College of Social Sciences and Philosophy

AY 2022-2023

MODULE IN
SOCIAL WORK STATISTICS

BY

ATTY. JANINE CRYSTAL C. SAYO-VILLAVICENCO, RPm

TABLE OF CONTENTS
i. Introduction to Statistics
ii. Research Ethics
iii. Descriptive and Inferential Statistics: Overview
iv. Levels of Measurement
v. Reliability and Validity
vi. Statistical Tools
a. T-Test
b. ANOVA
c. Correlation
d. Regression
 i. Introduction to Statistics
ETYMOLOGY
The term statistics is from the New Latin “statisticum collegium” or "council of state" and
the Italian word “statista” or "statesman" or "politician". The study is originally focused on the
analysis of data about the state. Over the years, it acquired the meaning of “collection and
classification of data in general.” Its principal purpose was collection of data to be used by
governmental and administrative bodies about states and localities. In
particular, censuses provide frequently updated information about the population.

Activity 1

Based on the etymology of “Statistics” and its original intended purpose, what is the significance
of this study today? Answer in not more than five (5) sentences. [20 points]

Reference: https://psa.gov.ph/content/employment-situation-october-2020
 The table above presents the latest Employment Rate of the Philippines in October 2020.
The first row provides for the number of labor force able and willing to work aged 15 and above.
Labor Participation Rate, on the other hand pertains to the willingness of the labor force to be
employed, which is measure through the active search and application of the workers.
Employment Rate pertains to the percentage of the labor force employed, while
Underemployment Rate refers to the workforce employed in a position which is below their
salary range or skill set. Lastly, Unemployment Rate indicates the percentage of the workforce
unable to get a job. Based on this table, what can you surmise?

Activity 2

Draft a program that will alleviate the identified problem from the data above.

TITLE OF THE PROGRAM:

OBJECTIVE/S:

BENEFICIARIES:

PROCEDURE:

TARGET/ END GOAL:

STATISTICAL JARGONS

Data. It is a collection of numerical data which pertains to individual pieces of factual

information recorded and used for the purpose of analysis.
Precision. Refers to how close two or more measurements are to each other.

Accuracy. Pertains to how close you are to the true value.

 Activity 3

Indicate whether the data is Accurate or Precise. Note that the true value is 100.

SCORE A SCORE B SCORE C SCORE D SCORE E

R1 100 100 100 100 100
R2 90 91 92 91 90
R3 50 40 30 70 100
R4 90 95 80 85 70
R5 70 70 70 70 70
R6 100 100 50 100 100
R7 90 90 90 90 90
R8 10 20 30 40 50
R9 91 92 93 94 95
R10 100 10 10 100 10

Sample. A set of individuals or objects collected or selected from a statistical population

by a defined characteristic.
 Population. It refers to the entire pool from which a
statistical sample is drawn. It can be an entire group of people,
objects, events, hospital visits, or measurements. It is an aggregate
observation of subjects grouped together by a common feature.
Sampling. A process used in statistical analysis in which a
predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger
population. There are two types: probability (SRS, stratified RS) and
non-probability sampling (purposive, quota, snowball)
Respondent. A person, part of the sample, from which data
is derived for analysis.
Confidentiality. An oath, as part of ethics of research, that
the data that will be gathered from the respondent will not be used
in any other means other than for research purposes.
Informed Consent. This ensures that individuals are
voluntarily participating in the research with full knowledge of
relevant risks and benefits. APA's Ethics Code mandates that
researchers should inform participants about:
a. the purpose of the research, expected duration and
procedures;
b. participants' rights to decline to participate and to
withdraw from the research once it has started, as well as the anticipated
consequences of doing so;
c. reasonably foreseeable factors that may influence their willingness to
participate, such as potential risks, discomfort or adverse effects;
d. any prospective research benefits;
e. limits of confidentiality, such as data coding, disposal, sharing and archiving, and
when confidentiality must be broken;
f. incentives for participation; and
g. who participants can contact with questions.

ii. Research Ethics

It provides guidelines for the responsible, valid and reliable conduct of research. The
following is a general summary of some ethical principles:
Honesty: Reliably report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do
not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
 Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.
Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual
property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit
where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms
through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex,
race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.
Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not
conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection: When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms
and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.

iii. Descriptive and Inferential Statistics: Overview

Descriptive statistics helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way. Its
primary purpose is to present patterns that might emerge from the data. However, it does
not conclusions beyond the data analyzed it simply describes the data. Still, it is important
because you present your raw data it would be hard to visualize what the data was showing,
especially if there was a lot of it.
Descriptive statistics allows simpler interpretation of the data. Essentially, it uses two
major ways of presentation, the Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of Spread.
 Measures of central tendency describes the central position of a frequency distribution
for a group of data; includes the mode, median, and mean.

