Machines 11 01078

machines
Article
Study on Aerodynamic Drag Reduction by Plasma Jets
for 600 km/h Vacuum Tube Train Sets
Ang Li 1 , Hongjiang Cui 1 , Ying Guan 1, *, Jichen Deng 2 , Ying Zhang 2 and Wu Deng 3,4
1 School of Locomotive and Rolling Stock Engineering, Dalian Jiaotong University, Dalian 116028, China;
liang121417@foxmail.com (A.L.); chj@djtu.edu.cn (H.C.)
2 New Product Development Department, CRRC DALIAN Co., Ltd., Dalian 116021, China;
dengjichen.dl@crrcgc.cc (J.D.)
3 School of Electronic Information and Automation, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin 300300, China;
wdeng@cauc.edu.cn
4 Traction Power State Key Laboratory, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China
* Correspondence: guanying2017@djtu.edu.cn
Abstract: In order to break through the speed bottleneck, researchers envision using tubes to cover
high-speed maglev trains and extract some of the air inside the tubes, creating a low-density en-
vironment on the ground, greatly reducing the aerodynamic drag of the trains, and in a relatively
economical and feasible way, making high subsonic (600 km/h and above) and even supersonic
ground transportation possible. The faster the running speed of high-speed trains, the greater the
impact of aerodynamic drag on their energy consumption. Studying the aerodynamic characteristics
of trains with a speed of 600 km/h can help optimize the aerodynamic shape of the train, reduce
aerodynamic drag, and reduce energy consumption. This has positive implications for improving
train energy efficiency, reducing energy consumption, and environmental impact. This paper adopts
the numerical simulation method to study the drag reduction effect of the plasma arrangement
and different excitation speeds on the train set in four positions when the incoming wind speed
is 600 km/h, to analyze the mechanism of drag reduction, and then to analyze the combination of
working conditions in order to investigate the drag reduction effect of plasma on the vacuum tube
train set with an ambient pressure of 10,000 Pa. The findings demonstrate that the plasma induces
the directional flow of the gas close to the wall to move the flow separation point backward and delay
the separation of the flow, thereby reducing the front and rear differential pressure drag of the train
Citation: Li, A.; Cui, H.; Guan, Y.; set and lowering the aerodynamic drag coefficient of the entire train. The plasma arrangement is
Deng, J.; Zhang, Y.; Deng, W. Study located at the rear of the flow separation point and in close proximity to the flow separation point.
on Aerodynamic Drag Reduction by The pneumatic drag reduction effect peaks when the excitation speed reaches 0.2 times the train
Plasma Jets for 600 km/h Vacuum speed and the pneumatic drag reduction ratio is around 0.88%; the pneumatic drag reduction ratio of
Tube Train Sets. Machines 2023, 11, the rear car peaks when the excitation speed reaches 0.25 times the train speed and the pneumatic
1078. https://doi.org/10.3390/ drag reduction ratio is 1.62%. The SDBD (Surface Dielectric Barrier Discharge) device is installed at
machines11121078
the flow separation point around the nose tip of the rear car.
Received: 4 October 2023
Revised: 27 November 2023 Keywords: train aerodynamics; vacuum tube; plasma; active flow control; railway technology
Accepted: 4 December 2023
Published: 8 December 2023
1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
The traditional approaches to enhancing the aerodynamic performance of trains, such
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. as optimizing the shape of the head and rear cars [1–7], designing train bogies, pantographs,
This article is an open access article and windshield structures rationally, and other local structural optimization [8–15], have
distributed under the terms and tended to be perfect and mature, subject to limitations imposed by the need to continuously
conditions of the Creative Commons improve the manufacturing process and design requirements, and gradually reveal their
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// limitations. Scientists started devoting their time to investigating new kinds of drag
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ reduction techniques as a result [16–22].
4.0/).
Machines 2023, 11, 1078. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11121078 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

Machines 2023, 11, 1078 2 of 28
Vacuum tube transport combines vacuum tube technology with high-speed train
technology to create a new type of surface rail transport. The vacuum tube allows the train
to operate in low-density, low-pressure conditions and without external environmental
disturbances, theoretically minimizing the train’s operating drag [23].
Due to the viscosity and speed of air, when high-speed trains operate in the thin air
tube, air will generate friction with the tube wall and train surface, and a high-pressure area
and low-pressure area will be generated at the front and rear of the train, respectively. The
difference in pressure generated at the front and rear of the train will hinder the high-speed
operation of the train [24].
The purpose of reducing drag on vacuum tube high-speed trains is to effectively
reduce energy loss, improve energy efficiency and speed during high-speed operation. In a
vacuum tube, by reducing collisions between gas molecules and trains, the aerodynamic
drag of the train can be reduced, allowing the train to travel farther or at a faster speed
under a given energy. This drag reduction technology is very important in high-speed
transportation, as it can improve transportation efficiency and reduce energy consumption.
In order to further reduce aerodynamic drag and reduce operational energy consumption,
domestic and foreign scholars have conducted research on train shape optimization [25,26]
and tube structure design [27,28].
Surface dielectric barrier discharge (SDBD) is one of the active drag reduction tech-
niques for turbulent flow fields that improves aerodynamic performance without altering
the shape of the object by applying the proper energy excitation [29]. It is currently most
frequently used in the field of aircraft flow control.
Zhang et al. investigated the flow separation control effect of SDBD on devices with
different angles of attack, and showed that SDBD can effectively inhibit the width of the
airflow separation zone when the angle of attack is less than 20◦ [30], and Yang Bo et al.
carried out experimental research on the inhibition of airfoil flow separation by SDBD
devices under different incoming wind speeds and angles of attack, and the results showed
that SDBD can effectively inhibit the airfoil flow separation under low flow speed and
large angle of attack [31]; the results also showed that SDBD can effectively inhibit the
airfoil flow separation under low flow speed and large angle of attack [32]. In a separation
study [31], Che et al. simulated the effect of high-altitude SDBD on wing lift coefficient,
and the results showed that the wing lift coefficient can be effectively improved after the
excitation of SDBD [32]. Orlov et al. simulated the phenomenon of SDBD inhibition of
airflow separation under different angles of attack using simulation. The simulation results
show that SDBD can effectively control flow separation [33].
There have also been some studies on cars and moving trains. Zhou et al. applied the
SDBD device to a car body and analyzed the flow separation and drag reduction effect by
performing flow field simulation calculations on the GTS (Ground Transportation System)
model [34,35]. However, research on the SDBD device applied to the airflow control of
trains is still in its infancy. Based on tests, Gao [36] examined the flow control effects of
variously shaped electrodes on train models.
The shortcomings of current research lie in the lack of relevant research on plasma
surface dielectric barrier discharge in train drag reduction, as well as active control jet drag
reduction research on low vacuum tube high-speed trains. The Shyy model is used to
simulate the plasma in this study, which uses along-surface dielectric blocking discharge
technology, to examine the flow control effects of various electrode placements and excita-
tion speeds on a model of a high-speed moving train with vacuum tubes. Simultaneously,
the N-S equation is used to determine the flow field surrounding the moving train model,
and the effects of excitation voltage and incident velocity on the SDBD device’s ability to
reduce drag are examined and contrasted. In this study, numerical computation techniques
are used to analyze the structure of the flow field surrounding the fast-moving train and
the features of aerodynamic drag.
Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 30
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2. Numerical
2. Numerical Calculation
Calculation Model
Model
2.1. Geometric Model and Simulation Conditions
2.1. Geometric Model and Simulation Conditions
In this paper, CRH380CL, manufactured by CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles Co.,
In this paper, CRH380CL, manufactured by CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles Co.,
Ltd. in Changchun, China, is selected as the simulation model, the computational domain
Ltd in Changchun, China, is selected as the simulation model, the computational domain
is selected, and the corresponding mesh is divided in the 2022 R1 version of ICEM CFD
is selected, and the corresponding mesh is divided in the 2022 R1 version of ICEM CFD
software provided by ANSYS, Inc. (Canonsburg, PA, USA). As shown in Figure 1a,b,
software provided by ANSYS, Inc. (Canonsburg, PA, USA). As shown in Figure 1a,b, the
the characteristic height of the train model is H = 3.8 m. The distance between the train
characteristic height of the train model is H = 3.8 m. The distance between the train head
head and the tube inlet is 9 H, the distance between the train tail and the tube outlet is
and the tube inlet is 9 H, the distance between the train tail and the tube outlet is 21 H,
21 H, and the distance between the train bottom and the tube bottom is 0.074 H. The cross-
and the distance between the train bottom and the tube bottom is 0.074 H. The cross-sec-
sectional size of the tube is 1.58 H × 1.58 H. In this article, the blocking ratio of the vacuum
tional size of the tube is 1.58 H × 1.58 H. In this article, the blocking ratio of the vacuum
tube is 0.356. At this point, using a low vacuum tube with a rectangular cross-section for
tube is 0.356.
simulation hasAtnothis point, using
significant a low
impact vacuum
on the tube with
simulation a rectangular
results, cross-section
and the influence for
of the tube
simulation has no significant impact on the simulation
cross-section shape on aerodynamic drag can be ignored [37]. results, and the influence of the
tube cross-section shape on aerodynamic drag can be ignored [37].
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Simulated train model: (a) front view; (b) side view and boundary conditions.
Figure 1. Simulated train model: (a) front view; (b) side view and boundary conditions.
The boundary conditions

The boundary conditionsat atthe
theinlet
inletand
andoutlet
outletofofthe
thetube
tube are
are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1b.1b.
In
In the simulation of the vacuum tube transportation system in this article,
the simulation of the vacuum tube transportation system in this article, it is assumed thatit is assumed
that the high-speed
the high-speed train train
unit isunit is stationary.
stationary. On thisOn thisabasis,
basis, double a double
precisionprecision calculation
calculation method
method is used to iteratively calculate in Fluent R13 software. The simulation
is used to iteratively calculate in Fluent R13 software. The simulation boundary conditions boundary
conditions
are shown in areTable
shown 1. in Table 1.
Table 1. Simulation boundary conditions.
Computational Domain Boundary Condition Calculation Settings

Tube inlet Pressure far field 0.489 Ma
Tube outlet Pressure outlet 0
Train body Wall No-slip
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 4 of 28
Table 1. Simulation boundary conditions.
Computational Domain Boundary Condition Calculation Settings

Tube inlet Pressure far field 0.489 Ma
Tube outlet Pressure outlet 0
Train body Wall No-slip
Tube Wall 167 m/s
The tube environment simulated in this paper is the operating environment of a

moving train under a certain degree of vacuum, which is an environment with compressible
air and a strong degree of turbulence, so the COUPLE algorithm coupled with pressure
and velocity is selected, and the second-order windward format is chosen for each control
equation to ensure the convergence of the results [38–40].
2.2. Validation of Numerical Plasma Simulation

