Low-Pressure Tube Systems

energies
Article
Low Pressure Tube Transport—An Alternative to Ground
Road Transport—Aerodynamic and Other Problems and
Possible Solutions
Janusz Piechna
Institute of Aeronautics and Applied Mechanics, Warsaw University of Technology, 00-665 Warsaw, Poland;
jpie@meil.pw.edu.pl
Abstract: This paper presents the concept of one possible but unconventional implementation of a
Low Pressure Tube Transport (LPTT) system for a network with station-to-station distances of 300 km,
based on the use of circular tunnels in which modular vehicles consisting of three interconnected
functional segments move on wheels with airless tires. The physical limitations associated with
high-speed vehicle travel in tunnels are presented. The reasons for the expected inconvenience
in the travel system, compensated by short travel times, are justified. Assumptions for the use of
locomotion, safety, and passenger segments in the construction of a vacuum modular vehicle are
presented, as well as systems to ensure the efficient conversion of serial traffic in tunnels to parallel
traffic in station areas. Schemes of station construction and traffic organization in the station area are
presented, as well as assumptions for a number of systems increasing the safety of vehicle traffic used
in emergency situations. Visualizations of some solutions are presented. Details of the construction
of a locomotive segment based on a multi-wheel system of airless wheels with the use of a system of
linear motors for acceleration and an inertial drive system between them to reduce its weight are
presented. Some conclusions from tests conducted on built simulators, mechanical and virtual, of the
Citation: Piechna, J. Low Pressure passenger segment of a vacuum vehicle are discussed.
Tube Transport—An Alternative to
Ground Road Transport—Aerodynamic Keywords: vacuum tube high-speed transport; vactrain; hyperloop; hyperloop station; hyperloop
and Other Problems and Possible safety aspects; simulators; low pressure high-speed trains
Solutions. Energies 2021, 14, 3766.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133766
Academic Editor: Antonio Crespo 1. Introduction

Low pressure tunnel transport is an interesting and competitive alternative to road
Received: 12 May 2021
transport due to the potentially very high vehicle movement speeds and significantly
Accepted: 19 June 2021
Published: 23 June 2021
reduced aerodynamic drag. The pressure level in tunnels is the main factor reducing the
energy consumption for moving vehicles at very high speeds practically not possible in
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
road transport.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
In this transport mode, there are a number of specific and not very widely known
published maps and institutional affil- aerodynamic problems not present in road transport resulting from the extremely high
iations. speeds of vehicle movement in an unusual environment. These problems translate into
the emergence of unusual design solutions for the vehicles themselves, the organizational
systems, and the safety systems.
In 1909, rocket pioneer Robert H. Goddard proposed the first concept of high-speed
trains moving in a vacuum or evacuated tubes [1], patented in 1950 [2]. A very realistic
Copyright: © 2021 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
continuation of this idea was presented in a project of the Swissmetro [3–6]. A modern
This article is an open access article
version of the vacuum train (Hyperloop) was proposed by Elon Musk in a white paper
distributed under the terms and
published by SpaceX in 2013 [7]. In 2017, researchers who follow Elon Musk introduced the
conditions of the Creative Commons TransPod solution [8], showing some aerodynamic and structural analysis of the proposed
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// solution. The HeliRail train and Triple-Helix concepts were proposed in 2020 [9] and these
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ were among the last. A detailed analysis of hyperloop technology in transportation and
4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 3766. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133766 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 3766 2 of 33
a comparison of different means of transportation are provided in [10–12]. A Canadian

report [13] (2020) contains the recent state-of-the-art vacuum train technology.
This paper focused on the physical and technical aspects of the components of the low
pressure tube rail system and their interrelationships. This appears to be the first study
that goes deeper into the area of realistic technical solutions and safety systems.
The location of the main population centers in Poland means that the maximum
distances between them does not exceed 300 km. Therefore, average vehicle speeds of
around 600 km/h are sufficient to achieve a satisfactorily short journey time of 30 min.
The approach to using high-speed vehicles in a tunnel presented here differs somewhat
from the commonly used approach.
Many of the presented Hyperloop concepts show the interior of a vehicle with a
lot of empty space, with full freedom of movement for the people inside, giving a false
impression of unexpected interior comfort [14].
However, these expectations are not realistic. A vacuum train is expected to have a
large capacity and a short and cheap trip. Note the high speed of the vehicle and the short
travel time. Above all, due to the short time spent in the vehicle, we require passengers
to agree to a certain limitation of travel comfort. One limitation is to remain seated in
the vehicle throughout the short ride time. The proposed system of seating in the vehicle
parallel with access from both sides of the vehicle enables passengers to occupy and leave
their seats quickly and comfortably. This significantly reduces the frontal area of the vehicle
and the effects of the Kantrowitz constraint [15,16], and reduces the total travel time.
The presented work was part of a larger project including analyses of the potential
for the development and implementation of vacuum rail technology in Poland in a social,
technical, economic, and legal context.
Aspects of tunnel construction were discussed in the publication [17].
Publication [18] presented one possible solution of a vacuum rail station, created
under different assumptions of the vehicle running system.
Economic aspects—the costs of construction and operation of the railway—were
analyzed in the paper [19].
In the present study, one possible concept for the construction of the tunnels, ve-
hicles, and systems of connecting serial traffic in tunnels with parallel traffic at stations
was presented.
The technical solutions resulting from these assumptions are presented.
This paper shows how existing technical solutions can be used in the station area and
in the low pressure area separated by airlocks.
A coherent system, based on the assumption of a cylindrical tunnel surface and a
circular lifting system of a three-segment vehicle, with construction solutions ensuring safe
and high-frequency use of vehicles with limitations resulting from the assumptions made,
was presented.
Attention was drawn to the need for technical solutions that maximize both, passenger
safety and failure-free system operation. Hypothetical scenarios of random events and the
possibilities of preventing their consequences were presented.
The analysis was limited to the operation of the system on route sections not exceeding
350 km at maximum speeds of 700 km/h.
2. Physical Basics and Limitations of the Operation of Low Pressure Transport