The mean (or average) is the most popular measure of central tendency. It can be used
with continuous data. The mean is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set divided
by the number of values in the data set.

It is a model of your data set since it is the value that is most common. You will notice,
however, that the mean is not often one of the actual values that you have observed in
your data set. However, one of its important properties is that it minimizes error in the
prediction of any one value in your data set. That is, it is the value that produces the lowest
amount of error from all other values in the data set.

An important property of the mean is that it includes every value in your data set as part
of the calculation. In addition, the mean is the only measure of central tendency where the
sum of the deviations of each value from the mean is always zero.

The mean has one main disadvantage: it is particularly susceptible to the influence of
outliers. These are values that are unusual compared to the rest of the data set by being
especially small or large in numerical value. For example, consider the wages of staff at a
factory below:

Staff 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Salary 15k 18k 16k 14k 15k 15k 12k 17k 90k 95k

The mean salary for these ten staff is $30.7k. However, inspecting the raw data suggests
that this mean value might not be the best way to accurately reflect the typical salary of a
worker, as most workers have salaries in the $12k to 18k range. The mean is being skewed
by the two large salaries. Therefore, in this situation, we would like to have a better
measure of central tendency. As we will find out later, taking the median would be a better
measure of central tendency in this situation.

The median is the middle score for a set of data that has been arranged in order of
magnitude. The median is less affected by outliers and skewed data. In order to calculate
the median, suppose we have the data below:

65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92

We first need to rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):
 14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89 92

Our median mark is the middle mark - in this case, 56 (highlighted in bold). It is the
middle mark because there are 5 scores before it and 5 scores after it. This works fine
when you have an odd number of scores, but what happens when you have an even
number of scores? What if you had only 10 scores? Well, you simply have to take the
middle two scores and average the result. So, if we look at the example below:

Activity 4, find the Median.

65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45

35 36 37 39 22 18 50 31 40 32

88 80 95 100 78 91 97 34 50 21

65 87 45 92 77 82 79 67 99 80

75 65 77 21 23 45 60 68 32 10

The mode is the most frequent score in

our data set. On a histogram it represents the
highest bar in a bar chart or histogram. You
can, therefore, sometimes consider the
mode as being the most popular option. An
example of a mode is presented below:

Normally, the mode is used for categorical

data where we wish to know which is the
most common category.

However, one of the problems with the

mode is that it is not unique, so it leaves us
with problems when we have two or more
values that share the highest frequency, such as below:

We are now stuck as to which mode best

describes the central tendency of the data. This
is particularly problematic when we have
continuous data because we are more likely
not to have any one value that is more frequent
than the other. For example, consider
measuring 30 peoples' weight (to the nearest
0.1 kg). How likely is it that we will find two or
more people with exactly the same weight
(e.g., 67.4 kg)? The answer, is probably very
unlikely - many people might be close, but with
such a small sample (30 people) and a large
range of possible weights, you are unlikely to
find two people with exactly the same weight;
that is, to the nearest 0.1 kg. This is why the mode is very rarely used with continuous data.

Another problem with the mode is that it will not provide us with a very good measure
of central tendency when the most common mark is far away from the rest of the data in
the data set, as depicted in the diagram below:

In the diagram the mode has a value of

2. We can clearly see, however, that the
mode is not representative of the data,
which is mostly concentrated around
the 20 to 30 value range. To use the
mode to describe the central tendency
of this data set would be misleading.
 Type of Variable Best measure of central tendency

Nominal Mode

Ordinal Median

Interval/Ratio (not skewed) Mean

Interval/Ratio (skewed) Median

Measures of spread pertains to the ways of summarizing a group of data by describing

how spread out the scores are. To describe this spread, a number of statistics are available to
us, including the range, quartiles, absolute deviation, variance and standard deviation.
The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of scores within a set of data. We are
normally interested in knowing the population standard deviation because our population
contains all the values we are interested in.
The standard deviation is used in conjunction with the mean to summarize continuous
data. In addition, the standard deviation, like the mean, is normally only appropriate when
the continuous data is not significantly skewed or has outliers
iv. Levels of Measurement

The first level of measurement is nominal level of measurement. In

this, the numbers in the variable are used only to classify the
data. Words, letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used.
Suppose there are data about people belonging to three
different gender categories. In this case, the
person belonging to the female gender could be
classified as F, the person belonging to
the male gender could be classified as M,
and transgendered classified as T. This
type of assigning classification is
nominal level of measurement.