For the dielectric blocking discharge plasma model, a simplified model of the equation
of the plasma effect on the flow field proposed by Shyy et al. [41] is used, and the flow
control effect of the plasma under the test condition is written as the following equation,
taking into account the plasma excitation voltage, frequency, and pole-plate geometry:
Fx = θαρc ec Ex ∆tδ (1)
Fy = θαρc ec Ey ∆tδ (2)
E = U/d (3)
In the above equations, θ is the alternating current frequency, taken as 7.5 kHz; α is
the effective coefficient of elastic collision, taken as 1; ρc is the charge number density; U
is the excitation voltage; ec is the charge constant, that is, the electronic charge, taken as
1.6 × 10−19 C; ∆t is the unit cycle of the effective breakdown of air time, that is, discharge
time, taken as 67; E is the strength of the electric field; δ is the Dirac delta function, which is
used to calculate the electric field’s range. When the electric field strength is greater than the
threshold value of the degree of air breakdown, the Clarke function, which is used to calculate
the range of the electric field, is taken as 1, and in the opposite case, it is taken as 0.
Equations (1)–(3) are added to the N-S equation in the form of a volumetric force as
a source term, which is programmed to be written as a user-defined function (UDF) and
loaded into the Fluent software to achieve the purpose of simulating the plasma’s impact
on the flow field.
Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW A three-dimensional rectangular cavity model is selected for 5 ofthe
30 validation of plasma
numerical simulation, with the ground as the plasma layout location. The longitudinal
mid-section of the geometric model is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Longitudinal mid-section of geometric model.

Because of the generation of plasma and the movement of the core area under the
action of electromagnetic fields, the size of which is 3 mm × 1.5 mm, it is necessary to
encrypt the grid at the place where the plasma is generated. In this paper, the minimum
size at this place is taken as 0.1 mm, so that there is a large enough grid in this area to
show a trend of plasma-induced wind speed attenuation as it moves away from the elec-
trode plate. The simulation boundary conditions are shown in Table 2.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 5 of 28
Becauseofofthe
Because thegeneration
generationofofplasma
plasmaandandthe
themovement
movementofofthe thecore
corearea
areaunder
underthethe
action of electromagnetic fields, the size of which is 3 mm ×
action of electromagnetic fields, the size of which is 3 mm × 1.5 mm, it is necessary toto
1.5 mm, it is necessary
encryptthe
encrypt thegrid
gridatatthe
theplace
placewhere
wherethe
theplasma
plasmaisisgenerated.
generated.InInthis
thispaper,
paper,thetheminimum
minimum
size at this place is taken as 0.1 mm, so that there is a large enough grid in this
size at this place is taken as 0.1 mm, so that there is a large enough grid in this area area to show
to
a trend of plasma-induced wind speed attenuation as it moves away from
show a trend of plasma-induced wind speed attenuation as it moves away from the elec- the electrode
plate.plate.
trode The simulation
The simulationboundary conditions
boundary are shown
conditions in Table
are shown 2.
in Table 2.
Boundaryconditions
Table2.2.Boundary
Table conditionsfor
forplasma
plasmanumerical
numericalsimulation.
simulation.
ComputationalDomain
Computational Domain BoundaryCondition
Boundary Condition CalculationSettings
Calculation Settings
Inlet
Inlet Velocity
Velocityinlet
inlet 2–10
2–10m/s
m/s
Outlet
Outlet Pressureoutlet
Pressure outlet 00
Side surface Wall symmetry
Side surface Wall symmetry
Bottom surface Wall Fixed wall
Bottom surface Wall Fixed wall
Duetotothe
Due thefact
factthat
thatthe
the core
core region
region of
of the
the plasma
plasma is
is mostly
mostlylocated
locatedinside
insidethe
theboundary
bound-
layer, in order to accurately describe the control effect of the plasma on the
ary layer, in order to accurately describe the control effect of the plasma on the near wallnear wall
flow, the turbulence model is selected as the SST (Shear Stress Transfer) k-ω
flow, the turbulence model is selected as the SST (Shear Stress Transfer) k-ω model. The model. The
simulated velocity contour and vector of the longitudinal mid-section at a wind speed ofof
simulated velocity contour and vector of the longitudinal mid-section at a wind speed
22m/s
m/s areshown
are shownininFigure
Figure3.3.
Figure 3. Longitudinal
Figure mid-section
3. Longitudinal simulation
mid-section with with
simulation velocity contour
velocity and streamline.
contour and streamline.
FromFrom
Figure 3, it can
Figure 3, it be
canseen that that
be seen the effect of arranging
the effect the plasma
of arranging is to is
the plasma induce a
to induce a
horizontal rightward
horizontal airflow
rightward withwith
airflow a certain velocity
a certain nearnear
velocity the the
wall, andand
wall, the the
induced
inducedveloc-
velocity
ity is the highest at the plasma arrangement position; as the flow develops backwards, the
velocity value gradually decreases.
To verify the accuracy of the simulation results, a line perpendicular to the longitu-
dinal centerline of the ground is drawn 3.8mm to the right of the plasma layout position,
as shown in Figure 2 with a dashed line mh. Monitor the velocity distribution along the y-
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 6 of 28
is the highest at the plasma arrangement position; as the flow develops backwards, the
velocity value gradually decreases.
To verify the accuracy of the simulation results, a line perpendicular to the longitudinal
centerline of the ground is drawn 3.8 mm to the right of the plasma layout position, as
shown in Figure 2 with a dashed line mh. Monitor the velocity distribution along the y-axis
on this dashed line mh under various incoming wind speeds, and the obtained results are
compared with the results in reference [41]. The obtained results are shown in Figure
Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4.
7 of 30
In Figure 4, u represents the velocity value on the dashed line mh, and V∞ is the free flow
velocity from the velocity inlet.
1.4
2m/s
4m/s
1.2 5m/s
10m/s
1.0
0.8
y
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6
u/V∞
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Comparison
Comparison of
of simulation
simulation results.
results.
From Figure 4, it can be seen that the simulation results in this article are basically
consistent with the results in reference [41], and the error of the induced maximum wind
speed at each incoming wind speed is within 3%, thus thus verifying
verifying the accuracy
accuracy of plasma
plasma
simulation in this article.
2.3.
2.3. Knudsen
Knudsen Number
Number
When Re
When 𝑅𝑒>>4000,
4000,the
theflow
flowfield within
field thethe
within vacuum tube
vacuum transport
tube system
transport is considered
system is consid-
to be turbulent. The Reynolds number can be expressed as follows [42]:
ered to be turbulent. The Reynolds number can be expressed as follows [42]:
t Re = ρvD
ρvD
(4)
t Re =µ (4)
μ
where ρ is the air density in the tube; ν is the operating speed of the train set; D is the
where 𝜌 is the
characteristic air density
length of the tube; is the𝜈aerodynamic
in theµtube; is the operating speed of the train set; 𝐷 is the
viscosity.
characteristic length of the tube; 𝜇 is the aerodynamic viscosity.
The simulation uses a running speed of 600 km/h for the train set and a minimum
characteristic length of 6.004 m for the tube. Substituting the relevant data into Equation
(4) to obtain the minimum Reynolds number results in the following:
Re = 6.31×10^6 > 4000 (5)
It can be concluded that the air flow within the vacuum tube transport system be-
longs to turbulent flow; this paper chooses the 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑘 − 𝜀 model in the Fluent sim-
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 7 of 28
The simulation uses a running speed of 600 km/h for the train set and a minimum
characteristic length of 6.004 m for the tube. Substituting the relevant data into Equation (4)
to obtain the minimum Reynolds number results in the following:
Re = 6.31 × 106 > 4000 (5)
It can be concluded that the air flow within the vacuum tube transport system belongs
to turbulent flow; this paper chooses the Realizable k − ε model in the Fluent simulation. For
a low vacuum and high flow rate in the vacuum tube transport system, the Realizable k − ε
model results are more in line with the real situation [37]. In order to determine whether
the gas inside the tube is appropriate for the continuum medium model, which is often
assessed using the Knudsen number Kn , it is important to check the air pressure inside the
vacuum tube transportation system, which is rather low and can be expressed as [43]
Kn = λ/L (6)
In the equation, λ is the molecular mean free range; L is the length of the characteristic
length taken to simulate the length of the rolling stock [44].
The vacuum tube air in the case of 10,000 Pa and 300 K has a molecular mean free
range λ = 6.21 × 10−7 , the characteristic length to take the height of the rolling stock,
and characteristic length dimensions of L = 3.8 m. Substituting Equation (6) to obtain the
Knudsen number results in the following:
Kn = 1.63 × 10−7 < 0.01 (7)
Therefore, the air inside the vacuum tube is still a continuous medium. In this paper,
the moving train travels at a speed of 600 km/h ≈ 0.489 Ma, and the air flow inside the
tube is treated as compressible [45,46].
2.4. Dimensionless Coefficients

For comparison purposes, the analysis was carried out using dimensionless coefficients
specifically defined in Equations (8) to (10):
Fd
Cd = (8)
0.5ρU 2 S
p
Cp = (9)
0.5ρU 2
Cdoriginal − Cdplasma
η= × 100% (10)
Cdoriginal
where η represents the rate of drag reduction ratio; Cd represents the aerodynamic drag
coefficient; CP represents the pressure coefficient; Fd represents the aerodynamic drag of
the moving train; ρ represents the fluid density, ρ = 0.1161 kg/m3 ; U represents the velocity
of the distant incoming flow; S is the area of the windward surface; p is the pressure at a
point in the flow field.
2.5. Reliability Analysis and Mesh Partitioning Strategy

Because the degree of grid sparsity has a greater impact on the results of numerical
calculations, in order to ensure the accuracy of the calculation requirements, while taking
into account the economic rationality of computational resources and improving the effi-
ciency of the calculation and cost savings, this paper uses the rough mesh, medium mesh,
and fine mesh of the three different mesh densities to demonstrate the irrelevance of the
validation of the three densities of the mesh parameters, as shown in Table 3.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 8 of 28
Table 3. Grid-independent validation.

