Kottakkal Farook Arts and Science college

First semester bsc physics

MINI PROJECT

Name:rana
Year:2023-2024
Bsc physics
 CERTIFICATE
This certificate is awarded to Rana for successfully completing a mini project titled heat
transfer methods.The project was completed under the guidance of Ms. Ameera.P.I and was
submitted to PG department of Physics,Kottakkal farook arts and science college .

Ameera. P. l suhail. K
(Mini project guide) (HOD)
 INDEX

Sno Table of content Page

1 Abstract 4

2 Introduction 5

3 Data collection 6

4 Conduction 7

5 Convention 10

6 Radiation 12

7 Conclusion 14

8 Reference 15
 ABSTRACT
Heat transfer is the field in Thermodynamics in charge of the study of the generation,
conversion, exchange and use of energy in form of heat (thermal energy) between different
systems. Heat can be transferred using several mechanisms such as conduction, convection,
and radiationHeat transfer is the process of the movement of energy due to a temperature
difference. The calculations we are interested in include determining the final temperatures
of materials and how long it takes for these materials to reach these temperatures. This can
help inform the level of insulation required to ensure heat is not lost from a system. Typically,
heat loss is proportional to a temperature gradient (driving force or potential)
 INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer is the field in Thermodynamics in charge of the study of the generation,
conversion, exchange and use of energy in form of heat (thermal energy) between different
systems. Heat can be transferred using several mechanisms such as conduction, convection,
and radiation. The proper understanding of these modes of heat transfer leads to a successful
design of any device in which thermal energy is involved. That is why it is so important to
study and to analyze heat transfer in any application.
Thermal energy is present in any aspect of our lives. We can daily experiment heat transfer
phenomena at home, when cooking or taking food out of the fridge , when using a vehicle to
go to work or turning the heating or air-conditioning system on in our office . Sometimes this
thermal management is not evident but it is essential for our comfort and lifestyle. Besides,
heat transfer is of vital importance in all the electric power plants. Whether some fuel is
being burnt to get steam or if we want to maintain a PV panel temperature to a certain level,
again a proper management of thermal energy is crucial to the operation of the system.And
nowadays it is even more important to perfectly control thermal transfer when designing
renewable energy systems where every unit of energy requires to be used; or when installing
an efficiency measure in a process to prevent thermal losses.
 DATA COLLECTION
Heat transfer
Any matter which is made up of atoms and molecules has the ability to transfer heat. The
atoms are in different types of motion at any time. The motion of molecules and atoms is
responsible for heat or thermal energy and every matter has this thermal energy. The more
the motion of molecules, more will be the heat energy. However, talking about heat transfer,
it is nothing but the process of transfer of heat from a high-temperature body to a low
temperature one.

According to thermodynamic systems, heat transfer is defined as“The movement of heat

across the border of the system due to a difference in temperature between the system and
its surroundings.”Interestingly, the difference in temperature is said to be a ‘potential’ that
causes the transfer of heat from one point to another.

Thermodynamics often makes reference to the heat transfer between systems. Often these
lawsDo not adequately describe heat transfer processes, so we must introduce more accurate
rulesTo explain what happens. The control of heat transfer is important to study so that we
can Design the appropriate tools to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another.
This module introduces heat transfer and the transport laws of conduction, convection and
Radiation. The laws introduced include Fourier’s law, Newton’s law of cooling and Stefan-
Boltzmann law. Other topics that are discussed include Biot numbers, Wein’s law, and the
one-Dimensional heat diffusion equation. These act as an introduction to the complicated
nature of Thermal energy transfer.
Methods of Heat Transfer
When a temperature difference is present, heat will flow from hot to cold. Heat can transfer
Between two mediums by conduction, convection and radiation whenever there is a
Temperature difference. Recall the first law of thermodynamics. The rate that heat will
Transfer in a closed system is presented in the following form.

How is Heat Transferred?

Heat can travel from one place to another in several ways. The different modes of heat
transfer include:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Conduction
Conduction is defined asThe process of transmission of energy from one particle of the
medium to another with the particles being in direct contact with each other.An area of
higher kinetic energy transfers thermal energy towards the lower kinetic energy area. High-
speed particles clash with particles moving at a slow speed, as a result, slow speed particles
increase their kinetic energy. This is a typical form of heat transfer and takes place through
physical contact. Conduction is also known as thermal conduction or heat
conduction. This can either be through ionic conduction, electric conduction, or heat
conduction. Conduction can occur in solids, liquids, and gases – solids conduct most

efficiently because the molecules are much closer together than in other states, as shown in
the image below.Particles in a solid are in a relatively fixed position and the bonds between
them are very strong. This means that the conduction of energy from one particle to another
is most efficient in this form.The particles in a liquid don’t have a fixed position and so the
bonds between them are not as strong. This makes liquids poor conductors.The particles in a
gas are much further apart which means the transfer of energy is very inefficient. They are
therefore very poor conductors.