2.1. Aerodynamic Drag of Vehicles Moving in Low Pressure Railway Tunnels
2.1.1. Influence of Pressure in the Tunnel
Aerodynamic drag forces are proportional to the air density, the square of the vehicle
speed, the frontal area, and the coefficient of aerodynamic drag, depending on the shape of
the vehicle.
Air density depends linearly on pressure, and the desire to lower the air density is the
basis of interest in low pressure railway.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 3 of 33
In a tunnel isolated from the surroundings, we can reduce the pressure, which leads
to a decrease in air density. Neither the gas constant nor the temperature change.
By lowering the pressure in the tunnel from 100,000 Pa to 1000 Pa (100 times),
we also reduce the air density 100 times. This means a 100-fold reduction in the vehi-
cle’s aerodynamic drag and a 100-fold reduction in the power required to overcome the
aerodynamic drag.
Depending on how the vehicle is suspended (on wheels, on a magnetic track, or an
air cushion), the rolling resistance, electromagnetic induced resistance, or the air cushion
resistance, in other words, the specific motion resistances have to be overcome. This is
the second component of the drag. More detailed information on the effect of tunnel air
pressure is presented in Section 3.3.3.
2.1.2. Effect of the Vehicle Frontal Area in Relation to the Tunnel Cross-Section
Cars move on the Earth’s surface, airplanes move high and fast in an area that is
practically unlimited. Low pressure vehicles can run very fast, but in a tunnel with a
circular cross-section only slightly larger than that of the low pressure vehicle. Does the
restriction of the space around the vehicle and walls of the tunnel have an effect on its
aerodynamic drag? What should be the proportions between the cross-section of the
vehicle and that of the tunnel?
Due to the movement of the vehicle in the limited space of the tunnel, additional
effects appear due to the compressibility of the medium in the tunnel, which limit the
maximum speed of the vehicle undisturbed movement.
The maximum speeds of propagation of disturbances (pressure surges or velocities)
are limited by the speed of sound. √
c = kRT
where c is the speed of propagation of weak disturbances (acoustic waves), k is the ratio of
specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at constant volume; R is the gas constant
of air R = 287 kJ/kgK, and T is the air temperature.
In the area around the vehicle and in the gap around it, the speed of flow is greater
than the speed of the vehicle and increases with its speed, finally reaching the speed of
sound. This causes the flow to be blocked at the critical flow level in the area of the smallest
cross-section between the vehicle and the tunnel and a pressure surge wave appears ahead
of the vehicle. The vehicle carries an increasing volume of air with it, pushing it forward.
The more or less annular surface with the velocity of flow equal to the speed of sound acts
as a kind of seal between the vehicle and the tunnel walls. This phenomenon is called the
Kantrowitz limit [15].
Figure 1 depicts an example of the geometry of vehicles traveling in a tunnel at a speed
of 200 m/s (720 km/h), showing the complex flow structure around the rear of the vehicle
when a supersonic flow area is formed there, closed by the shock wave, and constituting an
invisible “gasket” restricting the flow of air around the vehicle. This, of course, increases
the aerodynamic resistance of the vehicle.
Figure 1 shows the areas of supersonic flow terminating in a shock wave, arising
behind the vehicle and originating from the surface where the velocity of flow equals the
velocity of sound (Ma = 1).
From the equations linking the gas parameters (pressure, density, temperature, speed,
free-flow cross-section), it was possible to determine the relationship between the ratio of
the vehicle cross-section to the tunnel cross-sectional area and the vehicle speed at which
the critical flow appears (flow velocity reaches the speed of sound) in the area between the
vehicle and the walls of the tunnel (see Figure 2).
The smaller the cross-section of the vehicle in relation to that of the tunnel, the
greater the possible vehicle speed without reaching the speed of sound in the gap around
the vehicle.
Energies 2021, 14,
Energies 2021, 14, x3766
FOR PEER REVIEW 44ofof3333
Figure 1. The Kantrowitz limit and visualization of vehicle blocking area.
From the equations linking the gas parameters (pressure, density, temperature
speed, free-flow cross-section), it was possible to determine the relationship between the
ratio of the vehicle cross-section to the tunnel cross-sectional area and the vehicle speed
at which the critical flow appears (flow velocity reaches the speed of sound) in the area
between the vehicle and the walls of the tunnel (see Figure 2).
Figure
Figure 1.
1. The Kantrowitz
Kantrowitz limit
limit and
andvisualization
visualizationofofvehicle
vehicleblocking
blockingarea.
area.
From the equations linking the gas parameters (pressure, density, temperature,
speed, free-flow cross-section), it was possible to determine the relationship between the
ratio of the vehicle cross-section to the tunnel cross-sectional area and the vehicle speed
at which the critical flow appears (flow velocity reaches the speed of sound) in the area
between the vehicle and the walls of the tunnel (see Figure 2).
Figure 2.Max
Figure 2. Maxspeed
speedofof vehicle
vehicle (pod)
(pod) limited
limited byfrontal
by the the frontal
area toarea to tunnel
tunnel cross-section
cross-section ratio. ratio.
It is possible to further increase the speed of the vehicle, but this is associated with an
The smaller the cross-section of the vehicle in relation to that of the tunnel, the greater
increase in aerodynamic drag.
the possible vehicle leads
This information speed to without reaching
the conclusion the speedway
that, whichever of sound in the
it is looked gapcross-
at, the around the
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW vehicle. 5 of 33
section of the vehicle should be kept as small as possible in relation to the cross-section of
It is possible to further increase the speed of the vehicle, but this is associated with
the tunnel.
an increase in aerodynamic
In the presented solution,drag.
the diameter of the tunnel was arbitrarily set at 4.7 m to
A basic scheme of the low the
This
the information leads to conclusion
tube that, whichever wayandit isvisualization
looked at, the of
cross-
enable transport of containers.
pressure transport (LPTT) the
Figure
section
A 2. Max
of
basicthespeed
scheme of
vehicle vehicle
of should
the (pod)
low be limited
kept
pressure by
as the
small
tube frontal
as area to
possible
transport tunnel
(LPTT)in cross-section
relation
and to theratio.
visualization cross-section
of the of
stations andand
stations tunnels
tunnelsarearedepicted
depicted ininFigures
Figures 3 and
3 and 4. 4.
the tunnel.
The smaller the cross-section of the vehicle in relation to that of the tunnel, the greater
In the presented solution, the diameter of the tunnel was arbitrarily set at 4.7 m to
the possible vehicle speed without reaching the speed of sound in the gap around the
enable the transport of containers.
vehicle.
It is possible to further increase the speed of the vehicle, but this is associated with
an increase in aerodynamic drag.
This information leads to the conclusion that, whichever way it is looked at, the cross-
section of the vehicle should be kept as small as possible in relation to the cross-section of
the tunnel.
In the presented solution, the diameter of the tunnel was arbitrarily set at 4.7 m to
enable
Figure 3.the
Figure 3. Scheme transport
Scheme of pressure
of a low
of a low containers.
pressure tube transport (LPTT) system.
tube transport (LPTT) system.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 5 of 33
Figure 3. Scheme of a low pressure tube transport (LPTT) system.
Figureand
Figure 4. Visualization of stations 4. Visualization
tunnels. of stations and tunnels.
2.1.3.inWave
2.1.3. Wave Processes Processes in the Tunnel
the Tunnel
A vehicle runningAinvehicle running
a tunnel is like in aa tunnel
pistonisrunning
like a piston
in a running in Depending
cylinder. a cylinder. Depending
on the on the
ratio of the cross-section to that of the tunnel, the piston-cylinder system is more or less
ratio of the cross-section to that of the tunnel, the piston-cylinder system is more or less
tight. When the vehicle is moving fast and critical flow occurs, the piston-cylinder system
tight. When the vehicle is moving fast and critical flow occurs, the piston-cylinder system
is sealed.
is sealed. When only one vehicle is moving, then during the acceleration phase the vehicle pro-
When only one duces successive
vehicle overlapping
is moving, thencompression
during thewaves in front, which
acceleration phaseare thetransformed
vehicle into a
produces successive shock wave. A fancompression
overlapping of the expansion wave
waves inisfront,
created behind
which thetransformed
are vehicle. Schematically,
into the
a shock wave. A fan propagation of these waves
of the expansion waveisisshown
created in behind
Figure 5,theandvehicle.
a CFD calculation of temporary
Schematically,
the propagation ofpressure
these wavesdistribution
is shown in the tunnel, 5,
in Figure which
and is the result
a CFD of a fast-moving
calculation LPTT pod, is
of temporary
shown in Figure 6.
pressure distribution in the tunnel, which is the result of a fast-moving LPTT pod, is shown
A counterpart to a vehicle moving fast and at low pressures is a rocket moving at
in Figure 6.
high altitude. Under these conditions, the phenomenon of flow laminarization occurs.
A counterpart to a vehicle moving fast and at low pressures is a rocket moving at high
Due to the reduced pressure, the air density is reduced and consequently the dynamic
altitude. Under these conditions,
viscosity of the airthe phenomenon
increases, of flow
which results in laminarization
a reduction of the occurs. Due
Reynolds to
number. The
the reduced pressure, the air
Reynolds density
number is reduced
decreases whenand
the consequently
pressure in the the dynamic
tunnel viscosity
is reduced by 100 or 1000
times.
of the air increases, whichTheresults
viscous ineffects are relatively
a reduction veryReynolds
of the weak due to the occurrence
number. of compressibility
The Reynolds
number decreaseseffects
whenthat the generate
pressureforces in themany times
tunnel higher than
is reduced viscous
by 100 forces,
or 1000 due to
times. Thehigh flight
viscous effects arespeeds. The very
relatively problem weakof turbulence
due to themodel selectionofwas
occurrence studied in the publication
compressibility effects [20],
that generate forcesand it turned
many times out that the
higher three
than analyzed
viscous turbulence
forces, due tomodels Spalartspeeds.
high flight Allmaras,
The k-eps, and
k-omega did not show differences in relation to the experimental results. In the case ana-
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWproblem of turbulence model selection was studied in the publication [20], and it turned 6 of
lyzed in this study, the SST k-omega model was used.
out that the three analyzed turbulence models Spalart Allmaras, k-eps, and k-omega did
If we assume that the vehicle occupies the entire tunnel cross-section, then while ac-
not show differences in relation to the experimental results. In the case analyzed in this
celerating with constant acceleration, the vehicle will produce a series of compression
study, the SST k-omega
waves model
in front,was used.
passing into a shock wave at some distance from the vehicle. The vehicle
leaves a fan of the expansion wave behind the vehicle. When the tunnel behind the vehicle
is closed, the expansion waves are repeatedly reflected from the end of the tunnel and
from the vehicle, causing the pressure behind the vehicle to drop significantly.
Figure 5. The diagram of the vehicle movement and the simplified structure of the waves accompa-
Figure
nying 5. The
this diagram
movement inof
thethe vehicle movement and the simplified structure of the waves accomp
tunnel.
nying this movement in the tunnel.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 6 of 33
Figure 5. The diagram of the vehicle movement and the simplified structure of the waves accompa-
nying this movement in the tunnel.
Figure
Figure6.6.Temporary
Temporarypressure distribution
pressure at the
distribution tunnel
at the wallswalls
tunnel and and
on the
onsurfaces of theofpod
the surfaces theob-
pod obtained
tained
from from numerical
numerical 3D simulations
3D simulations (u(u
= =200
200m/s).
m/s). The
Thepod
podisismoving
moving to to
thethe
right.
right.
The maximum
If we pressure
assume build-up
that the in occupies
vehicle front of thethe
vehicle is: tunnel cross-section, then while
entire
accelerating with constant acceleration, ρc∆vehicle
∆p = the u will produce a series of compression
waves in front, passing into a shock wave at some distance from the vehicle. The vehicle
p —pressure
∆leaves a fan ofincrease, ∆u —speed
the expansion behind ρthe
wavechange, —density, c —thethe
vehicle. When speed of sound.
tunnel behind the vehicle
If we assume
is closed, that the pressure
the expansion in the
waves are tunnel isreflected
repeatedly 1000 Pa, the temperature
from the end ofisthe
300tunnel
K, the and from
air
thedensity is 0.0116
vehicle, kg/m
causing 3, the speed of sound is 347 m/s, and the vehicle accelerates to a
the pressure behind the vehicle to drop significantly.
speed of 200maximum
The m/s, then the pressurebuild-up
pressure increase will be 806
in front ofPa.
theTherefore, the pressure in front
vehicle is:
of the vehicle will increase by 80%. Behind the vehicle, due to multiple reflections of the
expansion wave from the vehicle, and from the ∆pclosed
= ρc∆uend of the tunnel, the pressure will
drop by more than 800 Pa.
When the vehicle
∆p—pressure reaches
increase, a steady change,
∆u—speed speed, the pressure inc—the
ρ—density, front of the vehicle
speed stabi-
of sound.
lizes, and the pressure behind it continues to drop. As the vehicle reduces speed while
If we assume that the pressure in the tunnel is 1000 Pa, the temperature is 300 K, the
reaching the destination, the 3wave pattern is reversed. Expansion waves are created in
air density is 0.0116 kg/m , the speed of sound is 347 m/s, and the vehicle accelerates to a
speed of 200 m/s, then the pressure increase will be 806 Pa. Therefore, the pressure in front
of the vehicle will increase by 80%. Behind the vehicle, due to multiple reflections of the
expansion wave from the vehicle, and from the closed end of the tunnel, the pressure will
drop by more than 800 Pa.
When the vehicle reaches a steady speed, the pressure in front of the vehicle stabilizes,
and the pressure behind it continues to drop. As the vehicle reduces speed while reaching
the destination, the wave pattern is reversed. Expansion waves are created in front of the
vehicle, and compression waves behind the vehicle converge to form a shock wave. The
low pressure in the tunnel causes the amplitude of both waves to be small in absolute
terms. On the other hand, relative values are very large. The amplitude of these waves
depends on the speed at which the vehicle accelerates. Resistances may increase several
times (3–4 times) in relation to the flow, unlimited by the tunnel walls [21]. An interesting
analysis of the aerodynamic characteristics of the hyperloop system can be found in [22].
A more complicated wave structure occurs when there are several vehicles in a tunnel.
The first vehicle has the greatest aerodynamic drag. The second and subsequent vehicles
follow the trail left by their predecessor. There is less pressure in this track. Although the
pressure increase generated by the next vehicle is similar, this next vehicle finds an area in
the tunnel in which its predecessor was moving, and this results in lower-than-average
pressure in the tunnel. Therefore, the cumulative pressure acting on the front of the vehicle
is lower. The pressure waves generated by the next vehicle reach the vehicle in front and
increase the pressure on its rear walls, reducing its aerodynamic resistance. The process is
complex. The structure of overlapping compression and expansion waves depends on the
speed of the vehicles and the distance between them.
in front and increase the pressure on its rear walls, reducing its aerodynamic
The process is complex. The structure of overlapping compression and expans
depends on the speed of the vehicles and the distance between them.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 Figure 7 shows schematically the paths of movement of four vehicles 7 of 33 and t
fied wave systems related to them. In Figure 8, a CFD calculation of temporar
distribution in the tunnel, which is the result of the two fast moving LPTT pod
in theFigure
vicinity of each
7 shows other, the
schematically is presented.
paths of movement of four vehicles and the simpli-
When
fied wave the vehicle
systems related todoes
them.not block8,the
In Figure entire
a CFD tunnel
calculation of cross-section, the phen
temporary pressure
curring are similar, but their amplitude is smaller.
distribution in the tunnel, which is the result of the two fast moving LPTT pods traveling
in the vicinity of each other, is presented.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 33

Figure 7. Schematic paths of movement of four vehicles and the simplified wave systems related
Figure
to them.7. Schematic paths of movement of four vehicles and the simplified wave system
them.
Figure
Figure8.8.Temporary
Temporarypressure distribution
pressure in a tunnel
distribution with two
in a tunnel pods
with twoatpods
high speed.
at high speed.
When
In thethevehicle
general, problemdoes not
of the block the
Kantrowitz entire
limit tunnel
can be cross-section,
avoided thepres-
by lowering the phenomena
sure in the tunnel.
occurring are similar, but their amplitude is smaller.
AInvehicle can the
general, move with a blocked
problem of the flow around the
Kantrowitz vehicle
limit can bebetween its walls
avoided and
by lowering the
tunnel
pressurewalls, but tunnel.
in the an increase in resistance requires a reduction in pressure in the tunnel.
This appears to be a more effective solution than the use of compressors on board the
vehicle, as was suggested in the Hyperloop Alpha report [7].
The use of rooms with a larger volume at the ends of the tunnels, as shown in Figure
4, reduces the amplitudes of the waves reflected from the open ends of the tunnels.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 8 of 33
A vehicle can move with a blocked flow around the vehicle between its walls and
tunnel walls, but an increase in resistance requires a reduction in pressure in the tunnel.
This appears to be a more effective solution than the use of compressors on board the
vehicle, as was suggested in the Hyperloop Alpha report [7].
The use of rooms with a larger volume at the ends of the tunnels, as shown in Figure 4,
reduces the amplitudes of the waves reflected from the open ends of the tunnels.
2.1.4. Operation of Vehicles as a Vacuum Pump

The analysis of the transient movement of vehicles in the low pressure rail tunnel
shows that, to a greater or lesser extent, they push a certain amount of air in front of them,
creating zones of increased pressure near the destination station.
This effect is stronger the higher the vehicle speed. At low pressures, any increase in
pressure reduces the power consumed by the vacuum pumps. Therefore, vacuum pumps
should be located near the ends of the tunnels, near the destination stations, and in front
of the electric linear brakes. To enhance this effect, vehicles should be equipped with
inflatable but non-contact flanges to seal the vehicle in the tunnel.
3. Low Pressure Tube Transport (LPTT) Pod Specific Requirements

In the low pressure conditions of the tunnel, it is not so much the drag coefficient of
the vehicle as the frontal area of the vehicle that determines its aerodynamic drag. The
smaller the vehicle in relation to the tunnel cross-section, the higher the maximum speed.
This reservation can be alleviated or avoided by lowering the pressure in the LPTT tunnel.
A low ratio of the vehicle cross-section to that of the tunnel can be ensured by the use
of tunnels with large diameters, or by using vehicles with small cross-sections. The first
solution is very expensive, the second one limits travel comfort.
Such a limitation makes it sensible to assume that passengers will travel in a seated
position and will not move freely inside the vehicle, which will enable the construction of
vehicles with a small cross-section traveling at high speed, ensuring very short travel times.
The optimal solution was the principle of building vehicles with minimum permissible
lateral dimensions, resulting from the dimensions of people traveling while seated.
After considering the various requirements for LPTT vehicles running in long tunnels,
where low pressure is maintained to dramatically reduce aerodynamic drag, and taking into
account perceptions about the expectations of passengers of such vehicles and limitations
of current technologies and safety considerations, it was concluded that the vehicle design
should be in the form of a modular unit.
3.1. Basic Assumptions

Specific environmental conditions require specific vehicle design solutions. The over-
riding and absolute requirement is safety. The proposed three-segment vehicle design
enables the concentration of safety efforts to one specialized segment—the safety segment.
Each segment can be designed, built, and developed by independent specialized companies.
It was assumed that the vehicle must fulfill three basic functions: locomotive, safety,
and comfort.
The locomotive function is understood as the ability to move along the bottom of
the tunnel, accelerate quickly, and maintain a high travel speed over a long section of
the tunnel.
The function of ensuring safety is the isolation of the vehicle zone occupied by passen-
gers from the unfavorable environment in the tunnel and ensuring appropriate climatic
conditions (providing an oxygen supply and the removal of carbon dioxide, moisture,
and heat).
The comfort function is the provision of quick entry to and exit from a vehicle seat at
the starting and ending stations and an attractive interior with virtual windows.
It was assumed that each of these functions would be provided by a structurally
separate module.
tunnel, accelerate quickly, and maintain a high travel speed over a long section of the
tunnel.
The function of ensuring safety is the isolation of the vehicle zone occupied by pas-
sengers from the unfavorable environment in the tunnel and ensuring appropriate cli-
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 matic conditions (providing an oxygen supply and the removal of carbon dioxide, 9 of 33mois-
ture, and heat).