Table 3. Grid-independent validation.
Mesh Density Coarse Medium Fine
Mesh(10
Mesh density Density
6) 14 Coarse 25Medium Fine
45
Mesh density (106) 14 25 45
Aerodynamic drag coefficient Cd 0.5250 0.5130 0.5129
Aerodynamic drag coefficient C 0.5250 0.5130 0.5129
Thenumerical
The numericalsimulation
simulationofofthethesubsequent
subsequenthigh-speed
high-speedtrains
trainswill
willbe
beconducted
conductedon on
the basis of a medium-density grid. In addition, in order to make the
the basis of a medium-density grid. In addition, in order to make the grid more bodygrid more body-
fitting,triangular
fitting, triangular unstructured
unstructured grids
gridsare
areused
usedononthe train
the surface,
train tetrahedral
surface, unstructured
tetrahedral unstruc-
grids are used on the fluid domain, and encryption is performed on the surrounding fluid
tured grids are used on the fluid domain, and encryption is performed on the surrounding
domain of the rear car, as shown in Figure 5a–c. After verifying the independence of the
fluid domain of the rear car, as shown in Figure 5a–c. After verifying the independence of
grid, it was found that the minimum grid size of the outer surface grid of the train was
the grid, it was found that the minimum grid size of the outer surface grid of the train was
10 mm, which could meet the simulation accuracy requirements. We set the boundary layer
10 mm, which could meet the simulation accuracy requirements. We set the boundary
to 12 layers with a growth rate of 1.2 to capture the shear layer and separated the flow near
layer to 12 layers with a growth rate of 1.2 to capture the shear layer and separated the
the surface of the high-speed train unit. As shown in Figure 5d, a boundary layer grid
flow near the surface of the high-speed train unit. As shown in Figure 5d, a boundary
(prism layer) is set near the body wall, and the height of the grid in the first layer of the
layer
bodygrid
wall(prism
is set tolayer)
1.4818ismm
set near the body
to ensure y + ≥wall, and the
30, which heightthe
is within of appropriate
the grid in the firstof
range
layer of the body wall
the corresponding is set to 1.4818
turbulence mm to ensure y + ≥30, which is within the appropriate
model.
range of the corresponding turbulence model.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5. Model grid scheme: (a) surface grid division of high-speed train unit; (b) grid division of
Figure 5. Model grid scheme: (a) surface grid division of high-speed train unit; (b) grid division of
the watershed near the rear car; (c) internal grid division of vacuum tube; (d) boundary layer grid.
the watershed near the rear car; (c) internal grid division of vacuum tube; (d) boundary layer grid.
Machines
Machines 2023, 11, 10782023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 28 10 of 30
2.6. Validation of Mathematical Techniques

2.6. Validation of Mathematical Techniques
The accuracy of the numerical calculation method in this paper is verified by using
The accuracy of the numerical calculation method in this paper is verified by using
the results of wind tunnel tests in reference [47], and a numerical calculation model for the
the results of wind tunnel tests in reference [47], and a numerical calculation model fo
CRH3 high-speed multiple unit is established. The wind tunnel test adopts a 1:8 three-car
the CRH3 high-speed multiple unit is established. The wind tunnel test adopts a 1:8 three
high-speed train model, as shown in Figure 6a. Among them, the boundary conditions
car high-speed train model, as shown in Figure 6a. Among them, the boundary conditions
and fluid domain mesh division for wind tunnel experimental simulation calculation are
and fluid domain mesh division for wind tunnel experimental simulation calculation are
shown in Figure 6a,b, and the wind speed in the simulation calculation is consistent with
shown in Figure 6a,b, and the wind speed in the simulation calculation is consistent with
the 250 km/h operating condition in the wind tunnel tests. To ensure that the grid density
the 250 km/h operating condition in the wind tunnel tests. To ensure that the grid density
does not affect the accuracy of the numerical calculation method used in the validation,
does not affect the accuracy of the numerical calculation method used in the validation
three different specifications of grids were used in the validation.
three different specifications of grids were used in the validation.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Numerical
Figure 6. Numerical modeltunnel
model for wind for wind
test:tunnel test: (a) numerical
(a) numerical model andmodel and boundary
boundary conditionsconditions
for fo
wind tunnel test; (b) fluid domain of wind tunnel
wind tunnel test; (b) fluid domain of wind tunnel simulation. simulation.
The aerodynamic
The aerodynamic drag coefficients
drag coefficients for thetrain
for the entire entire
in train in thetunnel
the wind wind tunnel test and in
test and
the numerical
in the numerical simulation
simulation are shown are shown
in Tablein4,Table
along4, with
alongthewith the numerical
numerical calculation’s in
calculation’s
accuracies
inaccuracies in comparison
in comparison to the wind to the windtest.
tunnel tunnel
Tabletest. Table 4 compares
4 compares samples
samples with with various
various
grid densities as well as the outcomes of wind tunnel tests. Since the table shows that the that the
grid densities as well as the outcomes of wind tunnel tests. Since the table shows
deviation deviation
of the dragofcoefficients
the drag coefficients
calculatedcalculated by mesh simulation
by mesh simulation underdensities
under various various densities
from the experimental
from the experimental results is lessresults
than orisequal
less than
to 10%,or the
equal to 10%,simulation
numerical the numerical
methodsimulation
method
used in this paper,used
whichin uses
this paper, whichchosen,
the meshes uses the meshes
can be takenchosen, can be taken as credible.
as credible.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 10 of 28
Table
Table 4.
4. Validation
Validation of
of numerical
numerical methods.
methods.
Grid Grid
Density (Million)
Density (Million) 9 9 16 16 28 28 33 33 Experimental
Experimental
Pneumatic drag
Pneumatic drag coefficient 0.321
Cd 0.3
0.321 0.30.318 0.318 0.3430.343 0.335
0.335
coefficient C
inaccuracies 4% 10% 5% −2% -
inaccuracies 4% 10% 5% −2% -
3. Discussion
3. Discussion
Determination of SDBD Position at the Rear of the High-Speed Train
Determination of SDBD Position at the Rear of the High-Speed Train
Analysis of the vacuum tube transport system’s pressure field reveals that as rolling
stockAnalysis of the vacuum
moves through tube
the tube, a transport system’s pressure
complex turbulent flow fieldfield reveals that
is created. Theas rolling
pressure
stock
contourmoves
of thethrough
surfacethe tube,
of the a complex
rolling stock turbulent flow field
in the vacuum is created. The system
tube transportation pressure is
contour of in
illustrated the surface
Figure of the
7. The rollingonstock
pressure in the of
the surface vacuum
the bodytube transportation
of the rolling stocksystem is
is not the
illustrated
same and itinvaries
Figure 7. The pressure
substantially on the surface
in different portionsofofthe
thebody of stock.
rolling the rolling stock is not
the same and it varies substantially in different portions of the rolling stock.
Figure 7. Pressure contour for longitudinal mid-section of the original entire train.
Figure 7. Pressure contour for longitudinal mid-section of the original entire train.
When Figure77isisanalyzed,
When Figure analyzed,it it is clear
is clear thatthat
thethe rolling
rolling stockstock operating
operating in awill
in a tube tubecreate
will
create
a complexa complex
turbulentturbulent flowand
flow field field
thatand
thethat the surrounding
surrounding air flowair flow
state is state
quiteiscomplicated.
quite com-
plicated.
The pressureThe onpressure on the
the surface of surface
the rollingof the rolling
stock’s body stock’s
variesbody
greatlyvaries greatly depending
depending on where it
on where itduring
is located; is located;
vacuumduring
tubevacuum
driving,tube driving,
the closed the closed
tube’s function tube’s
causesfunction causes the
the surrounding
surrounding air flow velocity to accelerate, which causes the
air flow velocity to accelerate, which causes the front of the train to constantly push front of the train to con-
the
stantly push the air in front of it, compressing it and increasing
air in front of it, compressing it and increasing the air density, which causes the front the air density, which of
causes
the movingthe front
stock’sof pressure
the moving stock’s pressure
to increase. Additionally,to increase.
the air inAdditionally,
the moving train the air in rear
set’s the
moving train set’s
area expands rear area
as a result of theexpands as a result
vortex coming fromof the
the back,
vortexcausing
comingthe from the back,
air density caus-
there to
ing the airAs
decrease. density there
a result, the to decrease.
pressure As arear
on the result, the pressure
portion of the movingon the rearset
train portion of the
is reduced.
moving As train
seen set is reduced.
in Figure 8, there is flow separation at the area close to the top of the rear
As seen in Figure
car’s nose, where the plasma 8, there is flow region
excitation separationcan be atchanged
the areato close to the
reduce the top
localofboundary
the rear
car’s
layernose, where the
separation. plasma
Figure excitation
8 shows that flowregion can be changed
separation occurs intothe reduce
rear carthe of
local
thebound-
rolling
ary
stocklayer
nearseparation.
the window Figure 8 shows
position. This, that flow separation
combined with theoccurs
velocity incontour
the rear diagram
car of theofroll-
the
ing stock nearsection,
longitudinal the window
createsposition. This,area
a significant combined with the behind
of low pressure velocitythe contour diagram
rear, which of
raises
the
the longitudinal section,between
pressure differential creates athe significant
front andarea rear ofof low pressure
the rolling behind
stock the rear,
and then addswhich
to the
differential
raises pressuredifferential
the pressure drag during the rolling
between the stock
front travel
and rear process.
of the rolling stock and then
adds to the differential pressure drag during the rolling stockshown
Reduce the negative pressure effect of the rear vortex. As travelinprocess.
Figure 9, illustrating
the rear car surface streamline, rolling stock rear nose rear area, and the nose of the two
sides of the region, there is a large volume of vortex, and the rear vortex generates a
low-pressure area that will increase the differential pressure drag of the rolling stock, so it
should be set up in the rear car nose as well as the nose around the plasma excitation area,
so that the rear area produces a jet, which can reduce the differential pressure drag.
As seen in Figure 8, there is flow separation at the area close to the top of the rear
car’s nose, where the plasma excitation region can be changed to reduce the local bound-
ary layer separation. Figure 8 shows that flow separation occurs in the rear car of the roll-
Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
ing stock near the window position. This, combined with the velocity contour diagram 12 ofof30
the longitudinal section, creates a significant area of low pressure behind the rear, which
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 11 of 28
raises the pressure differential between the front and rear of the rolling stock and then
adds to the differential pressure drag during the rolling stock travel process.
Figure 8. Velocity contour for longitudinal mid-section of the rear car.
Reduce the negative pressure effect of the rear vortex. As shown in Figure 9, illustrat-
ing the rear car surface streamline, rolling stock rear nose rear area, and the nose of the
two sides of the region, there is a large volume of vortex, and the rear vortex generates a
low-pressure area that will increase the differential pressure drag of the rolling stock, so
Figure 8. Velocity contour for longitudinal mid-section of the rear car.
it should
Figure be setcontour
8. Velocity up in the rear car nose
for longitudinal as well as
mid-section of the nosecar.
the rear around the plasma excitation
area, so that the rear area produces a jet, which can reduce
Reduce the negative pressure effect of the rear vortex. As shown the differential pressure
in Figure drag.
9, illustrat-
ing the rear car surface streamline, rolling stock rear nose rear area, and the nose of the
two sides of the region, there is a large volume of vortex, and the rear vortex generates a
low-pressure area that will increase the differential pressure drag of the rolling stock, so
it should be set up in the rear car nose as well as the nose around the plasma excitation
area, so that the rear area produces a jet, which can reduce the differential pressure drag.
Figure 9. The rear car surface streamline.