Ionic conduction
Ionic conduction is defined as the movement of an ion from one ‘site’ to another. This is
possible through ‘defects’ in the lattice structure of a solid or an aqueous solution – these
defects allow the ions to move in an electric field. As you can see in the image below, there is
a ‘vacancy’ which allows the ions to move.Certain solids possess very high ionic conductivity,
which is useful in solid-state electronics such as computers and mobile phones. It is also a
useful process in both normal and rechargeable batteries and fuel cells.Ionic salts can also be
dissolved in solution, which then allows an electric current to flow. In this case, the ions are
both electrically charged and mobile, making them good
charge carriers. Solid salts don’t conduct electricity because they simply don’t have any
charge carriers that are mobile.
Electrical conduction

In metals, electrical conductivity can happen as a result of the movement of electrically

charged particles. The atoms of metal all have valence electrons – these are electrons that
are found in the outer shell of each atom, but they are ‘free’ to move throughout the
structure. The movement of these free electrons is what enables to metal to conduct an
electrical current. When they are free to move around, they are referred to as being
delocalized. Without external influence, they move randomly throughout the structure.An
electric potential can be applied to a metal, usually from a battery, and will form an electrical
circuit. This causes a net drift of electrons which flows around the circuit. The higher this
electric potential is, the higher the flow of electrons will be.A 12-coordinated metal is one in
which the atoms are so closely packed that there are as many atoms as possible filling the
available space. This configuration means that each atom in the structure will be touching 12
other atoms in 3D space. The images below show how a particular atom will have 6 others
touching it in the same layer, 3 in the layer above, and 3 in the layer below – this gives a total
of 12, hence the name.Another configuration is the 8-coordinated metal, which is most often
found in Group 1 of the Periodic Table. These are packed less tightly together and, as such,
each atom only touches 8 others in 3D space.Semiconductors also exist. These are substances
in which the conductivity falls somewhere between a conductor and an insulator, such as
silicon and carbon. In their natural state, they are relatively poor conductors but can be
subject to ‘doping’ – this is a process in which impurities are added to a semiconductor. A
semiconductor which has been doped is then called an extrinsic semiconductor which
conducts electricity much better than a standard semiconductor.

Thermal conduction
Thermal conduction (sometimes also called heat conduction) occurs when rapidly moving
particles interact with their neighbouring particles, thus transferring a portion of their kinetic
energy. This process happens from regions with a higher temperature to regions of a lower
temperature. There are 4 main things which affect the rate at which heat is conducted:The
temperature difference between the two regions
The ‘length’ of the regionThe cross-sectional area of the regionThe material the process is
taking place inMetallic solids conduct heat the best, whilst gases conduct heat the worst. This
is due to the particles in a solid being in such close proximity that a collision, and thus transfer
of thermal energy, is incredibly likely. They are good thermal conductors for exactly the same
reasons they are good electrical conductors. It is for this reason that the higher the density of
the solid, the better it will conduct thermal energy.

It Is important to remember that energy is transferred from one particle to another, and there
is no overall movement of particles in the process.
Conduction Examples

Following are the examples of conduction:

1. Ironing of clothes is an example of conduction where the heat is conducted from the
iron to the clothes.
2. Heat is transferred from hands to ice cube resulting in the melting of an ice cube
when held in hands.
3. Heat conduction through the sand at the beaches. This can be experienced during
summers. Sand is a good conductor of heat.

Convection
Convection is defined asThe movement of fluid molecules from higher temperature regions
to lower temperature regions.
Convection Equation
As the temperature of the liquid increases, the liquid’s volume also has to increase by the
same factor and this effect is known as displacement. The equation to calculate the rate of
convection is as follows:
Q = hc ∙ A ∙ (Ts – Tf)

Q is the heat transferred per unit time

Hc is the coefficient of convective heat transfer
A is the area of heat transfer
Ts is the surface temperature
Tf is the fluid temperature
There are two types of convection, and they are:

Natural convection
Forced convection
Natural convection: When convection takes place due to buoyant force as there is a
difference in densities caused by the difference in temperatures it is known as natural
convection.