The second level of measurement is the ordinal level of measurement. This depicts
some ordered relationship among the variable’s observations. Suppose a student scores
the highest grade of 100 in the class. In this case, he would be assigned the first rank.
Then, another classmate scores the second highest grade of 92; she would be assigned the
second rank. A third student scores 81 and he would be assigned the third rank, and so on.
The ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of the measurements.

The third level of measurement is the interval level of measurement. It does not only
classify and order the measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each
interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval. For
example, an interval level of measurement could be the measurement of anxiety in a student
between the score of 10 and 11, this interval is the same as that of a student who scores
between 40 and 41. A popular example of this level of measurement is temperature in
centigrade, where, for example, the distance between 940C and 960C is the same as the
distance between 1000C and 1020C.

The fourth level of measurement is the ratio level of measurement. In this level of
measurement, the observations, in addition to having equal intervals, can have a value of
zero as well. The zero in the scale makes this type of measurement unlike the other types of
measurement, although the properties are similar to that of the interval level of
measurement. In the ratio level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the
scale have an equivalent distance between them.

Activity 5

Indicate the Level of Measurement for each variable.

1. CDs labelled based on genre
2. Oranges classified based on size small, medium and large
3. Announcement of Top-ranking students in Statistics
4. Measurement of weight for BMI
5. Data gathered on the gender of BSSW Students
6. Number of books owned by adolescents
7. Number of hours a child can play without looking for a guardian
8. Distance from school to home
9. Frequency of yawning in class
10. Level of Comprehension based on grade

Activity 6

Gather the following data from your family members

Age Gender Favorite TV Income per Birth Order No. of exes

Channel month
v. Reliability and Validity

Reliability is the extent to which test scores are consistent, with respect to one or
more sources of inconsistency such as the selection of specific questions, the selection
of raters, the day and time of testing. Without good reliability, it is difficult for you to
trust that the data provided by the measure is an accurate representation of the
participant's performance rather than due to irrelevant artefacts in the testing session
such as environmental, psychological, or methodological processes.

What could be the reason for varying scores? Some possible reasons are the
following:

Test taker's temporary psychological or physical state. Test performance can be

influenced by a person's psychological or physical state at the time of testing. For
example, differing levels of anxiety, fatigue, or motivation may affect the applicant's
test results.
Environmental factors. Differences in the testing environment, such as room
temperature, lighting, noise, or even the test administrator, can influence an
individual's test performance.
Test form. Many tests have more than one version or form. Items differ on each
form, but each form is supposed to measure the same thing. Different forms of a test
are known as parallel forms or alternate forms. These forms are designed to have
similar measurement characteristics, but they contain different items. Because the
forms are not exactly the same, a test taker might do better on one form than on
another.
Multiple raters. In certain tests, scoring is determined by a rater's judgments of
the test taker's performance or responses. Differences in training, experience, and
frame of reference among raters can produce different test scores for the test taker.

These factors are sources of chance or random measurement error in the

assessment process. If there were no random errors of measurement, the individual
would get the same test score, the individual's "true" score, each time. The degree to
 which test scores are unaffected by measurement errors is an indication of the
reliability of the test.

Types of reliability estimates

There are several types of reliability estimates, each influenced by different sources of
measurement error. Test developers have the responsibility of reporting the reliability
estimates that are relevant for a particular test. Before deciding to use a test, read the test
manual and any independent reviews to determine if its reliability is acceptable. The acceptable
level of reliability will differ depending on the type of test and the reliability estimate used.

The discussion in Table 2 should help you develop some familiarity with the different kinds of
reliability estimates reported in test manuals and reviews.
Types of Reliability Estimates

• Test-retest reliability indicates the repeatability of test scores with the passage of time.
This estimate also reflects the stability of the characteristic or construct being measured
by the test.