Machines 2023, 11, 1078 4. Analysis of Results 12 of 28
The plasma excitation active control method and wake jet active control method have
similarities and differences, mainly in the flow field, to impose the appropriate perturba-
4. Analysis
tion of Results
mode, through the local energy input to change the local flow field, so as to achieve
The plasma
significant excitation
improvements in active control performance,
aerodynamic method and wake mainly jet including
active control method
transition of have
de-
similarities and differences,
layed/accelerated mainly in the flow field,
flow, weakening/strengthening to turbulence
the impose the appropriate perturbation
vortices, promoting or
mode, through
inhibiting boundary thelayer
localorenergy input to change
flow separation, and so the local
forth. Theflow
above field,
places so can
as to
be achieve
exam-
significant
ined for dragimprovements
reduction basedinon aerodynamic
the turbulentperformance, mainly including
flow field surrounding transition
the high-speed trainof
delayed/accelerated flow, weakening/strengthening the turbulence
set of the model utilized in this work. Table 5 displays the particular components of each vortices, promoting
or inhibiting
excitation boundary
position layercar.
in the rear or flow separation, and so forth. The above places can be
examined for drag reduction based on the turbulent flow field surrounding the high-speed
train5.set
Table of the model
Description utilized
of each in this
excitation work. Table 5 displays the particular components of
position.
each excitation position in the rear car.
Position Number Excitation Position
Position of flow
Table 5. Description of each excitation position. separation above the front windshield of the
Position 1 rear car, between the equal-section body and streamlined rear
Position Number Excitation Position
portion of a moving train
Position of flow
Upstream separation
flow above the front
separation windshield
on both sidesofofthethe
reartailgate
car, between the
wind-
Position 1
Position 2 equal-section body and streamlined rear portion of a moving train
Position 2 Upstream flow separation on both shield
sides of the tailgate windshield
Position
Position3 3 Flowseparation
Flow separation around
around the the
tip oftip
theof
nose
the nose
Position 4 nasal tip where the rear vortex falls off
Position 4 nasal tip where the rear vortex falls off
4.1.Position
4.1. Position1 1
Asseen
As seen
in in Figure
Figure 10, 10, position
position 1 is composed
1 is composed of a rectangular
of a rectangular slit, curves
slit, which whichalong-
curves
alongside and fits the train’s surface. In Figure 11, when the moving rear end of the train,
side and fits the train’s surface. In Figure 11, when the moving rear end of the train, posi-
position 1, is excited at different speeds, the variation curves of the aerodynamic damping
tion 1, is excited at different speeds, the variation curves of the aerodynamic damping rate
rate of the rear car and the entire train with the jet velocity are displayed.
of the rear car and the entire train with the jet velocity are displayed.
Figure
Figure10. Position1 1schematic
10.Position schematicdiagram.
diagram.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 13 of 28
0.5 Whole train drag reduction ratio(%) 0.5

Rear car drag reduction ratio(%)
Whole train drag reduction ratio(%)

0.0 0.0
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Excitation velocity ratio(V/U)
Figure11.
Figure Drag
11.Drag reductionratio
reduction ratiovariation
variationcurve
curvewith
withposition
position1 1excitation
excitationspeed
speedfor
formoving
movingtrain.
train.
Whenininposition
When position1,1,only
onlyV/U
V/U (V(Vfor
forthe
theexcitation
excitationspeed)
speed)< <0.05
0.05speed
speedjetjetshows
showsa a
drag reduction effect, and when V/U = 0.025, the drag reduction ratio
drag reduction effect, and when V/U = 0.025, the drag reduction ratio is the largest. When is the largest. When
therolling
the rollingstock
stockisis600
600km/h,
km/h, thethe speed
speed operation
operation ofof the
the rearcar
rear carand
andthetheentire
entiretrain
traindrag
drag
reduction ratio are 0.3% and 0.18%, respectively, which is greater than the
reduction ratio are 0.3% and 0.18%, respectively, which is greater than the typical excita- typical excitation
speed
tion drag
speed reduction
drag reductionratio.
ratio.
When the dynamic
When the dynamic group grouprunning
runningspeed
speedisisincreased,
increased,thethedynamic
dynamicgroup grouppneumatic
pneumatic
drag reduction ratio under the excitation speed gradually decreases and even seems to
increase the trend of drag. On the other hand, when the dynamic group excitation speed is
increase the trend of drag. On the other hand, when the dynamic group excitation speed
increased, the dynamic group pneumatic drag reduction ratio under the excitation speed is
is increased, the dynamic group pneumatic drag reduction ratio under the excitation
gradually reduced and even appears to decrease.
speed is gradually reduced and even appears to decrease.
Figures 12 and 13 illustrate the pressure coefficient distribution on the surface of the
Figures 12 and 13 illustrate the pressure coefficient distribution on the surface of the
rear train, the center longitudinal profile velocity contour, and the streamlines when seven
excitation speed jets are generated at position 1.
Figures 12 and 13 show that for position 1, when the excitation velocity ratio increases,
the area of the low-pressure area behind the excitation position progressively grows, and
the aerodynamic drag caused by the low pressure at the rear gradually grows. As a result,
the rear of the car experiences a delay in flow separation, flow adhesion is inhibited, the
value of the low-pressure area at the back of the car is decreased, and the drag induced by
the reduced value of positive pressure at the back of the car is increased. The effect causes
position 1 of the plasma excitation active control to gradually lose its ability to reduce drag
as the excitation speed rises. In conclusion, it can be observed that the drag reduction
impact is optimum when position 1 generates a low excitation speed (V/U = 0.025).
(a) (b) (c) (d)

increase the trend of drag. On the other hand, when the dynamic group excitation speed
is increased, the dynamic group pneumatic drag reduction ratio under the excitation
speed is gradually reduced and even appears to decrease.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078
Figures 12 and 13 illustrate the pressure coefficient distribution on the surface14ofofthe
28

(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 12. Variation surface pressure coefficient of the rear car with different excitation velocity ra-
Figure 12. Variation surface pressure coefficient of the rear car with different excitation velocity
tios at position
Figure 1: (a) surface
12. Variation V/U = 0;pressure
(b) V/U coefficient
= 0.025; (c) of
V/Uthe=rear
0.05;car
(d)with
V/Udifferent
= 0.1; (e) excitation
V/U = 0.15; (f) V/Ura-
velocity =
ratios at position 1: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15;
0.2;
tios(g) V/U = 0.25;
at position (h)V/U
1: (a) V/U== 0;
0.3.(b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U =
(f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 13. Position 1 center longitudinal profile rear train velocity contour and streamline diagrams:
(a) V/U 13.
Figure = 0;Position
(b) V/U 1=center
0.025; longitudinal
(c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U
profile rear= train
0.1; (e) V/U = contour
velocity 0.15; (f) and
V/U streamline
= 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25;
diagrams:
Figure 13. Position 1 center longitudinal profile rear train velocity contour and streamline dia-
(h)
(a) V/U
V/U == 0.3.
0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25;
grams: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2;
(h) V/U = 0.3.
(g) V/U = 0.25; 12
Figures (h) and
V/U 13
= 0.3.
show that for position 1, when the excitation velocity ratio in-
creases, the area
Figures 12 andof the
13 low-pressure
show that forarea behind
position the excitation
1, when position
the excitation progressively
velocity ratio in-
Figure 14 shows the wall shear stress distribution of the moving train rear car at
creases,and
grows, thethearea of the low-pressure
aerodynamic drag caused area
by behind
the low the excitation
pressure at theposition progressively
rear gradually grows.
position 1 when the plasma device produces different excitation speeds. It can be seen that
grows,
As a and the
result, the aerodynamic
rear of the drag
car caused byathe
experiences lowin
delay pressure
flow at the rear flow
separation, gradually
adhesiongrows.is
when the plasma device does not produce excitation, the lower-shear-stress region of the
inhibited, the value of the low-pressure area at the back of the car is
rear car wall is concentrated at the rear car window and nose tip positions. As the excitationis
As a result, the rear of the car experiences a delay in flow separation, decreased,
flow and
adhesion the
inhibited,
drag
speed induced theby
increases, value of the low-pressure
thelower-shear-stress
the reduced area is
value of positive
region at the back
pressure
also at of
thethe
gradually backcarofisthe
expanded, decreased,
car
theiswall and
increased.the
shear
The
drag effect
induced causes
by position
the reduced 1 of the
value plasma
of excitation
positive pressure active
at thecontrol
back of
stress in this region decreases, the excitation velocity ratio V/U = 0.05, the low-stress regionto gradually
the car is lose its
increased.
atThe
theeffect
ability window causes
to reduce and position
drag
theas the1 excitation
of the
low-stress plasma
region speed excitation
at therises.
noseIn active
tipconclusion,control
are correlated, toand
it can gradually
be at
observed lose
this time, its
that
it
ability
the dragtoreduction
reduce drag as the
impact excitation when
is optimum speedposition
rises. In 1conclusion,
generates ait low can excitation
be observed that
speed
(V/U = 0.025).
the drag reduction impact is optimum when position 1 generates a low excitation speed
(V/UFigure
= 0.025). 14 shows the wall shear stress distribution of the moving train rear car at po-
sitionFigure
1 when 14the
shows the wall
plasma deviceshear stress distribution
produces of the moving
different excitation speeds.trainIt canrear car atthat
be seen po-
when
sition the plasma
1 when thedevice
plasmadoes not produces
device produce excitation, the lower-shear-stress
different excitation speeds. It canregionbe seen of that
the
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 15 of 28
reaches the minimum value of the wall shear stress. The excitation speed is increased again,
then
wall the wall
shear shear
stress is stress
lowerdoes notregion.
in this decrease,
Thebut ratherofincreases,
region lower walland the wall
shear shear
stress stress
decreases
is lower in this region. The region of lower wall shear stress decreases rapidly.
rapidly.
wall shear stress is lower in this region. The region of lower wall shear stress decreases
rapidly.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Distribution
Distributionofofshear stress
shear onon
stress thethe
rearrear
car’scar’s
wallwall
surface at position
surface 1: (a) V/U
at position = 0;
1: (a) V/U(b) V/U
= 0;
= 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
(b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25;
(h) V/U = 0.3.
(e) The aforementioned
(f) phenomenon (g) is caused by the excitation (h) jet generated at position
1, which
FigureThe
raises air
aforementioned
14. Distribution
velocity close
phenomenon
of shear stress
to the
on the rear car’sis
boundary
caused
wall surface at
layer
bypositionof the
the excitation rear window,
1: (a) V/U = 0;jet
(b)generated
V/U
both sides of
at position
1, which raises air velocity close to the boundary layer of the rear window, both sideson
the
= window,
0.025; (c) V/U = and
0.05; the
(d) V/U tip
= of
0.1; (e)the
V/U nose,
= 0.15; thereby
(f) V/U = 0.2;increasing
(g) V/U = 0.25; the
(h) shear
V/U = 0.3. force of the air the
of the
flow field inside the boundary layer, resulting in a significant
window, and the tip of the nose, thereby increasing the shear force of the air on the flow increase in wall shear stress
The aforementioned phenomenon is caused by the excitation jet generated at position
at the
field window,
inside both sides, and resultingthe nose tip.
1, which raisesthe
air boundary
velocity closelayer,
to the boundary layer in a ofsignificant increase
the rear window, bothinsides
wallofshear stress at the
window,
the window, both
andsides,
the tip and
of thethe
nose,nose tip. increasing the shear force of the air on the
thereby
4.2.
flowPosition
field inside 2 the boundary layer, resulting in a significant increase in wall shear stress
4.2.
at thePosition
window,2both sides, and the nose tip.
As shown in Figure 15, position 2, fitted to the train’s surface, consists of two sym-
As shown
metrical in Figure
trapezoidal
4.2. Position 2 slits 15,
withposition
sloping2,edges
fittedfacing
to the upward.
train’s surface, consistscurves
The variation of twoofsym-
the
metrical
aerodynamic trapezoidal
drag slits
reduction with sloping
ratio of edges
the rear facing
car and upward.
the entireThe variation
train
As shown in Figure 15, position 2, fitted to the train’s surface, consists of two sym- with curves
the jet of the
velocity
aerodynamic
are shown
metrical in drag
Figure
trapezoidal reduction
slits 16
withalong ratio
slopingwith of
the
edges the rear
increase
facing carinand
upward. the entire
thevariation
The excitation trainof with
speed,
curves the the
thewhen jet velocity
rear car
are shown
aerodynamic
position in
2 of Figure
drag
the 16 along
reduction
moving ratio of with
train the the
rear carincrease
is excited and in the
the entire
at different excitation
train with the jetspeed,
speeds. velocitywhen the rear car
are shown2inof
position Figure 16 along with
the moving traintheisincrease
excitedinatthedifferent
excitation speeds.
speed, when the rear car
position 2 of the moving train is excited at different speeds.
Figure 15. Position 2 schematic diagram.