The comfort function is the provision of quick entry to and exit from a vehicle seat at
the starting
In theand endingsolution,
proposed stationsthe
and an attractive
locomotive interior
function with virtual
is performed by awindows.
LPTT module
It was
based onassumed that each
a multi-wheeled of these
chassis. Thefunctions
design of would be provided
this module, with theby a structurally
development of sep-
arate module.
technology, can change significantly, as it can be replaced with a magnetic levitation system
orIn the proposed
a system based onsolution, the locomotive function is performed by a LPTT module
air cushions.
based on a multi-wheeled chassis. of
The safety module in the form Thea lightweight
design of hermetic composite
this module, withtank
the will perform
development of
the function of ensuring safety. This module will evolve slowly, because its functions are
technology, can change significantly, as it can be replaced with a magnetic levitation sys-
directly related to human features which change slowly.
tem or aThe system based
comfort on airiscushions.
function performed by the passenger module (segment), which is
inserted into the safetyinmodule
The safety module the form of a lightweight
through hermetic
one of its open ends.composite
The module tank will perform
includes a
theseat
function
layout,ofasensuring safety. Thiscovers
well as side-opening module withwillvirtual
evolve slowly,screens.
window becauseThisits functions
module are
directly relatedastodifferent
may change human technologies
features which change
develop. Forslowly.
example, virtual windows currently
The comfort function is performed by the passenger
based on electronic monitors may in the future be replaced bymodule (segment),
flexible visual foils orwhich
three- is in-
serted into the laser
dimensional safety module through
projections, causing the oneweight
of its of
open ends. The
the covers module
to decrease andincludes
possiblya seat
perform other functions.
layout, as well as side-opening covers with virtual window screens. This module may
Visualization of a faster 30-seater LPTT modular pod version is shown in Figure 9 and
change as different technologies develop. For example, virtual windows currently based
a slower 56-seater version is shown in Figures 10 and 11.
on electronic monitors may in the future be replaced by flexible visual foils or three-di-
A diagram illustrating the loading of the passenger module inside the safety module,
mensional laser projections,module,
located on the locomotion causing the weight
is shown of the
in Figure covers
12. After to decrease
passengers and possibly
are seated in
perform other functions.
the passenger module, waiting on the platform with open side covers, the covers are closed
Visualization
and the module isofslid a faster 30-seater
into the open safety LPTT modular
capsule. pod
After version
loading, theisopen
shown end in
of Figure
the 9
andsafety
a slower 56-seater
module version
is closed and theissafety
shown in Figures
capsule 10 and 11.
is encapsulated.
A diagram illustrating the loading of the passenger module inside the safety module,
located on the locomotion module, is shown in Figure 12. After passengers are seated in
the passenger module, waiting on the platform with open side covers, the covers are
FigureFigure
9. Visualization
9. Visualization closed
of the
of the andofthe
interior
interior of a module
a faster is slidversion
faster30-seater
30-seater into the
version of open
ofthe
the pod
pod safety
with
with capsule.
a smaller
a smaller After
frontal
frontal loading,
areaarea the open
(author
(author end of
Lukasz
Lukasz
Rogowski).
Rogowski). the safety module is closed and the safety capsule is encapsulated.
Figure 10. Visualization

Figure of of
10. Visualization thetheslower
slower56-seater versionofofthe
56-seater version thepod
pod with
with a bigger
a bigger frontal
frontal area.area.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 10 of 33
Figure 10. Visualization of the slower 56-seater version of the pod with a bigger frontal are
Figure 10. Visualization of the slower 56-seater version of the pod with a bigger frontal area.
Figure 11. Open view of basic segments of a LPTT pod.

Figure 11.Open
Figure 11. Open view
view of basic
of basic segments
segments of apod.
of a LPTT LPTT pod.
Figure12.12.
Figure Diagram
Diagram ofprocess
of the the process
of seats of seats
being being
taken taken byinpassengers
by passengers in the
the 56-passenger 56-passenger
module,
closing
closing thethe side
side covers,
covers, and inserting
and inserting thisinside
this module module insidecapsule.
the safety the safety capsule.
Figure
3.2. 12. Diagram
Consequences
3.2. Instead
Consequences
of Appliedof the process
Assumptions
of Applied Assumptions of seats being taken by passengers in the
closing the side covers, and inserting this module inside the safety capsule.
of a single element pod, a three-segment modular system was proposed for
Insteadreasons:
the following of a single element pod, a three-segment modular system was prop
1.the following reasons:
A pod in a tunnel can move in a traditional way on steel wheels, on rails as in a
3.2. traditional
Consequencesrailway,of
onApplied Assumptions
flexible wheels as in the case of cars, on a passive or active
magnetic cushion such as in the case of a Maglevrailway, or on an air cushion. Each
Instead
solution of a single
is technically element
possible, but eachpod, a three-segment
has different modular
running characteristics and system
the maximum
following speedreasons:
limits.
2. There is a large pressure difference between the interior of the vehicle and the air
pressure in the tunnel. The conditions are similar to those of airplanes flying at high
altitudes. This makes it necessary to build a structure separating the interior of the
vehicle from the environment, loaded with high forces. With pressure in the tunnel of
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 11 of 33
1000 Pa and atmospheric pressure inside, a force of 90,000 N (9000 KG) per square
meter of the structure’s surface is exerted. Such a high load on the structure requires
a structure typical for airplanes with a small area of openings for entry and exit. This
limits the speed of replacing passengers in the vehicle. The cylindrical shape of the
safety module guarantees its light construction with a large and easily sealed loading
surface at its ends.
A classic single-segment structure that combines the structure of a light passenger
compartment with a load-bearing system of an undefined structure may be troublesome
and limiting for future developments.
3. The separation of the pod structure into three segments enables their parallel devel-
opment and, by setting certain geometric standards, the replacement of components,
built by different manufacturers and improved over time with the development
of technology.
4. The modular pod design facilitates the effective isolation of the safety module (safety
capsule) from vibrations inevitably generated by the transport module.
5. The modular design of the safety capsule with the passenger module hidden in it
enables rescue operations to be undertaken using at least two methods.
One method is to use an emergency vehicle to remove the safety capsule from the
transport module and move the entire capsule to the containment chamber next to the
LPTT tunnel.
The second method is to use another emergency vehicle with flexible hermetic tunnels
to allow all passengers to pass through to the emergency vehicle.
6. In epidemiological conditions, the vehicle should ensure maximum separation from
other passengers.
In the era of epidemiological threats, the passenger module with light side covers is
an ideal solution that makes it possible to enter a vehicle from the platform area, where
a safe social distance can be maintained, and sit directly in the seating area physically
isolated from other passengers. A pod with two people side-by-side may have the seats
completely separated from each other. A vehicle with four seats in a row may have a
middle separation between the two seats on the left-hand side and the two seats on the
right-hand side. Relatives can sit next to each other and strangers can occupy only one
of the two seats. The second seat would remain empty. Results of the CFD simulations
presented in Figure 13 confirm the possibility of passenger airflow separation.
Figure
Figure 13. 13. Internal
Internal flow
flow schemeininaapod
scheme pod (authors:
(authors: Krzysztof
KrzysztofKurec
Kurecand Bartosz
and Olszanski).
Bartosz Olszanski).
3.3. Vehicle Lifting Systems
Three vehicle lifting systems were considered: pneumatic, electromagnetic, and me-
Three wheeled.
chanical vehicle lifting systems were considered: pneumatic, electromagnetic, and me-
chanical wheeled.
Analyses and calculations of the feasibility of a pneumatic lift system were per-
formed. However, the conclusions of the analysis disqualified this solution for use at the
present time. In the case of airbag lift, the main problem is the small surface area of the air
cushion which could be realized in a vehicle moving in a circular tunnel. The solution
Figure 13. Internal flow scheme in a pod (authors: Krzysztof Kurec and Bartosz Olszanski).

Three vehicle lifting systems were considered: pneumatic, electromagnetic, and me-
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 chanical wheeled. 12 of 33
Analyses and calculations of the feasibility of a pneumatic lift system were per-
formed. However, the conclusions of the analysis disqualified this solution for use at the
present time. In
Analyses andthecalculations
case of airbag lift,feasibility
of the the main of problem is the lift
a pneumatic small surface
system were area of the air
performed.
However, the conclusions of the analysis disqualified this solution for use at the solution
cushion which could be realized in a vehicle moving in a circular tunnel. The present
required
time. high
In the casecushion
of airbag pressure
lift, the with
mainthe associated
problem is the high
smallairflow
surface and
areaslots
of theasairsmall as a
cushion
millimeter. The analysis showed that, even after using the solution
which could be realized in a vehicle moving in a circular tunnel. The solution required high described in the patent
[23] reducing
cushion pressurethe with
intake the airflow by 5 (due
associated high to internal
airflow andrecirculation),
slots as smallthere is a need toThe
as a millimeter. use
compressors
analysis showedwiththat,large pressure
even ratiosthe
after using andsolution
large inlet cross-sections
described (at low
in the patent tunnel
[23] pres-
reducing
sures) which requires a high level of power. This is now being
the intake airflow by 5 (due to internal recirculation), there is a need to use compressors abandoned.
with Currently,
large pressure electromagnetic
ratios and large andinletmagnetic systems (at
cross-sections generate too much
low tunnel induced
pressures) which re-
sistance in relation to the lift force. This
requires a high level of power. This is now being abandoned. solution was also not considered in further con-
siderations.
Currently, electromagnetic and magnetic systems generate too much induced re-
Thein
sistance focus therefore
relation to the was lifton the mechanical
force. This solutionwheel wassystem.
also not considered in further
considerations.
3.3.1.The
Multi-Wheel
focus therefore Vehicle was Lifting
on theSystem
mechanical wheel system.
As a tire rolls and periodically deforms, heat is generated. Under tunnel conditions
3.3.1. Multi-Wheel
(low air pressure) it Vehicle Lifting
is difficult to System
dissipate this heat into the tunnel air. Therefore, it has
beenAs assumed thatand
a tire rolls the periodically
transport module deforms, will heat
use airless steel spring
is generated. Under tires [24],conditions
tunnel which will
be located
(low under the
air pressure) it issafety
difficultcapsule and which
to dissipate thiswill
heatbe a multi-wheel
into the tunnel air. structure to increase
Therefore, it has
operational reliability. Such a system facilitates rescue operations by enabling emergency
been assumed that the transport module will use airless steel spring tires [24], which will
transport of only the safety module with the passengers.
be located under the safety capsule and which will be a multi-wheel structure to increase
In the reliability.
operational case of a multi-wheel
Such a system vehicle, the wheel
facilitates rescue diameters
operationsmay be smaller
by enabling and the
emergency
load-bearing
transport system
of only safer (Figure
the safety module14). with the passengers.
The
In thewishbone
case of asuspension
multi-wheel system
vehicle, makes it possible
the wheel to lift amay
diameters wheel with a damaged
be smaller and the
bearing system and continue driving with a slightly overloaded system (Figure 15).
load-bearing system safer (Figure 14).
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 14. View of the transport module itself. 13 of 33
The wishbone suspension system makes it possible to lift a wheel with a damaged
bearing
Figure 14.system
View ofand
the continue drivingitself.
transport module with a slightly overloaded system (Figure 15).
Figure
Figure 15.
15. Diagram
Diagram of
of aa drive
drive and
and non-drive
non-drive wheel
wheel with
with disc
disc brakes
brakes and
and an
an airless
airless tire
tire in
in the
the form
form of
of aa spring
spring system.
system.
It has been assumed that the diagnostic system of the transport module will monitor
the temperature and vibration level of the wheel bearings and, in the event of excessive
vibration amplitudes, will disable the wheel from operating by lifting it.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 13 of 33
It has been assumed that the diagnostic system of the transport module will monitor
the temperature and vibration level of the wheel bearings and, in the event of excessive
vibration amplitudes, will disable the wheel from operating by lifting it.
3.3.2. Vehicle Acceleration and Braking System by Linear Motors