Some constructs are more stable than others. For example, an individual's reading
ability is more stable over a particular period of time than that individual's anxiety level.
Therefore, you would expect a higher test-retest reliability coefficient on a reading test
than you would on a test that measures anxiety.

• Alternate or parallel form reliability indicates how consistent test scores are likely to be
if a person takes two or more forms of a test.

A high parallel form reliability coefficient indicates that the different forms of the test
are very similar which means that it makes virtually no difference which version of the
test a person takes. On the other hand, a low parallel form reliability coefficient
suggests that the different forms are probably not comparable; they may be measuring
different things and therefore cannot be used interchangeably.

• Inter-rater reliability indicates how consistent test scores are likely to be if the test is
scored by two or more raters.

On some tests, raters evaluate responses to questions and determine the score.
Differences in judgments among raters are likely to produce variations in test scores. A
high inter-rater reliability coefficient indicates that the judgment process is stable and
the resulting scores are reliable.

Inter-rater reliability coefficients are typically lower than other types of reliability
 estimates. However, it is possible to obtain higher levels of inter-rater reliabilities if
raters are appropriately trained.

• Internal consistency reliability indicates the extent to which items on a test measure
the same thing.

A high internal consistency reliability coefficient for a test indicates that the items on
the test are very similar to each other in content (homogeneous). It is important to note
that the length of a test can affect internal consistency reliability. For example, a very
lengthy test can spuriously inflate the reliability coefficient.

Tests that measure multiple characteristics are usually divided into distinct components.
Manuals for such tests typically report a separate internal consistency reliability
coefficient for each component in addition to one for the whole test.

Test manuals and reviews report several kinds of internal consistency reliability
estimates. Each type of estimate is appropriate under certain circumstances. The test
manual should explain why a particular estimate is reported.

Validity is the most important issue in selecting a test. Validity refers to what characteristic the
test measures and how well the test measures that characteristic.

• Validity tells you if the characteristic being measured by a test is related to what you
intend to measure.
• Validity gives meaning to the test scores. For example, validity evidence indicates that
there is linkage between test performance and job performance. It can tell you what
you may conclude or predict about someone from his or her score on the test. If a test
has been demonstrated to be a valid predictor of performance on a specific job, you can
conclude that persons scoring high on the test are more likely to perform well on the job
than persons who score low on the test, all else being equal.
• Validity also describes the degree to which you can make specific conclusions or
predictions about people based on their test scores. In other words, it indicates the
usefulness of the test.

Reliability versus validity. Validity will tell you how good a test is for a particular situation;
reliability will tell you how trustworthy a score on that test will be. You cannot draw valid
conclusions from a test score unless you are sure that the test is reliable. Even when a test
is reliable, it may not be valid. You should be careful that any test you select is both reliable
and valid for your situation.

Similarly, a test's validity is established in reference to specific groups. These groups are called
the reference groups. The test may not be valid for different groups. For example, a test designed
to predict the performance of managers in situations requiring problem solving may not allow
you to make valid or meaningful predictions about the performance of clerical employees. If, for
example, the kind of problem-solving ability required for the two positions is different, or the
reading level of the test is not suitable for clerical applicants, the test results may be valid for
managers, but not for clerical employees.

Test developers have the responsibility of describing the reference groups used to develop the
test. The manual should describe the groups for whom the test is valid, and the interpretation of
scores for individuals belonging to each of these groups. You must determine if the test can be
used appropriately with the people you want to test. This group of people is called your target
population or target group.

Your target group and the reference group do not have to match on all factors; they must be
sufficiently similar so that the test will yield meaningful scores for your group. For example, a
writing ability test developed for use with college seniors may be appropriate for measuring the
writing ability of white-collar professionals or managers, even though these groups do not have
identical characteristics. In determining the appropriateness of a test for your target groups,
consider factors such as occupation, reading level, cultural differences, and language barriers.