Machines 2023, 11, 1078 16 of 28


0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
-0.2 -0.2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Figure16.
Figure Dragreduction
ratiovariation
variationcurve
curvewith
withposition
excitationspeed
speedfor
formoving
movingtrain.
train.
AsAsthe
theexcitation
excitationspeedspeedincreases,
increases,the theaerodynamic
aerodynamicdrag dragreduction
reductionfirst firstincreases
increasesandand
then decreases. From the curve it can be seen that when the excitation velocity ratio is 0.1is
then decreases. From the curve it can be seen that when the excitation velocity ratio
< 0.1
V/U< <V/U
0.3, <there
0.3, is
there is an optimum
an optimum value for value
bothfor
theboth thetrain
entire entire train aerodynamic
aerodynamic drag reduc-drag
reduction ratio and the rear car aerodynamic drag reduction ratio,
tion ratio and the rear car aerodynamic drag reduction ratio, in which the rear car aero- in which the rear car
aerodynamic drag reduction ratio is the largest, with a drag reduction
dynamic drag reduction ratio is the largest, with a drag reduction ratio close to 0.43%, ratio close to 0.43%,
when V/U = 0.15, and the entire train aerodynamic drag reduction ratio is the largest,
when V/U = 0.15, and the entire train aerodynamic drag reduction ratio is the largest, with
with a drag reduction ratio close to 0.25%, when V/U = 0.2. V/U = 0.2 is the largest
a drag reduction ratio close to 0.25%, when V/U = 0.2. V/U = 0.2 is the largest aerodynamic
aerodynamic drag reduction ratio of the entire train, with a drag reduction ratio close
drag reduction ratio of the entire train, with a drag reduction ratio close to 0.25%. Subse-
to 0.25%. Subsequently, as the jet speed continues to increase, the drag reduction ratio
quently, as the jet speed continues to increase, the drag reduction ratio gradually de-
gradually decreases. It can be seen that at rear position 2, with V/U = 0.2, the jet velocity
creases. It can be seen that at rear position 2, with V/U = 0.2, the jet velocity has the best
has the best drag reduction effect.
drag reduction effect.
A comparison of surface pressure coefficient distributions, center longitudinal profile
A comparison of surface pressure coefficient distributions, center longitudinal profile
velocity contours, and streamlines of the rear car at seven excitation velocity jets with the
velocity contours, and streamlines of the rear car at seven excitation velocity jets with the
unexcited prototype in position 2 is shown in Figures 17 and 18.
unexcited prototype in position 2 is shown in Figures 17 and 18.
As shown in Figures 17 and 18, the low-pressure region on both sides of the rear car is
As
graduallyshown in Figures
brought closer to 17the
andrear
18, tip
thealong
low-pressure region on
the characteristic both
line sides
of the of the
body, andrear
the car
area
isofgradually brought region
the low-pressure closer to the rear tip
is gradually along the
increased ascharacteristic line of the
the plasma excitation body, increases
velocity and the
area of the
on both low-pressure
sides. region isvortex
Two symmetrical gradually
zonesincreased
are formed asatthe
theplasma
rear of excitation
the locomotive velocity
unit
increases on both sides. Two symmetrical vortex zones are formed at
as a result of the rear air flow rate being accelerated by an increase in excitation velocity the rear of the loco-
motive
for theunit
flowasfield
a result
at theofrear
the of
rear
theair flow
rear car;rate being accelerated
additionally, the strengthby an ofincrease
the vortex in excita-
zones is
tion velocity for the flow field at the rear of the rear car; additionally,
increased with the increase in excitation velocity, the flow reattachment is suppressed, the strength of the
and
vortex zones
the value of is increased
the overpressurewith the increase
is further in excitation velocity, the flow reattachment is
decreased.
suppressed,
Takingand the value of the
a comprehensive overpressure
view is further
at the excitation decreased.
speed V/U < 0.2, the original positive
pressure area positive pressure value reduction is not large, the low-pressure area does
not have a wide range of coverage of the tailgate tip, and at this time, there is no obvious
drag reduction effect; with the increase in excitation speed, the original tailgate flow
separation of the region below the region and reattachment of the region of positive pressure
value reduction of the drag increase effect is gradually obvious, so the aerodynamic drag
reduction ratio with the increase in excitation jet speed shows a decreasing trend. Therefore,
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 17 of 28

the aerodynamic drag reduction ratio shows a decreasing trend with the increase in the
excitation jet velocity.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) (f)
Figure 17. Variation in rear car surface pressure(g)coefficient for different excitation (h)velocity ratios at
Figure 17. Variation in rear car surface pressure coefficient for different excitation velocity ratios at
position 2: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g)
Figure 17.
position Variation
2: (a) V/U =in
0; rear car surface
(b) V/U = 0.025;pressure
(c) V/U coefficient for different
= 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e)excitation
V/U = 0.15;velocity ratios
(f) V/U at
= 0.2;
V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
position 2: (a) V/U = 0; (b)
(g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g)
V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) (f) contour and streamline diagrams
Figure 18. Velocity (g) at z = 1.12 profile for position (h)2: (a) V/U = 0; (b)
V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
Figure 18. Velocity contour and streamline diagrams at z = 1.12 profile for position 2: (a) V/U = 0; (b)
Figure 18. Velocity contour and streamline diagrams at z = 1.12 profile for position 2: (a) V/U = 0;
V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
(b) V/U = 0.025;
Taking (c) V/U = 0.05;view
a comprehensive (d) V/U = 0.1;
at the (e) V/Uspeed
excitation = 0.15; (f) <
V/U V/U0.2,=the
0.2;original
(g) V/Upositive
= 0.25;
(h) V/U = 0.3.
pressure area positive pressure value reduction is not large, the low-pressure area does
Taking a comprehensive view at the excitation speed V/U < 0.2, the original positive
not have area
pressure a wide range pressure
positive of coverage of the
value tailgateistip,
reduction and at this
thetime, there is no obvious
drag The distribution
reduction effect; of wallthe
with shear stress
increase in the rearnot
inexcitation car large,
of a the
speed, movinglow-pressure
train
original
area
at position
tailgate flow
does
2 is
sep-
not have a wide range of coverage of the tailgate tip, and at this time,
shown in Figure 19 when the plasma device generates various excitation speeds. As can be there is no obvious
aration
drag of the region
reduction effect; belowthe
theincrease
region and reattachment of the region of tailgate
positive pressure
observed, the rear car’swith
lower wall shearin excitation
stress speed,
is centered at the
the original
rear window andflow nosesep-
tip
value
aration reduction
of the of
region the drag
below increase
the regioneffect
and is gradually
reattachment obvious,
of the so
regiontheofaerodynamic
positive drag
pressure
position when the plasma device does not provide excitation. When the excitation velocity
reduction
value ratio with
reduction the
of the increase
drag in excitation
increase jet speedobvious,
shows aso decreasing trend. There-
ratio V/U = 0.2, the low-stress area ateffect is gradually
the window and the low-stress the aerodynamic
area at the tip ofdrag
the
fore, the aerodynamic drag reduction ratio shows a decreasing trend
reduction ratio with the increase in excitation jet speed shows a decreasing trend. with the increase
There-in
the excitation jet velocity.
fore, the aerodynamic drag reduction ratio shows a decreasing trend with the increase in
the excitation jet velocity.
tip position when the plasma device does not provide excitation. When the excit
locity ratio V/U = 0.2, the low-stress area at the window and the low-stress area a
of the nose are completely separated. At this point, the excitation speed is increase
the The
walldistribution of wall
shear stress nearshear
thestress in the gradually
window rear car of aincreases,
moving train at position
and 2 is
the increase in t
shown in Figure 19 when the plasma device generates various excitation speeds. As can
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 wall shear stress area gradually decreases. 18 of 28
be observed, the rear car’s lower wall shear stress is centered at the rear window and nose
tip position when the plasma device does not provide excitation. When the excitation ve-
locity ratio V/U = 0.2, the low-stress area at the window and the low-stress area at the tip
nose
of theare completely
nose separated.
are completely At this
separated. Atpoint, the excitation
this point, speed
the excitation is increased
speed again,
is increased the
again,
wall shear stress near the window gradually increases, and the increase in the lower
the wall shear stress near the window gradually increases, and the increase in the lower wall
shear stressstress
wall shear area gradually decreases.
area gradually decreases.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) Figure 19. Distribution
(f) of shear stress on (g)the rear car’s wall surface at (h)position 2: (a) V/U =
= 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U =
Figure 19. Distribution of shear stress on the rear car’s wall surface at position 2: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U
Figure 19. Distribution of shear stress on the rear car’s wall surface at position 2: (a) V/U = 0;
The aforementioned phenomenon is caused by the creation of an excitation
(h) V/U = 0.3.
The2,aforementioned
sition which raises phenomenon
air velocity isclose
causedto by
thethe creation oflayer
boundary an excitation jet at po- the w
of the window,
sition 2, which
Thesides, raises
aforementioned air velocity close
phenomenon to the boundary
is caused layer
byfront, of the
the creation window,
of an the window’s
excitationthejet at
outer and the tip of the tailgate at the thereby increasing shear for
outer sides,
position and the
2, which tipair
raises of velocity
the tailgate atto
close the front,
the thereby
boundary increasing
layer the shear
of the window, theforce of the
window’s
airononthethe
air flow field inside the boundary layer, inresulting in aincrease
significant increas
outer sides,flow
and field inside
the tip of thethe boundary
tailgate at thelayer,
front,resulting a significant
thereby increasing the shear forceinofwall
the
shear
shear
air stress
on stress at
at the
the flow the window,
window,
field inside theboth both sides,
sides, and
boundary and
the nose
layer, the nose tip.
tip. in a significant increase in wall
resulting
shear stress at the window, both sides, and the nose tip.
4.3.
4.3.Position
Position3 3
4.3. Position 3
The shape of position 3 is a train’s surface fitted slit, which is formed by the connec-
The shape of position 3 is a train’s surface fitted slit, which is formed by the
tion The
of the front
shape ofand back3two
position curves surface
is a train’s aroundfitted
the rear
slit, train
whichnose, as shown
is formed by theinconnection
Figure 20.
oftion
As the of
thefronttheandfront
excitation and
speed
back back around
twoincreases
curves two curves
the reararound
for locomotive theasrear
rear position
train nose, train
3, Figure
shown nose,
in 21 shows
Figure asthe
20. shown
As var-
the in F
As the
excitation
iation excitation
speed
curves speed
for increases forincreases
locomotive
the aerodynamic for
rearlocomotive
drag reductionposition
ratio 3, rearrear
ofFigure
the position
21car and3,
shows the
theFigure 21 shows
variation
complete
curves
iation
train forcurves
with the aerodynamic drag reduction ratio
for the aerodynamic
jet velocity. dragofreduction
the rear car and
ratiotheof
complete
the rear train with
car and the c
jet velocity.
train with jet velocity.
Figure
Figure 20.20. Position
Position 3 schematic
3 schematic diagram.
diagram.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 19 of 28