Regardless of the method of lifting, vehicles accelerate at the beginning of a journey
and brake at the end.
It appears to be a rational idea to use linear accelerators in the form of electric linear
motors at the beginning of a journey. Such an engine has a stator set in the form of groups
of electromagnets switched in such a way that the active electromagnets are turned on
when there is a linear motor rotor located on the accelerated vehicle in their vicinity.
A LPTT vehicle, at the beginning of its journey, should be accelerated to cruising speed
as quickly as possible and decelerated as quickly as possible near the end of its journey in
a tunnel.
The amount of acceleration during acceleration and during braking is mainly limited
by the comfort of the passengers. It was assumed that the acceleration will not exceed the
value of 0.25 g.
We can accelerate and brake vehicles by utilizing the motors, and sources of electricity
on board the vehicle. This is associated with the need to transport heavy engines and
energy sources.
Alternatively, we can use electric linear motors located in the tunnel walls to accelerate
and brake the vehicles in the relevant tunnel zones. In the late 1940 s, Professor Eric
Laithwaite of Imperial College London developed the first full-size working model of such
an engine [25]. Since then, linear motors have been used commercially in a variety of
applications. The review [26] explained the operation of various types of linear motors
used in maglev systems, discussing and comparing their suitability, and described the
scope of worldwide maglev developments.
The availability of permanent magnets (PM) with high energy density and the emer-
gence of high-power electronic converters with digital controllers has accelerated the
development of highly precise, energy-saving linear motion control drives.
The type of engine we are interested in corresponds to the engine proposed as a system
for catapulting aircraft from an aircraft carrier [27].
In contrast to a catapult on an aircraft carrier with similar accelerated masses (about
25,000 kg) and maximum speeds (200 m/s), the required accelerations for our system are
much smaller (about 0.25 g).
In terms of efficiency, conventional rotary induction motors can achieve an efficiency
greater than 90% [28], while high-speed linear induction motors only have an efficiency of
around 50% [25].
The main advantage of a linear motor is the ability to control the acceleration of an
accelerated object through feedback. Another advantage is the low maintenance required
for a heavily used system. Finally, another advantage of the linear motor is the ability to
work with high loads.
This would be important when accelerating trains of three pods.
In the case of electromagnetic catapults mounted on ships, the efficiency of the catapult
is an important factor due to the limited power of the generators installed on ships. The
low efficiency of linear motors was the reason why this project was abandoned.
In stationary applications, the low efficiency of the linear motor is not as important
compared with its other advantages.
Due to the limited acceleration of vehicles during acceleration and braking, the length
of the stator of some of the linear motors located on tunnel walls reaches 10 km and
depends on the maximum speed to which the vehicles are accelerated.
Since the linear motors, in addition to the driving force, also generate a force transverse
to the direction of movement, there is a force stabilizing the position of the movable blade
of theDue to the
stator oflimited
some of acceleration
the linear of vehicles
motors during
located onacceleration
tunnel walls andreaches
braking
of the stator
pends on theofmaximum
some of the linear
speed to motors
which the located on tunnel
vehicles walls reaches 10
are accelerated.
pendsSince
on the themaximum speed in
linear motors, to addition
which thetovehicles are accelerated.
the driving force, also generate
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 Since the linear motors, in addition to the
verse to the direction of movement, there is a force stabilizing driving force, also
thegenerate
14
positiona o
of 33
verse
blade to ofthe
thedirection
expanded of movement,
rotor, keeping theretheis adriven
force stabilizing
object in athe position
stable of t
positio
blade
active of the expanded
stator elements rotor, keeping
attached the the
toobject tunneldriven object in a stable position b
walls.
activeFigures
of the stator elements
expanded rotor,
15–18 to showattached
keeping the to the tunnelofwalls.
driven
the arrangement
in a stable position between the active
two uncoiled linear motor roto
stator elements attached the tunnel walls.
Figures 15–18 show the arrangement of two uncoiled linear motor rotors
the Figures
vehicle andshow
15–18 three
the groups
arrangement of linear motor linear
of two uncoiled stator electromagnets
motor rotors installed situated
on
thevehicle
the vehicle andand
threethree groups
groups of linearof linear
motor motor
stator stator electromagnets
electromagnets situated in
situated in the tunnel.
Figure
Figure
Figure 16.
16.16. View
View
View of
of theof thevehicle
the
vehicle vehicle withexpanded
with
with expanded expanded
linear linear
motorlinear
rotors motor
motor
mounted onrotors
rotors mounted
mounted
the vehicle. on on
thethe
vehiv

Figure 17.17. Perspective view of thefront.
Figure
Figure 17. Perspective
Perspective view ofview of thevehicle
the vehicle vehiclefront.
front.
Figure
Figure 18.18. Perspective
Perspective bottom bottom view
view of the ofwith
vehicle the the
vehicle with
tip of the the
stator tipofof
part thethe stator
linear motor.part of t
Linear motors of this type can work as motors and as brakes. As engines, by consum-
Linearthey
ing electricity, motors of this
accelerate type can
the vehicle, work
giving as motors
it kinetic energy. Inand as brakes.
the final phase of As
the engine
ing electricity, they accelerate the vehicle, giving it kinetic energy. In the fin
vehicle’s motion, other engines work like generators to slow down the vehicle, converting
their kinetic energy into electricity.
vehicle’s motion, other engines work like generators to slow down the vehi
3.3.3. Inertial Vehicle (Pod) Drive

Figure 18. Perspective bottom view of the vehicle with the tip of the stator part of the linear motor.
Linear motors of this type can work as motors and as brakes. As engines, by consum-
ing electricity, they accelerate the vehicle, giving it kinetic energy. In the final phase of the
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 15 of 33
vehicle’s motion, other engines work like generators to slow down the vehicle, converting
3.3.3.
3.3.3.Inertial
InertialVehicle
Vehicle(Pod)
(Pod)Drive
Drive
Considering the low rolling resistance and low aerodynamic drag of the vehicle, an
Considering the low rolling resistance and low aerodynamic drag of the vehicle, an
inertial vehicle propulsion system was considered and analyzed.
inertial vehicle propulsion system was considered and analyzed.
It was assumed that at the beginning of the vehicle movement, it will be accelerated
It was assumed that at the beginning of the vehicle movement, it will be accelerated
by linear motor to a certain speed and will continue to move, losing the kinetic energy it
by linear motor to a certain speed and will continue to move, losing the kinetic energy it
gained to overcome the rolling and aerodynamic resistance.
gained to overcome the rolling and aerodynamic resistance.
It appears that a reasonable assumption is to allow a decrease in velocity correspond-
It appears that a reasonable assumption is to allow a decrease in velocity correspond-
ing to the loss of half of the vehicle’s kinetic energy until reaching the end station or the
ing to the loss of half of the vehicle’s kinetic energy until reaching the end station or the
next linear motor. At this time, the decrease in velocity is nearly linear, meaning that the
next linear motor. At this time, the decrease in velocity is nearly linear, meaning that
average vehicle speed is only 17% less than the initial speed. For longer routes, the addi-
the average
tional vehicle
linear engine speed
placed inis
theonly 17%
tunnel less
will than thethe
accelerate initial speed.
vehicle until For
it haslonger routes, the
the expected
additional linear engine placed in the tunnel will
kinetic energy to reach the station or the next linear motor. accelerate the vehicle until it has the
expected kinetic energy to reach the station or the next linear motor.
Figure 19 shows the decrease in vehicle speed due to rolling resistance and aerody-
namicFigure 19 tunnel
drag for showsairthepressure
decrease in vehicle
levels of 100 speed
Pa anddue
1000toPa,
rolling resistance
with the limits ofand
lossaerody-
of
namic drag for tunnel air pressure levels of 100 Pa and 1000 Pa, with the
50% of the initial vehicle kinetic energy marked. The strong effect of vehicle aerodynamic limits of loss of
drag,
50% ofproportional to air pressure,
the initial vehicle on vehicle
kinetic energy range The
marked. can be seen.effect of vehicle aerodynamic
strong
drag, proportional to air pressure, on vehicle range can be seen.
Figure 19. Decrease in vehicle speed due to rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag for tunnel air
pressure levels of 100 Pa and 1000 Pa.
Simulations showed that, at a distance of 300 km and an air tunnel pressure equal to
500 Pa, to increase the vehicle’s lost kinetic energy to the initial level, only one additional
electric linear motor located at mid-distance is needed to use the inertial propulsion
system without mounting electric motors on board, except for maneuvering motors used
at low speeds.
4. Tunnel Shapes
Modern technologies limit the maximum speed of movement of LPTT vehicles
(700 km/h). Due to the enormous cost of building tunnels, however, they should be
built in such a way that vehicles with speeds of up to 1000 km/h can move in them at a
time when the level of technology allows it.
With today’s multi-wheel chassis technologies with flexible wheels, vehicles can move
along the bottom of a circular tunnel. This solution is also advantageous because it does
not require any additional load-bearing elements to be installed in the tunnel pipes. When
other levitation systems (magnetic, pneumatic) appear, it will be possible to modify the
walls of the tunnels to adapt them to the new track.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 16 of 33
As LPTT pods generally run in a cylindrical tunnel, they have a shape adapted to this
geometry. This geometry is unfavorable for movement within the station area.
Therefore, in the station area, and at atmospheric pressure, platforms (electric longi-
tudinal conveyors) with a classic wheeled chassis running on a rail track, with an upper
cylindrical surface on which the LPTT vehicles sit, are required. The pods, after leaving
the airlock and anchored onto a wheeled electric platform that runs on a typical rail track,
would continue moving in the classic way in the station area. A conventional track with
railroad switches would be used to change the track.
5. Pod Limitations
LPTT vehicles (pods) are very specific vehicles. Their purpose and design combine
the features of both aircraft and submarines.
Features of an aircraft—the pressure in the vehicle is higher than the ambient pressure,
with very high speeds of movement.
Features of a submarine—total autonomy when moving through tunnels, and the
need to ensure living conditions in the vehicle based on internal resources (oxygen, carbon
dioxide absorption, water vapor and heat, and electricity).
And a specific feature—the need to move between the tunnel area with low air pressure
and the station with atmospheric pressure.
Therefore, maintenance, replacement, and replenishment of used factors and sources
of electric energy are much more complicated and time-consuming than other known
means of transport.
LPTT pods move using multi-wheel suspension (Figures 14–18). The pods are rela-
tively long, and most wheels cannot be turned. Their ability to navigate arcs is therefore
limited. They can move in arcs with a very large radius, naturally accommodating its
angular position in the tunnel to pod speed and arcs radius
Due to this, they require special treatment in the station area.
6. Stations
Stations are essential elements of a low pressure rail system. A detailed proposition of
a station developed for Polish conditions can be found in [18].
The idea of a station presented here was based on the assumptions presented above.
With such assumptions and their consequences, the feasible structures of a station and
elements of its equipment were developed to ensure continuous vehicle 17 of 33 traffic in the
tunnels at intervals of 2–5 min.