Examples of natural convection are oceanic winds.

Forced convection: When external sources such as fans and pumps are used for creating
induced convection, it is known as forced convection.

Examples of forced convection are using water heaters or geysers for instant heating of water
and using a fan on a hot summer day.

As we have read previously, convection can either be forced or natural. One of the most
common examples of natural convection is the phenomena of the sea and land breeze.

Sea breeze: This phenomenon occurs during the day. The sun heats up both the sea surface
and land. As the sea has a greater heating capacity, it absorbs much of the sun’s energy but
gets warmed up much slower than the land. As a result, the temperature above the land rises
and heats the air in the atmosphere above it. Warm air is less dense, and hence, it expands,
creating a low-pressure area over the land near the coast. Meanwhile, there is relatively high
pressure over the sea. The difference in air pressure causes the air to flow from sea to land.
The sudden gush of wind felt due to this is known as the sea breeze.
Land Breeze: This phenomenon occurs during the night when the situation reverses. As the
sun sets, the land and sea start cooling down. The land quickly loses heat when compared to
water due to the differences in heat capacity. Consequently, the temperature of the sea is
relatively higher, which creates low air pressure there. This sets up a flow of cool breeze
offshore, known as the land breeze.
Land and Sea Breeze
Convection Example
 1. Boiling of water, that is molecules that are denser move at the bottom while the
molecules which are less dense move upwards resulting in the circular motion of the
molecules so that water gets heated.
2. Warm water around the equator moves towards the poles while cooler water at the
poles moves towards the equator.
3. Blood circulation in warm-blooded animals takes place with the help of convection,
thereby regulating the body temperature.

What is Radiation?
Radiant heat is present in some or other form in our daily lives. Thermal radiations are
referred to as radiant heat. Thermal radiation is generated by the emission of
electromagnetic waves. These waves carry away the energy from the emitting body. Radiation
takes place through a vacuum or transparent medium which can be either solid or liquid.
Thermal radiation is the result of the random motion of molecules in matter. The movement
of charged electrons and protons is responsible for the emission of electromagnetic radiation.
Let us know more about radiation heat transfer.

Radiation heat transfer is measured by a device known as thermocouple. A thermocouple is

used for measuring the temperature. In this device sometimes, error takes place while
measuring the temperature through radiation heat transfer.

Radiation Equation
As temperature rises, the wavelength in the spectra of the radiation emitted decreases and
shorter wavelengths radiations are emitted. Thermal radiation can be calculated by Stefan-
Boltzmann law:
P = e ∙ σ ∙ A· (Tr – Tc)4
P is the net power of radiation

A is the area of radiation

Tr is the radiator temperature
Tc is the surrounding temperature
E is emissivity and σ is Stefan’s constant (σ = 5.67 × 10-8Wm-2K-4

Radiation Example
Following are the examples of radiation:
1. Microwave radiation emitted in the oven is an example of radiation.
2. UV rays coming from the sun is an example of radiation.
 3. The release of alpha particles during the decaying of Uranium-238 into Thorium-234 is
an example of radiation.
Radiation heat transfer becomes important at high temperatures (above 1000 K) and after
collapse of materials, when some structures are in direct view with hot debris located below.
Radiation is modeled in most of the codes, including absorption of heat by steam, but usually
the models cannot deal with scattering media (water droplets for example) or large cavities
with strong absorption by the gas. Such cases would require multidimensional models that
require a lot of computation time. In any case, models for radiation heat transfer, with a
relevant estimate of view factors, across rod assemblies or debris, and across large cavities
should be available in the code. The lack of appropriate radiative heat transfer models will
lead to an incorrect temperature distribution in the vessel.
 CONCLUSION
The materials are soft and the real contact areas between the interfaces
significantly increase under the higher temperatures. As a result, the thermal
contact resistance significantly decreases and the heat transfer rate increases
with increasing the heating temperature.Heat transfer is the process of the
movement of energy due to a temperature difference. The calculations we are
interested in include determining the final temperatures of materials and how
long it takes for these materials to reach these temperatures. This can help
inform the level of insulation required to ensure heat is not lost from a system.
Typically, heat loss is proportional to a temperature gradient (driving force or
potential)
 REFERENCE
1. https://byjus.com/physics/heat-transfer-conduction-convection-and-radiation/
2. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/77737
3. https://byjus.com/physics/heat-transfer-conduction-convection-and-radiation/
4. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/radiation-heat-transfer