1.6 1.6

1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Figure 21. Drag reduction ratio variation curve with position 3 excitation speed for moving train.
Figure 21. Drag reduction ratio variation curve with position 3 excitation speed for moving train.
With the increase in the excitation speed, the total drag reduction ratio of the rear car
of the moving train becomes an upward trend, and the drag reduction ratio of the total
With the increase
car of the moving train inreaches
thetheexcitation
maximum at V/Uspeed, = 0.15 and V/U the = 0.2,total drag reduction ratio of the rear car
with a drag
reduction ratio of about 0.88%; the drag reduction ratio of the rear car reaches the maxi-
of the moving mum at train
V/U = 0.25,becomes an upward
with a drag reduction trend,
ratio of 1.62%, while and
at this time, there- drag reduction ratio of the total
the drag
duction ratio of the rear car reaches about 0.88%. The aerodynamic drag reduction ratio
car of the moving
of the rear cartrain
reaches thereaches
maximum at V/U the= 0.25,
maximum
with an aerodynamic at drag
V/U = 0.15 and V/U = 0.2, with a drag
reduction
ratio of 1.62%. At this time, the aerodynamic drag reduction rate of the entire train de-
reduction ratiocreasesofwith about
the increase0.88%;
in excitationthe
speed.drag reduction ratio of the rear car reaches the maximum
At position 3, the distribution of pressure coefficients on the surface of the rear car of
at V/U = 0.25, with
the moving trainaat drag reduction
different excitation ratio
velocity jets, ofcontour
the velocity 1.62%, while at this time, the drag reduction
and streamlines
in the central longitudinal profile, and the velocity contour and streamlines at the rear car
ratio of the atrear
the z = car reaches
1.12 profile about
(a cross-section 0.88%.
in the z-direction Thetoaerodynamic
is introduced more clearly de- drag reduction ratio of the
scribe the changes in the flow field near the rear car) are shown in Figure 22, Figure 23,
rear car reaches
and Figurethe maximum
24 for comparison with that atofV/U = 0.25,
the prototype car. with an aerodynamic drag reduction ratio of
From Figure 22, when the excitation velocity ratio V/U < 0.5 at position 3, the low-
1.62%. At this time,
pressure the aerodynamic
area generated by plasma excitation startsdragto appearreduction rate of the entire train decreases with
on the rear surface pressure
of the rear car, but the area is not large, so it does not have much influence on the drag
the
Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW increase in excitation
reduction effect; with the speed.
increase in the excitation velocity, the area of the low-pressure 21 of 30
area is enlarged, and the value of the positive pressure is further reduced. At the same
At position
time, with3, the the
increasedistribution of pressure
in speed, the high-positive-pressure coefficients
areas on the left and right sides on the surface of the rear car of
the moving train at different excitation velocity jets, the velocity contour and streamlines in
the central longitudinal profile, and the velocity contour and streamlines at the rear car at
the z = nose
of the 1.12 profile
tip of the (a cross-section
rear car are divided in the z-direction by the excitation is introduced
jets; atto more
the sameclearly
time,describe
with the
the changes
increase in the flow
in speed, field near the rear car) are
the high-positive-pressure areas shownon the inleft
Figures 22–24sides
and right for comparison
of the nose
with
tip ofthat
theof thecar
rear prototype
are divided car. by the excitation jet, resulting in the area being reduced.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 22. Variation in rear car surface pressure coefficient for different excitation velocity ratios at
position 3: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g)
position 3: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2;
V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
(g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
Due to the increase in excitation velocity, the acceleration of the airflow at the rear
car and the velocity of the flow field behind the rear car also increase significantly. As
shown in Figures 23 and 24, the acceleration of the exciter at position 3 for the air reduces
the gas reflux on both sides of the nose and bottom of the rear car, which reduces the gas
Due to the increase in excitation velocity, the acceleration of the airflow at the rear
car and the velocity of the flow field behind the rear car also increase significantly. As
shown in Figures 23 and 24, the acceleration of the exciter at position 3 for the air reduces
the gas reflux on both sides of the nose and bottom of the rear car, which reduces the gas
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 20 of 28
adhesion, suppresses the flow adhesion, and significantly improves the drag reduction
ratio.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 23. Position 3 center longitudinal profile rear train velocity contour and streamline dia-
Figure 23. Position 3 center longitudinal profile rear train velocity contour and streamline diagrams:
grams: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2;
(a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25;
(g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
(h) V/U = 0.3.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 24. Position 3 velocity contour and streamline diagrams of the trailing train at z = 1.12 profile:
Figure 24. Position 3 velocity contour and streamline diagrams of the trailing train at z = 1.12 pro-
file: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2;
(h) V/U = 0.3.
(g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
FigureFigure
From 25 shows the distribution
22, when of shear
the excitation stress
velocity on the
ratio V/U rear car’s
< 0.5 at wall surface
position at posi-
3, the low-
tion 3 when
pressure area the plasmaby
generated device
plasmaproduces different
excitation starts toexcitation
appear on speeds.
the rearIt surface
can be seen that
pressure
when the plasma device does not produce excitation, the lower-shear-stress
of the rear car, but the area is not large, so it does not have much influence on the drag region of the
rear car wall is centered around the rear car nose tip and at the nose tip
reduction effect; with the increase in the excitation velocity, the area of the low-pressureposition. As the
excitation speed increases, the low-shear-stress region is located near the
area is enlarged, and the value of the positive pressure is further reduced. At the same time,nose tip of the
rear the
with car,increase
and theinwall shear
speed, thestress in this region decreases.
high-positive-pressure areas on The low-stress
the left and rightregion
sides ofat the
the
window
nose tip ofand
thethe
rearlow-stress regionby
car are divided at the
the excitation
nose tip intersect, and
jets; at the the largest
same areathe
time, with of increase
the low-
shear-stress region is reached at this time; the excitation speed is increased
in speed, the high-positive-pressure areas on the left and right sides of the nose tip again, then the
of the
wall shear stress does not decrease, but rather increases, and the
rear car are divided by the excitation jet, resulting in the area being reduced. area of the low-shear-
stress region rapidly increases. The area of the low-shear-stress region rapidly decreases.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 21 of 28
Due to the increase in excitation velocity, the acceleration of the airflow at the rear car
(a) and the velocity(b) of the flow field behind the(c) (d) As shown
rear car also increase significantly.
in Figures 23 and 24, the acceleration of the exciter at position 3 for the air reduces the gas
reflux on both sides of the nose and bottom of the rear car, which reduces the gas adhesion,
suppresses the flow adhesion, and significantly improves the drag reduction ratio.
Figure 25 shows the distribution of shear stress on the rear car’s wall surface at position
3 when the plasma device produces different excitation speeds. It can be seen that when
the plasma device does not produce excitation, the lower-shear-stress region of the rear car
wall is centered around the rear car nose tip and at the nose tip position. As the excitation
(e) speed increases,(f) the low-shear-stress region(g) is located near the nose tip of (h) the rear car, and
the wall shear stress in this region decreases. The low-stress region at the window and the
Figure 24. Position 3 velocity contour and streamline diagrams of the trailing train at z = 1.12 profile:
low-stress
(a) V/U = 0;region
(b) V/Uat= the nose
0.025; (c) tip
V/Uintersect,
= 0.05; (d)and
V/Uthe largest
= 0.1; area
(e) V/U of the
= 0.15; (f)low-shear-stress
V/U = 0.2; (g) V/Uregion
= 0.25;
is reached at
(h) V/U = 0.3. this time; the excitation speed is increased again, then the wall shear stress
does not decrease, but rather increases, and the area of the low-shear-stress region rapidly
increases. The area of the low-shear-stress region rapidly decreases.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 25.
Figure 25. Distribution
Distributionofofshear
shearstress onon
stress thethe
rearrear
car’s wallwall
car’s surface at position
surface 3: (a) V/U
at position 3: (a)= 0;
V/U(b) V/U
= 0;
(h) V/U = 0.3.
The aforementioned phenomena are brought on by the formation of an excitation jet
at position 3, which accelerates
The aforementioned air nearare
phenomena thebrought
boundaryon layer’s nose tip and
by the formation of surrounding
an excitationthe jet
rear car’s nose tip. This creates a considerable increase in the wall shear stresses in this
at position 3, which accelerates air near the boundary layer’s nose tip and surrounding the
areacar’s
rear of the reartip.
nose car’s nose
This tip and
creates at positionincrease
a considerable 3 close to the wall
in the boundary layer. It in
shear stresses also
thisraises
area
the air’s shear force on the flow field within the boundary layer.
of the rear car’s nose tip and at position 3 close to the boundary layer. It also raises the air’s
shear force on the flow field within the boundary layer.
4.4. Position 4
As shown in Figure 26, the shape of position 4 is a rectangular train’s surface fitted slit
at the tip of the nose. When the moving train rear position 4 is excited at different speeds,
the variation curves of the aerodynamic drag reduction ratio of the rear car and the entire
train with the jet velocity are shown in Figure 27, as the excitation speed increases.
4.4. Position 4
As shown in Figure 26, the shape of position 4 is a rectangular train’s surface fitted
slit at the tip of the nose. When the moving train rear position 4 is excited at different
speeds, the variation curves of the aerodynamic drag reduction ratio of the rear car and
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 22 of 28
the entire train with the jet velocity are shown in Figure 27, as the excitation speed in-
creases.