It was assumed that the stations would contain two separate areas: a low pressure
area Itand
wasan
assumed that thepressure
atmospheric stations would contain two by
area connected separate areas:
a series a low pressure
of parallel airlocks as shown
area and an atmospheric pressure area connected by a series of parallel airlocks as shown
in Figure 20.
in Figure 20.
Figure 20. Example of a possible implementation of the basic elements of LPTT stations and tunnels
Figure 20. Example of a possible implementation of the basic elements of LPTT stations and tunnels
of a low pressure railway.
of a low pressure railway.
The station is the place where serial vehicle traffic in tunnels is converted into parallel
vehicle traffic in the station area.
The proposed solution is the use of cross conveyors operating at minimum vehicle
speeds in the station area (Figures 21 and 22).
The construction of tunnels with turnouts making it possible to avoid the use of in-
The station is the place where serial vehicle traffic in tunnels is converted into paralle
vehicle traffic in the station area.
The proposed solution is the use of cross conveyors operating at minimum vehicl
speeds in the station area (Figures 21 and 22).
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 The construction of tunnels with turnouts making it possible to avoid17the of 33use of in
termediate stations is difficult with the current state of technology.
Therefore, it was assumed that each tunnel ends at the intermediate station B and th
passage from one
The station tunnel
is the place system to the
where serial othertraffic
vehicle would in take place
tunnels at low speed,
is converted using a system
into parallel
of special cross conveyors moving
vehicle traffic in the station area. LPTT vehicles from one tunnel to another. A larg
number of shifters
The proposed wouldis be
solution theused
use oftocross
ensure that the
conveyors transport
operating of vehicles
at minimum between th
vehicle
tunnelsinand
speeds airlocks
the station could
area take21
(Figures place in the shortest possible time.
and 22).
21, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure21.
Figure 21.Cross
Cross conveyor
conveyor chamber—the
chamber—the placeplace
wherewhere
serial serial type transport
type transport in LPTTin LPTTistunnel
tunnel con- is con
vertedtotoparallel
verted parallelin in
thethe station
station area.area.
Figure 22. Scheme of some possible routes of LPTT pods.
FigureThe22. Schemeof of
construction some
tunnels withpossible routes
turnouts making of LPTT
it possible pods.
to avoid the use of
intermediate stations is difficult with the current state of technology.
Therefore, it was assumed that each tunnel ends at the intermediate station B and
Overhead traveling cranes and their derivative transv
the passage from one tunnel system to the other would take place at low speed, using a
system of special cross conveyors moving LPTT vehicles from one tunnel to another. A
vices commonly used, so their design and modification are
large number of shifters would be used to ensure that the transport of vehicles between the
requirement is the need to work at low pressures.
tunnels and airlocks could take place in the shortest possible time.
Overhead traveling cranes and their derivative transverse conveyors are lifting devices
It has been assumed that, regardless of the LPTT veh
commonly used, so their design and modification are state of the art. The only new
requirement is the need to work at low pressures.
magnetic, or pneumatic), pods in the area of the station wi
It has been assumed that, regardless of the LPTT vehicle lifting system (wheeled,
move on additional electric transport vehicles using typical

magnetic, or pneumatic), pods in the area of the station with atmospheric pressure will
move on additional electric transport vehicles using typical railway tracks. After leaving
the airlocks, the LPTT pods are then transported within the
electric vehicles with railway technology.
The main idea behind this station concept was to reduc
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 18 of 33
the airlocks, the LPTT pods are then transported within the area of the station in classic
electric vehicles with railway technology.
The main idea behind this station concept was to reduce the low pressure space and
avoid the need for new technical standards, leaving the rest of the station structure at
atmospheric pressure and using conventional railway technology there (Figure 23).
Figure 23. Low

Figure pressure
23. Low zone,
pressure atmospheric
zone, atmosphericpressure
pressurezone with technical
zone with technicalareas
areas and
and areas
areas accessible
accessible to passengers.
to passengers.
LPTT
LPTT vehicles (pods)
pods slowed could
down be connected
by linear into with
electric motors sets stators
of twomounted
or threeinpods to form a
the tunnel
walls approach the station at low speeds. In the low pressure zone
train. The weight of the whole train would increase, but the aerodynamic drag would of the station, cross
conveyors wait for individual pods, which will transport them in a controlled manner to
remain at a similar level to that of a single LPTT vehicle (pod).
an open airlock or a tunnel.
The
Insecurity controlpressure
the atmospheric zone can be located
station in front
area, many of thesuch
activities entrance to theorstation
as replacing recharg-hall.
These solutions are known from airport terminals.
ing batteries, replacing oxygen cylinders, replacing or regenerating carbon dioxide and
The construction
moisture and configuration
absorbers, cleaning, disinfecting, of platforms
testing vehiclefor car transportation
systems, repairing, etc., must
can takebe spe-
cific, as it
place inmust enable
parallel even the loading
though of a be
they may cartime
ontoconsuming.
the platform.The technical areas of railway
The design
stations andwhere
are places configuration of the platforms
such maintenance activitiesfor
canthe transport of containers must be
be performed.
specific,Both
as itthe
must
crossenable
conveyorsthe loading
on the low ofpressure
containers
side onto
and thetheelectric
platforms.
longitudinal convey-
orsTransportation
on the atmospheric of depressurized vehicles on classic tracks to namely,
pressure side can move both types of vehicles, other places in the city
the integral
single component pod (IU—integral unit) of conventional construction and the universal
can be envisaged.
(UU—universal unit) three component swappable pods.
LPTT vehicles (pods) could be connected into sets of two or three pods to form a train.
6.1.The
Traffic within
weight thewhole
of the Station
train would increase, but the aerodynamic drag would remain at
An LPTT
a similar levelpod, traveling
to that directly
of a single LPTT from station
vehicle (pod). A to station C, with its own low speed
wheel drive, movescontrol
The security from the
zonetunnel
can beto the cross
located conveyor
in front top bedtoand
of the entrance remains
the station anchored
hall.
on it. The cross conveyor with a pod on the bed travels to the position in front of the open
These solutions are known from airport terminals.
The construction and configuration of platforms for car transportation must be specific,
tunnel leading to station C. The unanchored pod, using a low speed wheel drive, enters
as it must enable the loading of a car onto the platform.
the tunnel and approaches the linear motor with stators located in the tunnel walls. This
The design and configuration of the platforms for the transport of containers must be
linear motor
specific, gives
as it mustitenable
its cruising speed.
the loading The operation
of containers of platforms.
onto the moving the LPTT vehicle from
one tunnel to another can be done quickly. The speed of movement of the cross conveyors
with a capacity of 30 tons is about 3 m/s.
It has been proposed to use 5–6 airlocks working in alternate directions to reduce the
work of the vacuum pumps between the low pressure zone and the station.
This requires the development and construction of a system enabling passage from
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 19 of 33
Transportation of depressurized vehicles on classic tracks to other places in the city

can be envisaged.
6.1. Traffic within the Station
An LPTT pod, traveling directly from station A to station C, with its own low speed
wheel drive, moves from the tunnel to the cross conveyor top bed and remains anchored
on it.Conveyors controlledwith
The cross conveyor by the
a podcomputerized
on the bed system
travels tomove perpendicular
the position in fronttoof
the axis
the of
open
the tunnels and airlocks. Their speed of movement is variable, depending
tunnel leading to station C. The unanchored pod, using a low speed wheel drive, enters on the necessary
distance
the tunnel they
andhave to travel,
approaches theand aremotor
linear limited bystators
with the maximum
located inallowable
the tunnelacceleration
walls. This
(about 1 m/s 2). There are several conveyors in the low pressure chamber that move as
linear motor gives it its cruising speed. The operation of moving the LPTT vehicle from
necessary
one tunneltotoservice
another thecan
LPTT vehicles.
be done quickly. The speed of movement of the cross conveyors
withDepending
a capacity of on30the
tonssolution,
is aboutthe airlock covers (doors) may be in the form of hinged
3 m/s.
cups or sliding discs.
It has been proposed to use 5–6 airlocks working in alternate directions to reduce the
workItoftakes about 10–13
the vacuum pumps s for a vehicle
between thetolow
enter the conveyor
pressure zone and from
the the tunnel or airlock.
station.
The time of vehicle exit to an airlock or tunnel is similar.
This requires the development and construction of a system enabling passage from
threeThe speed
tunnels to of
sixmovement
airlocks or to between
anotherthe tunnels
three tunnels.andAthe
waylocks is about
to travel from3one m/s, and to
tunnel it
changes
one of the smoothly to minimize
six airlocks is needed. lateral acceleration.
The covers of
A compact the airlocks
solution are most(Figures
was proposed often in 20–24).
the form of low
The discspressure
with a diameter
chamber of about
between
5the
m, outlets
which are from slid
thehorizontally
LPTT tunnels on rails
and placed aboveisthem
the airlocks to close
equipped or open
with the airlock,
horizontal cross
and are rotatable and can be locked into the closed position. The travel
conveyors (gantries), to be positioned in the appropriate positions to receive the pod, and speeds are about
0.4
form/s, which make
its transfer to the itappropriate
possible totunnel
open or ofclose the airlock
the LPTT in about 12–15 s.
or airlock.
Figure
Figure24.
24.Scheme
Schemeof
ofsome
somepossible
possibleroutes
routesof
ofLPTT
LPTTpods
pods realized
realized by
by aa system
system of
of cross
cross conveyors.
conveyors.
The conveyor
Conveyors system by
controlled makes a flexible implementation
the computerized of many scenarios
system move perpendicular to the of
axisthe
of
movement of LPTT vehicles possible (see Figure 24).
the tunnels and airlocks. Their speed of movement is variable, depending on the necessary
The they
distance mosthave
important of them
to travel, are:limited by the maximum allowable acceleration (about
and are
1 m/s2 ). There are several conveyors in the low pressure chamber that move as necessary
A. Transfer from stations A to C and from stations C to A of single vehicles using one
to service the LPTT vehicles.
or two cross conveyors with an appropriate time shift.
Depending on the solution, the airlock covers (doors) may be in the form of hinged
B. Transfer from stations A to B and simultaneously from stations B to A using one or
cups or sliding discs.
two cross conveyors.
It takes about 10–13 s for a vehicle to enter the conveyor from the tunnel or airlock.
C. Transfer from stations A to B and B to A, and parallel passage from stations C to B
The time of vehicle exit to an airlock or tunnel is similar.
and B to C.
D. Forming and disassembling of a two-pod train.
E. Forming and disassembling a three-pod train.
After passing through the airlocks to the atmospheric pressure side, the LPTT vehi-
cles continue to move on electric transporters along traditional railroad tracks.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 20 of 33
The speed of movement between the tunnels and the locks is about 3 m/s, and it
changes smoothly to minimize lateral acceleration.
The covers of the airlocks are most often in the form of discs with a diameter of about
5 m, which are slid horizontally on rails placed above them to close or open the airlock,
and are rotatable and can be locked into the closed position. The travel speeds are about
0.4 m/s, which make it possible to open or close the airlock in about 12–15 s.
The conveyor system makes a flexible implementation of many scenarios of the
movement of LPTT vehicles possible (see Figure 24).
The most important of them are:
A. Transfer from stations A to C and from stations C to A of single vehicles using one
or two cross conveyors with an appropriate time shift.
B. Transfer from stations A to B and simultaneously from stations B to A using one or
two cross conveyors.
C. Transfer from stations A to B and B to A, and parallel passage from stations C to B
and B to C.
D. Forming and disassembling of a two-pod train.
E. Forming and disassembling a three-pod train.
After passing through the airlocks to the atmospheric pressure side, the LPTT vehicles
continue to move on electric transporters along traditional railroad tracks.
The track system makes it possible to travel from any platform to any airlock, and
from any airlock to any platform. This enables the flexible operation of both vehicles and
airlocks in the event of disturbances in the station’s operating schedule, and saves energy
used by the airlocks.
In the technical area, the basic elements of the LPTT vehicle are automatically tested,
electric batteries, oxygen cylinders, containers with carbon dioxide, and moisture absorbers
can all be replaced.
If a malfunction is detected, then the vehicle is removed from the technical area and
replaced with a spare one.
The previously discussed scenarios of the movement of the vacuum rail vehicles
between stations A and C (with the formation of a three-car set), between station B and
stations A and C (the blue vehicle is a freight vehicle) and the situation of the emergency
removal of a faulty cross conveyor blocking the traffic at the station, were animated and
presented in the film (Supplementary Video S1). Descriptions of each system component
are shown in Figure 20, Figure 23, and Figure 24.
6.2. Station Area Accessible for Passengers

