacuation speed was observed to
vary with height. For males, HR is no longer a major factor affecting the ascending evacu-
ation speed at a height of 54.6 m, whereas for females, HR still influences the ascending
evacuation speed. Based on the experimental results, mathematical models describing
the effect of male and female HR on the upward movement speed was developed for
evacuation from a 54.6 m deep station.
The same points and different points between the results of this study and those of
previous studies have been discussed. HR has important implications for evaluating the
ascending evacuation speed in deep underground spaces. On this basis, a safety design
strategy for evacuation staircases in deep underground station was proposed. The safety
system can calculate the ascending evacuation speed of each person in the evacuation
staircase based on HR data from a detector, predict potentially crowded locations and
height ranges along the evacuation staircase, and dynamically determine the best rest
area and evacuation path for deep underground stations. With further advances in this
safe staircase design, the sustainable construction and development of deep underground
stations will be enhanced.

6. Limitations and Prospects

This study proposes a safety design strategy for evacuation stairs in deep underground
stations based on heart rate and ascending evacuation speed. Nevertheless, there are still
some areas that need improvement in this study. Firstly, this study only analyzed the
relationship between heart rate and speed between men and women, without considering
the impact of physical differences in individuals of the same sex, such as their height,
weight, and other factors. Secondly, the experimental participants in this study were young
people and did not consider the different effects of heart rate brought by other age groups,
such as adolescents, middle-aged people, and older people.
Based on the limitations of this study, future work may be directed towards: (1) study-
ing the relationship between elements such as height and weight of personnel under the
same type on heart rate and evacuation speed; and (2) studying the relationship between
different ages on heart rate and evacuation speed.

Author Contributions: G.P.: conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, writing—original

draft, formal analysis, visualization, project administration; M.P.: conceptualization, methodology,
validation, writing—review and editing, supervision; T.Z.: methodology, validation, data curation,
investigation, supervision; Z.W.: software, validation, data curation, investigation; Z.L.: software,
validation, data curation, investigation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under
Grant Nos. 51878082 and 52278005.
Institutional Review Board Statement: All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before
they participated in the study. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of
Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chongqing University.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in
the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available on request
from the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the editors and anonymous reviewers for their comments
and nice suggestions, which greatly improved the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors have no competing interest to declare that are relevant to the
content of this article.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10670 14 of 15

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