0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Figure27.
Figure Drag
reduction ratiovariation
variationcurve
curvewith
withposition
excitationspeed
speedfor
formoving
movingtrain.
train.
Withthe
With theincrease
increaseininthe
theexcitation
excitationjetjetspeed,
speed,the
thedrag
dragreduction
reductionratio
ratiogradually
gradually in-in-
creases, and when the excitation velocity ratio is increased to V/U = 0.3, the
creases, and when the excitation velocity ratio is increased to V/U = 0.3, the drag reductiondrag reduction
ratioofof
ratio thethe rear
rear carcar
andand
thethe entire
entire traintrain can reach
can reach 0.6%0.6% and 0.41%.
and 0.41%. WhenWhen
jettingjetting at dif-
at different
excitation speeds, the distribution of the pressure coefficient on the surface of the rearofcar
ferent excitation speeds, the distribution of the pressure coefficient on the surface the
rear car of the moving train, the center longitudinal profile velocity
of the moving train, the center longitudinal profile velocity contour, and the streamlinecontour, and the
streamline diagrams at position 4 are shown in Figures 28 and 29 for comparison with the
diagrams at position 4 are shown in Figures 28 and 29 for comparison with the non-excited
non-excited model.
model.
As shown in Figures 28 and 29, with the increase in the excitation velocity, the surface
of the car body at the tip of the rear car initially generates a small area of low-pressure
positive pressure area, and with the further increase in the velocity, the low-pressure area
is gradually reduced and the positive pressure value is gradually restored, and the effect
of drag reduction is weakened. The flow field at the rear of the rear car has a larger vortex
area, and it is continuously expanded with the increase in the excitation jet velocity. As a
whole, the drag reduction potential at this position is small; the energy of the jet generated
by the plasma excitation is much smaller than the vortex energy, which is insufficient to
overcome the vortex energy. Overall, the drag reduction potential at this position is small;
area, and it is continuously expanded with the increase in the excitation jet velocity. As a
whole, the drag reduction potential at this position is small; the energy of the jet generated
by the plasma excitation is much smaller than the vortex energy, which is insufficient to
overcome the vortex energy. Overall, the drag reduction potential at this position is small;
the energy of the jet generated by plasma excitation is much smaller than the vortex en-
Machines 2023, 11, 1078
ergy, which is insufficient to overcome the vortex to detach from the car surface, and23moreof 28
additional energy is consumed to improve the drag reduction ratio.

(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 28. Variation in rear car surface pressure coefficient for different excitation velocity ratios at
position
Figure 28.4: Variation
(a) V/U = 0;
in (b)
rearV/U
car =surface
0.025; (c) V/U = coefficient
pressure 0.05; (d) V/U
for=different
0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; velocity
excitation (f) V/U =ratios
0.2; (g)
at
position 4: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2;
V/U = 0.25;
position (h) V/U
4: (a) V/U == 0;
0.3.
(b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g)
(g) V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
V/U = 0.25; (h) V/U = 0.3.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

(e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 29. Position 4 center longitudinal profile rear car velocity contour and streamline diagrams:
(a) V/U 29.
Figure = 0;Position
(b) V/U 4= center
0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05;profile
longitudinal (d) V/U = 0.1;
rear car (e) V/U =contour
velocity 0.15; (f)and
V/Ustreamline
= 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25;
diagrams:
Figure 29. Position 4 center longitudinal profile rear car velocity contour and streamline diagrams:
(h)
(a) V/U = 0.3.
0; (b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/U = 0.05; (d) V/U = 0.1; (e) V/U = 0.15; (f) V/U = 0.2; (g) V/U = 0.25;
(h) V/U = 0.3.
(h) V/U = 0.3. 30 shows the wall shear stress distribution of the rear car of the moving train
Figure
at position
Figure430 when
shows thethe
plasma devicestress
wall shear produces different
distribution ofexcitation
the rear car speeds.
of theItmoving
can be train
seen
As shown in Figures 28 and 29, with the increase in the excitation velocity, the surface
at position
that when the 4 when
plasma thedevice
plasmadoes devicenotproduces different excitation
produce excitation, the lowerspeeds.
wall shearIt can be seen
stress re-
of the car body at the tip of the rear car initially generates a small area of low-pressure
that when
gion of thethe
rearplasma device does not
car is concentrated produce
in the rear carexcitation,
windowthe and lower
nosewall shear stress
tip position. When re-
positive pressure area, and with the further increase in the velocity, the low-pressure area is
the
gion excitation
of the velocity
rear car is ratio V/U
concentrated = 0.1,
in the
the low-stress
rear car area
window at the
and
gradually reduced and the positive pressure value is gradually restored, and the effect of nose
nose tip
tip of the
position. rear
Whencar
the excitation
develops
drag reduction velocity
to theis maximum
weakened. ratioandV/U
The = 0.1,
then
flow theatlow-stress
reaches
field therear
the of area
minimum at the
value
the rear car of nose
the
has tip
wall
a largerofshear
the rear
vortex car
stress;
area,
with the
develops further
to the increase
maximum in the
and excitation
then reaches speed,
the the low-stress
minimum value
and it is continuously expanded with the increase in the excitation jet velocity. As a whole,area
of at
the the
wall window
shear and
stress;
with
the
the thereduction
nose
drag further
tip of theincrease
rear car in
potential atthe
gradually
thisexcitation speed,
intersect,
position and the
is small; low-stress
thelow wall of
energy area
shear at generated
the stress
jet theatwindow by and
the nose tip
the
thethe
of nose
plasma tipcar
rear of the
excitation rear carsmaller
is isreduced
much gradually
to the than intersect,
minimum and
value.
the vortex the
As low
energy, the wall isshear
excitation
which stress
speed at
insufficient istothe nose in-
further
overcome tip
creased,
of the rearthecar
low-stress
is reducedareato at the window
minimum and the low-stress
value. area at the
As the excitation tip of
speed is the tailgate
further in-
creased, the
gradually low-stress
overlap, and area at the
the area of window
low walland thestress
shear low-stress
at the area
tip ofatthethetailgate
tip of the tailgate
decreases
gradually
rapidly and overlap,
does not and the area
change of low wall shear stress at the tip of the tailgate decreases
much.
rapidly and does not change much.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 24 of 28
(e) (f) (g) (h)

the
Figurevortex energy. 4Overall,
29. Position the drag reduction
center longitudinal potential
profile rear at this
car velocity position
contour and is small; the
streamline energy
diagrams:
of
(a)theV/Ujet generated
= 0; by plasma
(b) V/U = 0.025; (c) V/Uexcitation
= 0.05; (d) isV/Umuch
= 0.1;smaller
(e) V/U =than
0.15;the vortex
(f) V/U energy,
= 0.2; (g) V/Uwhich
= 0.25;
is(h)insufficient
V/U = 0.3. to overcome the vortex to detach from the car surface, and more additional
energy is consumed to improve the drag reduction ratio.
Figure30
Figure 30shows
showsthe thewall
wallshear
shearstress
stressdistribution
distribution ofof
thethe rear
rear carcar
of of
thethe moving
moving train
train at
at position
position 4 when
4 when the the plasma
plasma device
device produces
produces different
different excitation
excitation speeds.speeds.
It canItbecan be seen
seen that
when
that whenthe plasma device
the plasma does does
device not produce
not produceexcitation, the lower
excitation, wall wall
the lower shearshearstress region
stress re-
of
gion theofrear
thecar
rearis car
concentrated in theinrear
is concentrated the car
rearwindow
car window and nose tip position.
and nose When
tip position. the
When
excitation
the excitation velocity ratio V/U
velocity ratio =V/U
0.1, =the low-stress
0.1, area at area
the low-stress the nose tip nose
at the of thetiprearofcar
thedevelops
rear car
to the maximum
develops and then reaches
to the maximum and then the minimum
reaches value of the
the minimum wallofshear
value the wallstress; with
shear the
stress;
further
with the increase
furtherin the excitation
increase speed, thespeed,
in the excitation low-stress area at thearea
the low-stress window
at theand the nose
window and
tip
theof the tip
nose rearofcar
thegradually intersect,intersect,
rear car gradually and the low walllow
and the shear
wallstress
shearatstress
the nose
at thetipnose
of the
tip
rear
of the rear car is reduced to the minimum value. As the excitation speed is furtherthe
car is reduced to the minimum value. As the excitation speed is further increased, in-
low-stress
creased, the area at the window
low-stress andwindow
area at the the low-stress
and thearea at the tip
low-stress areaofatthethetailgate gradually
tip of the tailgate
overlap,
gradually and the areaand
overlap, of low wall of
the area shear
lowstress at the stress
wall shear tip of the tailgate
at the tip ofdecreases
the tailgate rapidly and
decreases
does
rapidly notandchange
doesmuch.
not change much.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 30. Distribution of shear stress on the rear car’s wall surface at position 4: (a) V/U = 0; (b) V/U
Figure 30. Distribution of shear stress on the rear car’s wall surface at position 4: (a) V/U = 0;
(h) V/U = 0.3.
The above phenomenon is due to the generation of an excitation jet at position 4,
which results
The aboveinphenomenon
an elevated spatial
is dueposition of the vortex
to the generation of pair and a relative
an excitation jet atreduction
position 4,in
the large vortex volume range and vortex scale, thereby reducing the shear force
which results in an elevated spatial position of the vortex pair and a relative reduction in of the air
on the
the flow
large fieldvolume
vortex within the boundary
range layer,
and vortex resulting
scale, in areducing
thereby reduction
theinshear
the wall shear
force stress
of the air
at the nose tip position.
on the flow field within the boundary layer, resulting in a reduction in the wall shear stress
at the nose tip position.
4.5. Comparison of Drag Reduction Effects at Four Positions
4.5. Comparison
Figures 31ofand
Drag32 Reduction
show the Effects
changesat Four Positions drag of the entire train and the
in aerodynamic
rear Figures
car when 31the
andabsolute
32 show pressure in the vacuum
the changes tube is 10,000
in aerodynamic drag Pa andentire
of the the plasma
train exci-
and
tation
the rearjets
carare carried
when out at different
the absolute pressure speeds
in theatvacuum
four positions
tube is at the rear
10,000 end the
Pa and of the train
plasma
excitation
set when jets
the are carried
train set is out at different
travelling speedsofat600
at a speed fourkm/h,
positions at the rearOverall,
respectively. end of the train
whether
set
forwhen the train
the entire trainset
orisonly
travelling
for theatrear
a speed of 600
car, the km/h,
overall respectively.
drag reduction Overall,
effect is whether
better at
for the entire
position train orbyonly
3, followed for the
position 4, rear
whilecar, the overall
position 1 anddrag reduction
position 2 have effect is better
poor drag reduc-at
position
tion effect3, followed
and evenbydragposition 4, while
increase position 1 and
phenomenon position
in the range2of have poor drag
excitation reduction
speed in the
effect
paper.and even drag increase phenomenon in the range of excitation speed in the paper.
Machines2023,
Machines 2023,11,
11,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 2727ofof3030
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 25 of 28
1.0
1.0 Position1 1
Position Position2 2
Position