Platforms are places accessible for passengers where they can load hand luggage and
take their seats from both sides of the vehicle simultaneously.
Universal LPTT (UU) vehicles travel on lorries from airlocks to the front wall of the
platform hall. At this time, the safety module is depressurized. Its front cover turns 180
degrees, enabling the passenger capsule to exit to the platform. The part of the station
accessible to passengers is separated from the technical part of the station by a wall with
openings through which passenger modules with closed side covers are inserted onto the
platforms. Passenger modules roll out on rollers from inside the safety capsules onto the
platforms. After stopping on the platform, the side covers are raised, enabling passengers
to leave the module from both sides, taking their hand luggage with them (see Figure 25).
Up the stairs, they move to the second floor with an exit corridor and a gallery overlooking
the platform hall as shown in Figure 26.
At this time, the transport module with an open safety capsule moves to the place for
servicing and the exchange of gaseous and liquid agents and electric batteries takes place.
In order to present the reader with an impression of a passenger preparing to take a
seat in a small passenger segment located on the station platform, an animated visualization
of the platform was attached to the paper (Supplementary Video S3).
platforms.
Platforms are After stopping
places accessible on the where
for passengers platform,
they can the sid
load han
to leave
take their seatsthefrom module
both sides from bothsimultaneously.
of the vehicle sides, taking their
Universal LPTT (UU) vehicles travel on lorries from airlocks to the fr
Energies 2021, 14, 3766
Up thehall.
platform stairs,
At thisthey
time, themove safety to the issecond
module floor
depressurized. 21Its
with a
of 33front c

degrees, enabling the passenger capsule to exit to the platform. The part
accessible to passengers is separated from the technical part of the station
openings At
The platformthis
through time,
hall iswhich the
dividedpassenger
into transport
modules
individual module
with
platforms withclosed with
covers an
sidephysically
glass walls o
are ins
platforms. Passenger modules roll out on rollers from inside the safety cap
separating the adjacent platforms from each other and at the same time enabling a view of
servicing
the other platforms. and the
On the second exchange
floor, of gaseous
there are glass windows and liquid
enabling the observation
platforms. After stopping on the platform, the side covers are raised, enabli
of the platform hall from the second floor.
to leave the module from both sides, taking their hand luggage with them (
Up the stairs, they move to the second floor with an exit corridor and a galle
At this time, the transport module with an open safety capsule moves t
servicing and the exchange of gaseous and liquid agents and electric batter
Figure 25.25. Phases

of the of the passenger module transport to the platform.
Figure 25. Phases of the passenger module transport t
Figure Phases passenger module transport to the platform.
Figure
Figure 26.26. Visualization
Visualization of thepassenger
of the opened openedmodule
passenger module
on the platform. on the platform.
Travelers first reach the station hall where they wait to enter the platforms from
which they will start their journey. On the ground floor level, they find entrances to their
platforms, and when the entrance is opened, they move through the corridor through the
security control zone, where their luggage will be x-rayed. After entering the platform,
they take their places in the passenger module waiting for them from both sides of the
vehicle, simultaneously. After all of the passengers are seated, the side covers of the module
with the virtual windows are closed and the module enters the safety capsule. The safety
Figure 26. Visualization of the opened passenger mod
capsule, which is part of the LPTT pod, is hermetically sealed. Then the electric longitudinal
conveyor with the LPTT pod delivers it to the open airlock and enters it using its own
low speed wheel drive. After lowering the pressure in the airlock and opening its cover
on the low pressure side, a cross conveyor moves up to its front, which the LPTT vehicle
enters using its low speed wheel drive. After the pod is anchored to the bed, the cross
conveyor moves to the position in front of the appropriate open tunnel. After the LPTT
safety capsule, which is part of the LPTT pod, is hermetically sealed. Then the electric
longitudinal conveyor with the LPTT pod delivers it to the open airlock and enters it using
its own low speed wheel drive. After lowering the pressure in the airlock and opening its
cover on the low pressure side, a cross conveyor moves up to its front, which the LPTT
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 vehicle enters using its low speed wheel drive. After the pod is anchored to the 22 ofbed,
33 the
cross conveyor moves to the position in front of the appropriate open tunnel. After the
LPTT pod is unanchored, it drives into the tunnel with its own drive, and moves to the
linear
podmotor accelerating
is unanchored, the vehicle
it drives into the to the operational
tunnel with its ownspeed.
drive, and moves to the linear
Detailed
motor visualizations
accelerating oftothe
the vehicle thepassenger
operationalpart of the station were made for the pur-
speed.
poses ofDetailed
launching a virtual of
visualizations simulator of a LPTT
the passenger part of pod ride. were made for the purposes
the station
of launching a virtual simulator of a LPTT pod ride.
7. Mechanical and Virtual Simulators of the Passenger Segment of a LPTT Vehicle
7. Mechanical and Virtual Simulators of the Passenger Segment of a LPTT Vehicle
ToTo
check
checkthe
theproposed
proposed constructions
constructions and andorganization,
organization,
twotwo travel
travel simulators
simulators of thisof this
railroad were built for the presented LPTT system, a mechanical and a virtual
railroad were built for the presented LPTT system, a mechanical and a virtual simulator simulator
(Figure
(Figure27).
27).The
The mechanical simulator
mechanical simulator took
took into into account
account the characteristic
the characteristic features
features and solu- and
solutions
tions ofof
thethe passenger
passenger module.
module. The virtual
The virtual simulator
simulator additionally
additionally provided provided visualiza-
visualizations
tions of the
of the partsparts ofstation
of the the station available
available to passengers.
to passengers.
Figure 27. Platform seen in virtual simulator (left), cockpit of mechanical simulator (right).
Tests on both simulators confirmed the assumptions underlying their construction

and operation. These assumptions were the very short times of taking and leaving the
seats in the vehicle and the positive feelings associated with the use of virtual windows.
Sociological surveys conducted on the simulators show that a typical passenger’s opinion
is that travel time over 300 km is expected to be reduced to 30–35 min.
Prior to taking their seats in both simulators, passengers were shown a video (Supple-
mentary Video S2) presenting basic information about the assumptions and organizational
solutions of the Low Pressure Tube Transport, to prepare them for the unusual environment
in the simulators.
8. Safety Aspects
8.1. Station Safety
Cross Conveyor Exchange
At present, it appears that the construction of railway turnouts that could operate at
high vehicle speeds will be difficult. Therefore, it was assumed that each tunnel ends at
intermediate station B, and that the transition from one tunnel system to the other will take
At present, it appears that the construction of railway turnouts that could operate a
high vehicle speeds will be difficult. Therefore, it was assumed that each tunnel ends a
intermediate station B, and that the transition from one tunnel system to the other wil
take place at low speed by means of a system of cross conveyors moving the LPTT pod
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 from one tunnel to another. 23 of 33
Due to the pressure difference between the interior of the low pressure chamber and
the surroundings, with a chamber width of 22 m, the ceiling part would have to be abou
3 mplace
thickatiflow
made of by
speed iron concrete.
means of a system of cross conveyors moving the LPTT pods from
The
one low to
tunnel pressure
another. chamber has a technical airlock on one of the walls with interna
dimensions Due toofthe
7m wide and
pressure 7 m high,
difference between with
thedoors
interiorenabling
of the lowthe transportation
pressure chamber and of object
the surroundings, with a chamber width of 22 m, the ceiling part would have to be about 3
with a maximum size of 11 m on a wheelchair (airlock covers and their sliding systems
m thick if made of iron concrete.
and objects withpressure
The low a length of 22 mhas
chamber (complete
a technicalconveyors).
airlock on one of the walls with internal
To ensureofthe
dimensions 7 mmaximum
wide and 7reliability
m high, with ofdoors
the conveyor
enabling thesystem, and to ensure
transportation of objectsthe possi
bilitywithofareplacing
maximum size individual
of 11 m onconveyors
a wheelchair during system
(airlock covers operation, the system
and their sliding systems)was ex
panded with an
and objects withadditional
a length of 22technical
m (completecrane and technical airlocks to enable the replace
conveyors).
ment of To large-sized elementsreliability
ensure the maximum with workshops in the
of the conveyor area of
system, andatmospheric pressure.
to ensure the possibility
of replacing individual conveyors during system operation, the system was expanded with
As can be seen in Figure 28, to increase the operational reliability of the cross convey
an additional technical crane and technical airlocks to enable the replacement of large-sized
ors,elements
there is with
a technical
workshops crane above
in the the
area of conveyorspressure.
atmospheric that moves along the main axis of the
low pressureAs can bechamber transversely
seen in Figure to the
28, to increase theaxis of thereliability
operational tunnels ofand the airlocks,
the cross conveyors,with the
loadthere
capacity and equipment
is a technical crane aboveofthe the crane trolley
conveyors enabling
that moves along the lifting
the main ofofany
axis the empty
low con
veyor, which can then be moved to the technical airlock. The crane also has the ability to
pressure chamber transversely to the axis of the tunnels and the airlocks, with the load
lift acapacity
pod from one cross conveyor
and equipment of the craneand locate
trolley it onthe
enabling another
lifting empty cross conveyor,
of any empty conveyor. A de
which can then be moved to the technical airlock. The crane also has the ability to lift a pod
fective cross conveyor can be removed from the work area in minutes and replaced by
from one cross conveyor and locate it on another empty cross conveyor. A defective cross
another.
conveyor can be removed from the work area in minutes and replaced by another.
Figure 28. Two

Figure 28.views of basic
Two views elements
of basic ofofthe
elements thestation ensuring
station ensuring thethe realization
realization of a dense
of a dense streamstream of pods stations
of pods between between A, stations
A, B and C. C.
B and
In this way, any conveyor can be transferred through the technical airlock to the area
with atmospheric pressure for its technical inspection, repair, or replacement.
The technical crane also enables periodic replacement of the airlock cover elements
on the low pressure side. Theoretically, these works could be carried out in an automated
manner, without human attendance, during the normal operation of the LPTT during
periods of low traffic intensity.
8.2. Emergency Station Platforms

Due to the expected dense stream of pods moving between stations, the approximate
space distance between pods is about 24 km. As the tunnels leading to the station may
contain several vehicles at the same time moving in the low pressure area, it is necessary to
protect them from the effects of a failure of the essential elements of the station system.
In the event of blocking an inlet to the station, it is necessary at the moment of blockage
to receive and unload all LPTT vehicles which stopped at the entry to the station.
The safety buffer must be located on the station access lines, but before the first railroad
switches at the station (Figure 29).
In the system of three tunnels, the side tunnels have strictly defined traffic directions.
The middle tunnel must take over the role of one of the outer tunnels, therefore it must
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 24 of 33
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW ensure two-way traffic. Therefore, it is necessary to provide for the interception and 25 of 33
unloading of passenger vehicles in the end tunnel leading to the station or in the middle
tunnel when it acts as an arriving tunnel.
Figure 29. Location of the emergency station platforms.
Figure 29.found
It was Location
that,of thevehicles
with emergencyup tostation
18 m longplatforms.
and 20 vehicles moving simultaneously
in the tunnel (300 km long route), a 400 m buffer should be provided in the form of a
8.3. Tunnel
primitiveSafety
platform that could be divided into hermetic zones with a capacity of 5 vehicles.
When potential
In the event of passengers
a breakdown of on the LPTT
the first realize
traffic that
control they are
element traveling
at the in a pipe
station, which in with
this case is a cross conveyor stuck in such a way that a LPTT vehicle cannot enter it, then
virtually no air in it, they immediately ask what happens if the vehicle is stuck in a tunnel
the exit from this tunnel to the low pressure chamber is closed and another five vehicles
When
stop designing
in the a LPTT
first catcher system,
segment. it isfifth
After the necessary
vehicle hasto entered,
considerthethis problem.
other There are
end of this
many designs
segment and system
is closed. solutions
Depending on thefor it.
frequency of the traffic, the segment will be filled
In our
with case, over
vehicles we have
time (5proposed
× 2.5 minan emergency
= 12.5 min or 5 chamber
× 5 min = with a rescue
25 min). vehicle, installed
After separating
everytheseveral
segmentdozen kilometers
from the in each
low pressure zone,LPTT tunnel.
it is filled with air to atmospheric pressure and
the passengers are evacuated in the case of an emergency from the vehicles at the primitive
platform. Filling successive segments and their separation makes it possible to close all of
8.3.1. Emergency Braking
the vehicles in the isolated spaces, which are in the tunnel leading to the station at the time
ofDuring the peak and,
failure detection, loadafter
of aincreasing
low pressure railway,
the pressure there are several
to atmospheric pressure,vehicles in the tun-
to evacuate
nel at the same time. Immobilization of one of the vehicles in the tunnel requires an emer-
the passengers safely.
gency stop Theofusealloffollowing vehicles.
such a buffer in frontAll thestation
of the kinetic canenergy
ideallyof each
allow of them
time must
to replace thebe accu-
damaged conveyor with a working one, and bring the station into operation without
mulated or dissipated. In the event of emergency braking in a tunnel, the vehicle must be
evacuating passengers.
fitted with mechanical
In the worst-casebrakes.
scenario, this system will ensure that all passengers are safely
With a steel-on-steel
evacuated at the very least. friction coefficient of 0.15, the maximum deceleration will be
0.15 g. Mechanical brakes dissipate energy by generating heat, but due to the very low
density of theSafety
8.3. Tunnel air in the tunnel, the possibilities of dissipating this heat to the air in the
tunnel are very limited.
When potential passengers of the LPTT realize that they are traveling in a pipe with
virtually no air in it, they immediately ask what happens if the vehicle is stuck in a tunnel.
Under these conditions, the mechanical brakes require water cooling. In an emer-
When designing a LPTT system, it is necessary to consider this problem. There are
gency pressure
many designscooling
and systemsystem, the for
solutions resulting
it. steam can be used to generate an additional
braking force by expanding into the tunnel through forward-facing nozzles, as shown in
Figure 30. For a vehicle weighing 26 tons and a speed of 200 m/s, this energy would be
520 MJ. This requires about 400 kg of water to cool it by evaporation.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 25 of 33
In our case, we have proposed an emergency chamber with a rescue vehicle, installed
every several dozen kilometers in each LPTT tunnel.
8.3.1. Emergency Braking

During the peak load of a low pressure railway, there are several vehicles in the tunnel
at the same time. Immobilization of one of the vehicles in the tunnel requires an emergency
stop of all following vehicles. All the kinetic energy of each of them must be accumulated
or dissipated. In the event of emergency braking in a tunnel, the vehicle must be fitted
with mechanical brakes.
With a steel-on-steel friction coefficient of 0.15, the maximum deceleration will be
0.15 g. Mechanical brakes dissipate energy by generating heat, but due to the very low
density of the air in the tunnel, the possibilities of dissipating this heat to the air in the
tunnel are very limited.
Under these conditions, the mechanical brakes require water cooling. In an emergency
pressure cooling system, the resulting steam can be used to generate an additional braking
force by expanding into the tunnel through forward-facing nozzles, as shown in Figure 30.
For a vehicle weighing 26 tons and a speed of 200 m/s, this energy would be 520 MJ. This
requires about 400 kg of water to cool it by evaporation.
Figure30.
Figure 30.Static
Statictemperature
temperature(max
(max400
400K),
K),steam
steammass
massfraction
fraction(max
(max==1),
1),pathlines
pathlinesininthe
thevicinity
vicinityofof
one of the considered pod shapes during emergency braking.
one of the considered pod shapes during emergency braking.
Ataaspeed
At speedofof200200m/s
m/s(720
(720km/h)
km/h) with
with 22 min
minintervals,
intervals,the
theseparation
separationbetween
betweenthethe
vehicles would be 24 km. On a route with a length of 300 km, there may be 12 vehicles inin
vehicles would be 24 km. On a route with a length of 300 km, there may be 12 vehicles
thetunnel
the tunnelatatthe
thesame
sametime.
time.With
Withrescue
rescuechambers
chambersspaced
spacedevery
every5050km
kmthen,
then,ininthe
theworst
worst
case,two
case, twoororthree
threevehicles
vehicleswould
wouldstopstopnear
neareach
eachofofthe
thefive
fiverescue
rescue(safety)
(safety)chambers.
chambers.
Motorsoperating
Motors operatingas asrecovery
recoverysystems
systemscharging
chargingaabattery
batteryduring
duringbraking
brakingcancanbebealso
also
used. The Tesla 3 pack has a capacity of 75 kWh and a weight of 478 kg [29]. To
used. The Tesla 3 pack has a capacity of 75 kWh and a weight of 478 kg [29]. To accumulate accumulate
thisenergy
this energyduring
duringbraking,
braking,twotwosuch
suchpacks
packswith
withaatotal
totalmass
massofofapproximately
approximately1000 1000kgkg
wouldbe
would beneeded.
needed.Braking
Brakingwould
wouldlast
last140
140ssand
andthethebraking
brakingdistance
distancewould
wouldbe be24
24km.
km.Due
Due
tothe
to theshort
shortbraking
brakingtime,
time,the
theenergy
energyrecovery
recoverywould
wouldrequire
requirehigh
highgenerator
generatorpower
powerand
andaa
supercapacitor,rather
supercapacitor, ratherthan
thanaabattery.
battery.
8.3.2.Diagram
8.3.2. Diagramof ofthe
theConstruction
Constructionand andOperation
OperationofofSafety
SafetyChambers
Chambers
Inthe
In theevent
eventofofa afailure
failureofof the
the vehicle
vehicle pneumatic,
pneumatic, electromagnetic,
electromagnetic, or mechanical
or mechanical lift-
lifting
ing system,
system, the vehicle
the vehicle will
will sit sit down
down and
and its its movement
movement through
through the tunnel
the tunnel wouldwould be dif-
be difficult.
ficult.
The advantage of the proposed modular structure of the LPTT vehicle is the possibility
of conducting a rescue
The advantage operation
of the proposed in modular
a tunnel structure
limited toofremoving
the LPTT and transporting
vehicle the
is the possibil-
safety capsules only, relatively slowly, to the nearest evacuation station.
ity of conducting a rescue operation in a tunnel limited to removing and transporting the
safety capsules only, relatively slowly, to the nearest evacuation station.
In this situation, detaching the safety capsule from the damaged transport segment
makes it possible to quickly and safely transport the capsule with an emergency vehicle
to the nearest safety chamber and, after passing through the airlock, to evacuate the pas-
sengers.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 26 of 33
In this situation, detaching the safety capsule from the damaged transport segment
makes it possible to quickly and safely transport the capsule with an emergency vehi-
cle to the nearest safety chamber and, after passing through the airlock, to evacuate
the passengers.
It is proposed that such stations should be located every few dozen kilometers. The
distance between the stations would depend on the speed of the rescue vehicle and the air
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW supply in the safety capsule. 27 of 3
There are several possible reasons for the vehicle stopping inside the tunnel outside stations.
The possibility of hovering over something in the LPTT tunnel is minimized by the
monitoring and cleaning systems.
Another safety feature is the vehicle’s multi-wheel suspension system. The mult
Vehicles, whether inertial or electric self-driven, run on airless wheels in a multi-
wheel
wheelsystem
system.makes
Bearing it possible
damage is totheconstruct
greatest a suspension
danger system
to vehicle that would
movement. be able to lif
The wheels
a damaged
would have sensors measuring the vibration level and temperature of the wheel bear- driving
wheel and distribute the load onto the remaining wheels and continue
TheMonitoring
ings. doubling of thethe wheel
level drive
of their system would
vibrations shouldallow
be designed so that the
their replacement vehicle
before it coul
move using only one of the drive units.
becomes hazardous.
Another safety feature is the vehicle’s multi-wheel suspension system. The multi-
While developing the scheme for the construction of the LPTT vehicles, hypothetica
wheel system makes it possible to construct a suspension system that would be able to lift
scenarios
a damaged of possible
wheel andvehicledistributedamage
the loadand ontostopping the wheels
the remaining vehicleandincontinue
the tunnel were take
driving.
into account.
The doubling of the wheel drive system should be designed so that the vehicle could
Nevertheless,
move using only one it can be drive
of the assumedunits.that the vehicle may stop in the tunnel in an unfore
seen manner, e.g., due to
While developing thedamage
scheme for to the
theconstruction
battery supplying thevehicles,
of the LPTT drive system or the failur
hypothetical
of the control system.
scenarios of possible vehicle damage and stopping the vehicle in the tunnel were taken
into account.
In this situation, it is necessary to emergency stop all vehicles in the tunnel behin
Nevertheless, it can be assumed that the vehicle may stop in the tunnel in an unfore-
the seen
damaged
manner, vehicle
e.g., due and ensure to
to damage thetheevacuation of passengers.
battery supplying the drive system or the failure
ofItthe
is control
proposed to place safety chambers every 50–60 km with emergency vehicles an
system.
airlocks,Inallowing the itevacuation
this situation, is necessaryof to rescued
emergency passengers.
stop all vehicles in the tunnel behind the
The proposed
damaged vehicle andschemeensureofthetheevacuation
construction of the safety chamber is complicated, but
of passengers.
has the undeniable advantage of being part of50–60
It is proposed to place safety chambers every the km
continuous structure
with emergency of the
vehicles and runnin
airlocks, allowing the evacuation of rescued passengers.
part of the tunnel. This is particularly important when efficient LPTT vehicles are drivin
The proposed scheme of the construction of the safety chamber is complicated, but it
under
has the rescue chamber
the undeniable advantage at high speeds.
of being part ofThe
the LPTT tunnel
continuous within
structure of the containment
the running part cham
berofisthe
open at the
tunnel. top.
This During normal
is particularly important operation, this opening
when efficient is covered
LPTT vehicles with
are driving a two-piec
under
lightweight but rigid cover. This cover is opened only in the event of an emergency, re
the rescue chamber at high speeds. The LPTT tunnel within the containment chamber
quiring
is open theatrescue
the top.vehicle
Duringto be lowered
normal intothis
operation, a tunnel
opening and a damaged
is covered with aLPTT vehicle to b
two-piece
lightweight but rigid cover. This cover is opened only in the event of an emergency,
pulled out of the tunnel. The lower half of the tunnel tube has a continuous structur
requiring the rescue vehicle to be lowered into a tunnel and a damaged LPTT vehicle to
without any local discontinuities and surface disturbances. A diagram of the structure o
be pulled out of the tunnel. The lower half of the tunnel tube has a continuous structure
such a chamber
without any local is shown in Figure
discontinuities and31. surface disturbances. A diagram of the structure of
such a chamber is shown in Figure 31.
Figure 31. Cross-section through the evacuation chamber and tunnel.

Figure 31. Cross-section through the evacuation chamber and tunnel.
In Figures 31 and 32, a diagram of the construction of the evacuation chamber with
In airlocks
two Figuresand 31 and 32, a diagram
an overhead crane to of the the
lower construction of the
rescue vehicle into evacuation chamber wit
the tunnel, opened
two airlocks and an overhead crane to lower the rescue vehicle into the tunnel,
at this point from the top to lift the damaged vehicle from the tunnel to the level opened a
of the
this point from the top to lift the damaged vehicle from the tunnel to the level of the air
airlocks, is presented.
locks, is presented.
In Figure 33, a diagram is shown of one of the possible passenger evacuation scenar
ios.
Such a scenario of a rescue operation is possible if the vehicle’s suspension system i
passengers can leave the damaged vehicle. The chamber can eject the damaged vehicl
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 27 of 33
outside, making it possible to receive more vehicles from the tunnel.
Figure 32. A cross-section

Figure view
32. A cross-section view of theof theand
tunnel tunnel and
evacuation evacuation
chamber chamber
(left) and external (left) and externa
view (right).
Figure 32. A cross-section view of the tunnel and evacuation chamber (left) and external view (right).
In Figure 33, a diagram is shown of one of the possible passenger evacuation scenarios.
Figure 33. Diagram of rescue actions in the event of damage to the drive system of a LPTT vehicl
with an efficient wheel system enabling its towing or pushing.
When the transport segment of the low pressure vehicle is immobilized, an attemp
is made to move only the safety module with passengers onto the rescue vehicle. Figur
34 shows a flowchart of this scenario.
Figure 33. Diagram of rescue actions in the event of damage to the dr

Figure 33. Diagram of rescue actions in the event of damage to the drive system of a LPTT vehicle
Such a scenario of a rescue operation is possible if the vehicle’s suspension system is
operational and its drive system has failed. The rescue vehicle is a tractor-type vehicle with
When the transport segment of the low pressure vehicle i
a towing capacity that makes it possible for a damaged vehicle to be towed or pushed.
After passing through the airlock, the rescue vehicle is positioned under the crane’s
is hooks,
made toupmove
lifted only
and shifted to thethe safety
side over module
the open part of thewith
tunnel. passengers
It is then lowered onto
34damaged
showsvehicle.
a flowchart of thistowsscenario.
into the tunnel and travels at a speed of about 100 km/h to the stopping point of the
The rescue vehicle or pushes the damaged vehicle to the nearest
available rescue chamber and positions the damaged vehicle under the crane’s attachment
points. The gantry crane lifts the damaged vehicle up, moves it, and positions it in front
of the airlock bolt and, after opening the airlock door, the vehicle is pushed inside the
airlock. The airlock is closed. The pressure inside is raised to atmospheric pressure and
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 28 of 33
, x FOR PEER REVIEW passengers can leave the damaged vehicle. The chamber can eject the damaged vehicle
outside, making it possible to receive more vehicles from the tunnel.
When the transport segment of the low pressure vehicle is immobilized, an attempt is
made to move only the safety module with passengers onto the rescue vehicle. Figure 34
shows a flowchart of this scenario.
Figure 34. Scheme of rescue actions in the event of damage to the chassis of the LPTT vehicle,
Figure 34. Scheme of rescue actions in the event of damage to the chassis of
preventing its movement, yet it is still possible to move the safety capsule onto the rescue vehicle.
venting its movement, yet it is ofstill