0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.3
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
-1.0
Excitationvelocity
Excitation velocityratio(V/U)
ratio(V/U)
Figure 31.
Figure31.
Figure Whole-train
31.Whole-train drag
Whole-traindrag reduction
dragreduction ratio
reductionratio for
ratiofor different
fordifferent excitation
differentexcitation speeds
excitationspeeds atatfour
speedsat four positions.
fourpositions.
positions.
Position1 1
Position
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-1.0
-1.0
Excitationvelocity
Excitation velocityratio(V/U)
ratio(V/U)
Figure32.
Figure
Figure 32.The
32. Therear
The rearcar
rear cardrag
car dragreduction
drag reductionratio
reduction ratiofor
ratio fordifferent
for differentexcitation
different excitationspeeds
excitation speedsat
speeds atatfour
fourpositions.
four positions.
positions.
From
FromFigure
From Figure 31,
Figure31,31,itititisisisevident
evident
evidentthatthat putting
thatputting
puttingthe the plasma
theplasma excitation
plasmaexcitation
excitationat at position
position111has
atposition has
hasnono
no
effect
effecton
effect on reducing
onreducing drag,
reducingdrag, drag,and and that
andthat as
thatas excitation
asexcitation
excitationspeed speed increases,
speedincreases, aerodynamic
increases,aerodynamic
aerodynamicdrag drag on
dragon the
onthethe
train increases
trainincreases
train increasesand and the
andthe drag
thedrag reduction
dragreduction ratio
reductionratio for
ratiofor the
forthe entire
theentire train
entiretrain drops.,
traindrops., which
whichisisisnot
drops.,which not suitable
notsuitable
suitable
to
to be
be the
the setting
setting part
part of
of the
the excitation
excitation from
from the
the point
point of
of view
view
to be the setting part of the excitation from the point of view of energy consumption, when of
of energy
energy consumption,
consumption, when
when
the
the ratio
theratio of
ratioofofthe the excitation speed
theexcitation speed isis0.0.IfIftheis 0. If the ratio
theratio of
ratioofofthe the excitation
theexcitation
excitationspeed speed is 1
speedisis1 1< <V/U< V/U
V/U< <0.3,< 0.3,
0.3,the
the
the best
bestdrag
best drag
dragreduction reduction
reductioneffect effect
effectoccurs occurs
occursatatthe at the jet
thejetjetspeed speed
speedV/U V/U
V/U= =0.2, = 0.2,
0.2,when
whenthewhen
thedragthe drag
dragreduction reduction
reductioneffect
effect
iseffect is best,
isatatitsitsatbest,
its and
best, and
andthe
thedragthe
drag drag reduction
reduction
reduction ratio
ratio
ratio of
ofofthe the
the entire
entire
entire train
train
train hits0.25%.
hits
hits 0.25%.The
0.25%. Themaximum
maximum
maximum
value
value of
of the
the drag
drag reduction
reduction effect
effect of
of plasma
plasma excitation
excitation
value of the drag reduction effect of plasma excitation is at position 2, and the best is
is at
at position
position 2,
2, and
and the
thebest drag
bestdrag
drag
reduction
reduction effect
effect occurs
occurs
reduction effect occurs at this speed. atat this
this speed.
speed.
For the drag reduction situation at position 3, when the excitation velocity ratio
V/U = 0.15, the drag reduction ratio of the entire train is now around 0.88%, with the
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 26 of 28
excitation jet at position 3 having the best effect on reducing drag; the excitation drag
reduction situation at position 4 is more considerable, and with the increase in the excitation
velocity ratio, the drag reduction ratio of the entire train also increases, and it keeps an
upward trend, but the improvement rate is small. In summary, it can be seen that the active
control based on plasma excitation is set up at position 3 and position 4 of the rear car,
which has a better drag reduction effect, and position 3 is the best from the perspective of
minimizing the energy consumption of the jet.
As shown in Figure 32, for the same position, the rear car drag reduction ratio and the
entire train drag reduction ratio are roughly similar, but it can be more clearly seen that
position 3 belongs to the optimal drag reduction position, position 4 has a relatively large
drag reduction potential, while position 1 and position 2 have a stronger drag increase
phenomenon, implying an increase in train set movement speed, and are not suitable for
setting up as a drag reduction position.
5. Conclusions
Based on the surface dielectric barrier discharge technology, this paper compares the
effects of different electrode positions and different excitation speeds on the flow control of
a vacuum tube high-speed train model.
(1) The flow control mechanism of plasma on rolling stock delays the flow separation
by causing directional gas flow close to the wall, moving the flow separation point
backward, reducing the size of the negative pressure zone at the end of the train’s
body, and reducing the pressure difference drag between the front and rear of the
train’s body to reduce the drag coefficient of the entire train.
(2) The best drag reduction scheme can be obtained by studying the most effective way to
reduce drag. The SDBD device is installed at the flow separation around the tip of the
nose, and the drag reduction effect is maximized close to the excitation velocity ratio
of V/U = 0.2, with the drag reduction ratio of about 0.88%; the drag reduction ratio of
the rear car reaches the maximum at the excitation velocity ratio of V/U = 0.25, with
the drag reduction ratio of 1.62%.
(3) In the four positions of the excitation jet, position 4 produces the excitation jet when
the rolling stock rear car wall shear stress reduction amplitude and range are larger
than the other three positions to produce the excitation jet, and when the excitation
velocity ratio of V/U = 0.1, the area of the low-stress zone at the nose tip of the rear car
develops to its maximum, reaching the minimum value of wall shear stress, thereby
more effectively reducing the surface friction drag of the train.
(4) Vacuum tube moving train plasma excitation drag reduction is feasible, but the
maximum drag reduction ratio is not more than 2%, so the effect is weak. Due to
the fact that the vacuum tube belongs to a very narrow space, its internal flow field
changes are more intense and variable, so using a simple plasma excitation jet to
achieve the purpose of drag reduction effect is very limited.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.C. and A.L.; methodology, Y.G.; software, J.D.; valida-
tion, H.C. and Y.G.; investigation, A.L.; data curation, W.D.; writing—original draft preparation, H.C.
and Y.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Science Researching Plans of Liaoning Provincial Educa-
tion Department under Grant No. LJKZ0509 and No. LJKFZ20220203.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data will be made available on reasonable request.
Machines 2023, 11, 1078 27 of 28
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the Liaoning Provincial Department of Education for
providing financial support for this research. Meanwhile, we would like to thank Dalian Jiaotong
University for providing the thermal engineering laboratory for this research and all the laboratory
teachers for their hard work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. CRRC DALIAN Co., Ltd. had no
commercial interest in the publishing of this paper.
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Machines 2023, 11, 1078. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11121078 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

The boundary conditions

Table 1. Simulation boundary conditions.

Computational Domain Boundary Condition Calculation Settings

Table 1. Simulation boundary conditions.

Computational Domain Boundary Condition Calculation Settings

The tube environment simulated in this paper is the operating environment of a

2.2. Validation of Numerical Plasma Simulation

Fx = θαρc ec Ex ∆tδ (1)

Fy = θαρc ec Ey ∆tδ (2)

Figure 2. Longitudinal mid-section of geometric model.

Figure 2. Longitudinal mid-section of geometric model.

Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 30

Re = 6.31×10^6 > 4000 (5)

Re = 6.31 × 106 > 4000 (5)

Kn = 1.63 × 10−7 < 0.01 (7)

2.4. Dimensionless Coefficients

2.5. Reliability Analysis and Mesh Partitioning Strategy

Table 3. Grid-independent validation.

2.6. Validation of Mathematical Techniques

Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 30

Figure 8. Velocity contour for longitudinal mid-section of the rear car.

Figure 9. The rear car surface streamline.

Figure 9. The rear car surface streamline.

Machines 2023, 11, 1078 4. Analysis of Results 12 of 28

0.5 Whole train drag reduction ratio(%) 0.5

Whole train drag reduction ratio(%)

Rear car drag reduction ratio(%)

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 30

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 30

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 15. Position 2 schematic diagram.

Figure 15. Position 2 schematic diagram.

Whole train drag reduction ratio(%)

Whole train drag reduction ratio(%)

Rear car drag reduction ratio(%)

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 30

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 20. Position 3 schematic diagram.

Whole train drag reduction ratio(%)

Whole train drag reduction ratio(%)

Rear car drag reduction ratio(%)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 30

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(a) (b) (c) (d)