The emergency evacuation possible
passengers to move
is an option the
used in safety
extreme capsule onto
situations.
Another possibility is to use an emergency vehicle to evacuate passengers through
flexible and hermetic tunnels attached to the emergency exits of the safety capsule.
The emergency
Pod modifications evacuation of passengers
that enable passengers to evacuate to theisrescue
an option used in ex
vehicle in extreme
situations are presented in Figure 35. A diagram of rescue actions in the event of damage
Another possibility
to the chassis is to
of a LPTT vehicle, use an
preventing emergency
its movement vehicle
and shifting tocapsule
the safety evacuate
flexibleonto
and hermetic tunnels attached to the emergency exits of the
the rescue vehicle, is shown in Figure 36.
The rescue system would be based on the installation of additional circular openings
Pod modifications
in the that enable passengers
caps of the safety capsule—emergency toenabling
exits with a flange evacuate to and
automatic the resc
situations
exits are presented in Figure
with discs35.
thatA diagram oftorescue
the insideactions in
hermetic connection of flexible tunnels from a rescue vehicle. Openings—emergency
would normally be closed could be removed of the
to the chassis of aonly
safety capsule LPTT vehicle,pressure
after atmospheric preventing its movement
had been reached on their outside.andIn a shifti
low pressure rail tunnel, this pressure would be achieved by hermetically connecting
onto thetherescue vehicle,
flexible rescue isthe
tunnel to shown in Figure
rescue vehicle 36.
and filling it with air supplied from the
The rescue systemsystemwould betunnel

based on enabling
the installation
rescue vehicle. The emergency vehicle must have a place for the evacuated passengers
with a life support and a flexible system, of additio
hermetic connection to
in the caps of the safety capsule—emergency exits with a flange ena
the appropriate flanges of the rescue vehicle. Passengers would be evacuated from the
damaged vehicle to a rescue vehicle through these tunnels with the assistance of rescuers
hermetic connection
directing of flexible tunnels from a rescue vehicle. Openin
passenger movement.
would normally be closed with discs that could be removed to the
capsule only after atmospheric pressure had been reached on their o
sure rail tunnel, this pressure would be achieved by hermetically co
rescue tunnel to the rescue vehicle and filling it with air supplied fro
2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 29 of 33
Figure 35. Rescue vehicle and scheme of pod construction modification

ation in an extreme situation to the rescue vehicle.
Figure 35. Rescue vehicle and scheme of pod construction modifications enabling passenger evacua-
tion in an extreme situation to the rescue vehicle.
Figure 35. Rescue vehicle and scheme of pod construction mod

ation in an extreme situation to the rescue vehicle.
Figure 36. Diagram of rescue actions in the event of pod chassis dama
Figure 36. Diagram of rescue actions in the event of pod chassis damage preventing its movement.
The solution presented here excludes the possibility of people directly entering the
tunnel. The possibility of cutting off parts of the tunnel with inflatable balloons and
The the
increasing remaining functioning
pressure between vehicles
them was considered. th inthis
However, thewastunnel,
assumed tousing
be
braking systems, can reach the nearest emergency chambers and
an extreme solution.
to the airlocks and further to the passenger evacuation area. S

would not be needed here.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 30 of 33
Only rescue scenarios related to the evacuation of people are presented here. Damaged
vehicles can be removed at a later time.
The remaining functioning vehicles in the tunnel, using their individual emergency
braking systems, can reach the nearest emergency chambers and be pulled from the tunnel
to the airlocks and further to the passenger evacuation area. Special emergency vehicles
would not be needed here.
The proposed scheme for the construction of safety chambers is one of many possible
solutions.
From a technical, economic, and psychological point of view, a rescue operation time
of 60 min would be feasible with distances between evacuation stations of 50 km.
Therefore, it should be assumed that the safety capsule, regardless of the system
provided by the passenger module, must guarantee the provision of survival conditions
for passengers for two hours, assuming a safety factor of two.
Safety could be increased by equipping the rescue transport crane with an air regener-
ation system attached to the appropriate connectors on the safety capsule.
9. Summary and Conclusions

This paper attempted to present foreseeable problems, aerodynamic and otherwise,
together with their solutions to prove that low pressure tunnel transport is an interesting,
competitive, and realistic alternative to road transport, due to its potentially very high
vehicle speeds and significantly reduced aerodynamic drag.
The pressure level in tunnels is the main factor that reduces energy consumption for
moving vehicles at very high speeds practically not possible in road transport. In such
conditions, other factors determine the resistance to motion of vehicles at high speeds in
tunnels. The shape of the vehicle is not the determining factor. The ratio of the frontal area
of the vehicle to the cross-sectional area of the tunnel is decisive.
In the drag analysis, it is also necessary to take into account the transient processes
that accompany the movement of vehicles in tunnels.
Due to the potential exceeding of the Kantrowitz limit by vehicles, it is necessary to
limit its effects by reducing the air pressure in tunnels.
Specific environmental conditions require specific vehicle design solutions. The
overriding and absolute requirement is safety. The proposed three-segment vehicle design
enables the concentration of safety efforts to one specialized segment—the safety segment.
Because of the very significant reduction in aerodynamic drag, attention must be paid
to other resistances to vehicle motion. These may be the resistances associated with lifting
vehicles on a cushion of air, induced resistances in magnetic or electromagnetic lift systems,
or rolling resistances in wheeled systems.
It has been shown that, currently, the least additional resistance is generated by
wheeled systems.
The ability to achieve high movement speeds, and thus high kinetic energies, with
low aerodynamic and rolling resistance and relatively short distances between end stations,
allows consideration of a simplified but effective inertial vehicle propulsion system.
Due to the very low capacity to dissipate heat generated by the deformation of the
tire elements of a wheel system, the preferred solution is to use airless tires based on metal
elastic elements.
The same problem applies to mechanical braking systems requiring a liquid cooling
system. One possibility for improving such systems is to use high-pressure cooling systems
with evaporation of the coolant, and then use its energy to assist the braking system by jet
rocket steam engines.
Practically, serial road traffic has its counterpart in the serial movement of large
numbers of vehicles in tunnels.
Unfortunately, tunnel traffic requires an additional system for converting serial traffic
in tunnels to parallel traffic at stations.
Low pressure tunnel traffic requires the use of airlock systems.
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 31 of 33
Road traffic requires the use of many highly skilled drivers, as opposed to fully
automated tunnel traffic.
Congestion caused by various reasons in road transport should, hypothetically, also
be taken into account in tunnel transport. This requires consideration in the vehicle design
itself, as well as in the tunnel structure.
The transport system presented in this study is based on the use of tunnels with
a circular cross-section without any tracks, which significantly reduces the cost of their
construction and dimensions, and enables vehicles to attain speeds of up to 1200 km/h in
the future. The location of the main centers in Poland means that the maximum distances
between them do not exceed 350 km. Therefore, average vehicle speeds of around 600 km/h
are sufficient to achieve a satisfactorily short journey time of 30–35 min.
The legitimate reasons for the expected disadvantages in the travel system com-
pensated by short journey times are comparable to those for road transport over much
shorter routes.
The use of airless steel spring tires improves, at low air pressure, the dissipation of the
heat generated by the periodic deformation of the springs into the tunnel air.
The proposed solution of the multi-wheel airless wheel system of the locomotive
device with the, at present, smallest mechanical resistance related to the implementation
of the lifting function, can be developed and modified. Examples of two versions of the
vehicle were considered: a fast (average speed of about 600 km/h) 30-seater for use on
longer routes of 300 km with an arrangement of two seats in a row and a small front area,
and a slower (average speed of about 360 km/h) 56-seater, with an arrangement of four
seats in a row with a larger frontal area for shorter routes (150 km).
The proposed solution separates the need to use space technologies for the construc-
tion and operation of vehicles only to the area of tunnels, entrusting their operation within
the station to facilities made with existing railway technologies.
The presented universal system of converting serial traffic of vehicles in tunnels into
parallel movement in the station area based on technologies has been known for years, and
is supplemented with monitoring systems and additional security. Hypothetical emergency
states in vehicle traffic and the possibilities of their prevention or actions to be taken in
emergency were presented. Defining possible emergency situations makes it possible to
take measures to prevent them and simplify the emergency systems.
The presented design solutions are based on the current state of technology, enabling
parallel and independent modifications along with future development.
The presented solutions lead to the conclusion that it is technically possible to imple-
ment a LPTT system for vehicles traveling at average speeds of 600 km/h with the current
state of technology, and with a significant reduction in energy consumption compared
with ground vehicles. The sociological research conducted on simulators showed that,
in European conditions, people expect to reduce travel time over a distance of 300 km to
30–35 min.
The proposed and described low pressure tube transport (LPTT) system solution
meets this requirement with a very high level of operational safety.
Links to visualizations on YouTube:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DugJWA8Uqms (accessed on 12 May 2021)
Ruch pojazdów na dworcu kolei niskiego ciśnienia (hyperloop)-YouTube
Zabezpieczenia kolei niskiego ciśnienia (hyperloop)-YouTube
Koncepcja dworca kolei niskiego ciśnienia (hyperloop)-YouTube
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/

10.3390/en14133766/s1, Video S1. Examples of vacuum rail vehicle (Hyperloop) movement at an
intermediate station.mp4 Available on: https://youtu.be/hXJj807PyEw, (accessed on 12 May 2021);
Video S2. Introduction to riding in a virtual simulator with a vacuum rail vehicle (Hyperloop).mp4
Available on: https://youtu.be/seXeWCZwZjY, (accessed on 12 May 2021); Video S3. Passenger
module of a segmented vacuum rail vehicle (Hyperloop) on the station platform.mp4 Available on:
https://youtu.be/8jnV3FJyKFA, (accessed on 12 May 2021).
Energies 2021, 14, 3766 32 of 33
Funding: This research was funded by The National Centre for Research and Development in
Poland (Narodowe Centrum Badan i Rozwoju); project title: “Potential for the development and
implementation of vacuum tube high-speed train technology in Poland in the social, technical, eco-
nomic and legal context” (“Potencjał rozwoju i wdrażania w Polsce technologii kolei próżniowej
w kontekście społecznym, technicznym, ekonomicznym i prawnym”); grant number: Gospos-
trateg/387144/27/NCBR/2019.
Data Availability Statement: All visualizations of the proposed station area and movies provided
as additional material to this paper have been prepared by the company Pictureworks.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the
design of the study, the collection, analyses, and interpretation of the data, in the writing of the
manuscript, nor in the decision to publish the results.
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Low-Pressure Tube Systems

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energies

Academic Editor: Antonio Crespo 1. Introduction

Energies 2021, 14, 3766. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133766 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

a comparison of different means of transportation are provided in [10–12]. A Canadian

2. Physical Basics and Limitations of the Operation of Low Pressure Transport

Figure 1. The Kantrowitz limit and visualization of vehicle blocking area.

Figure 3. Scheme of a low pressure tube transport (LPTT) system.

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 33

2.1.4. Operation of Vehicles as a Vacuum Pump

3. Low Pressure Tube Transport (LPTT) Pod Specific Requirements

3.1. Basic Assumptions

ture, and heat).

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 33

Figure 10. Visualization

Figure 11. Open view of basic segments of a LPTT pod.

3.3. Vehicle Lifting Systems

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

3.3.2. Vehicle Acceleration and Braking System by Linear Motors

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

3.3.3. Inertial Vehicle (Pod) Drive

tunnels at intervals of 2–5 min.

21, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 22. Scheme of some possible routes of LPTT pods.

move on additional electric transport vehicles using typical

Figure 23. Low

Transportation of depressurized vehicles on classic tracks to other places in the city

6.2. Station Area Accessible for Passengers

the platform hall as shown in Figure 26.

Figure 25.25. Phases

Tests on both simulators confirmed the assumptions underlying their construction

Figure 28. Two

8.2. Emergency Station Platforms

Figure 29. Location of the emergency station platforms.

8.3.1. Emergency Braking

Figure 31. Cross-section through the evacuation chamber and tunnel.

Figure 32. A cross-section

Figure 33. Diagram of rescue actions in the event of damage to the dr

venting its movement, yet it is ofstill

The rescue systemsystemwould betunnel

Energies 2021, 14, 3766 29 of 33

Figure 35. Rescue vehicle and scheme of pod construction modification

Figure 35. Rescue vehicle and scheme of pod construction mod

to the airlocks and further to the passenger evacuation area. S

9. Summary and Conclusions

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/

24. Available online: https://www.designboom.com/technology/smart-nasa-airless-tire-technology-consumer-market-03-18-2021/

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