In order to be certain an employment test is useful and valid, evidence must be collected
relating the test to a job. The process of establishing the job relatedness of a test is
called validation.
Methods for conducting validation studies

• Criterion-related validation requires demonstration of a correlation or other statistical

relationship between test performance and job performance. In other words, individuals
who score high on the test tend to perform better on the job than those who score low
on the test. If the criterion is obtained at the same time the test is given, it is called
concurrent validity; if the criterion is obtained later, it is called predictive validity.
• Content-related validation requires a demonstration that the content of the test
represents important job-related behaviors. In other words, test items should be
relevant to and measure directly important requirements and qualifications for the job.
This is conducted by an expert in the field study of the variable being measured.
• Construct-related validation requires a demonstration that the test measures the
construct or characteristic it claims to measure, and that this characteristic is important
to successful performance on the job.

Using validity evidence from outside studies

Conducting your own validation study is expensive, and, in many cases, you may not have
enough employees in a relevant job category to make it feasible to conduct a study. Therefore,
you may find it advantageous to use professionally developed assessment tools and procedures
for which documentation on validity already exists. However, care must be taken to make sure
that validity evidence obtained for an "outside" test study can be suitably "transported" to your
particular situation.

The Uniform Guidelines, the Standards, and the SIOP Principles state that evidence of
transportability is required. Consider the following when using outside tests:

• Validity evidence. The validation procedures used in the studies must be consistent with
accepted standards.
• Job similarity. A job analysis should be performed to verify that your job and the original
job are substantially similar in terms of ability requirements and work behavior.
• Fairness evidence. Reports of test fairness from outside studies must be considered for
each protected group that is part of your labor market. Where this information is not
available for an otherwise qualified test, an internal study of test fairness should be
conducted, if feasible.
• Other significant variables. These include the type of performance measures and
standards used, the essential work activities performed, the similarity of your target
group to the reference samples, as well as all other situational factors that might affect
the applicability of the outside test for your use.

The criterion-related validity of a test is measured by the validity coefficient. It is reported as a

number between 0 and 1.00 that indicates the magnitude of the relationship, "r," between the
test and a measure of job performance (criterion). The larger the validity coefficient, the more
confidence you can have in predictions made from the test scores. However, a single test can
never fully predict job performance because success on the job depends on so many varied
factors. Therefore, validity coefficients, unlike reliability coefficients, rarely exceed r = .40.

vi. Statistical Tools

Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent Variable pertains to

the variable being manipulated in the
study. Since it is the one being
changed by the researchers, it affects
the Dependent Variable, which is then
measured in the research.

There are several other types of

variables which fall under the general
category of IV and DV. Some of which
are: extraneous, control, mediation,
moderating, confounding, categorical, continuous, attribute, etc.
p-value
P-value is the probability of obtaining results at least as
extreme as the observed results of a statistical hypothesis
test, assuming that the null hypothesis is correct. The p-value
is used as an alternative to rejection points to provide the
100 data smallest level of significance at which the null
hypothesis would be rejected. A smaller p-value means that
5 or there is stronger evidence in favor of the alternative
less hypothesis.
Simply, p-value is the measure which determines whether
the result of the data set is significant or not. When the p-value is 0.05 and below, it
means that the result is significant, meanwhile, when the value is 0.01 below, it is
highly significant.
In order to visualize these values, let us assume that our data set consists of
100 individual data. From all those, in order to be considered significant, 95 of the
data should be reliable. More than that, the result from the data set will not be
considered statistically significant or may have occurred by chance.

a. T-Test

It is a statistical tool that determines if there is a significant difference between

the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features. A t-test is used as
a hypothesis testing tool, which allows testing of an assumption applicable to a
population.

Essentially, a t-test allows us to compare the average values of the two data sets
and determine if they came from the same population. For instance, you would like
to know which mode of teaching is the best for grade one students, visual or auditory.
You taught visually to Section A, then conducted and exam and then you taught
auditorily to Section B then tested them.

STUDENT SECTION A STUDENT SECTION B

Jake 90 Amy 90
Terry 95 Rosa 85
Holt 85 Boyle 85
Gina 80 Scully 90
 T-test takes a sample from each of the two sets and establishes the problem
statement by assuming a null hypothesis that the two means are equal. Based on the
applicable formulas, certain values are calculated and compared against the standard
values, and the assumed null hypothesis is accepted or rejected accordingly.

If the null hypothesis qualifies to be rejected, it indicates that data readings are
strong and are probably not due to chance.

NOTE: T-Test Assumptions

1. The assumption for a t-test is that the scale of measurement applied to the
data collected follows a continuous or ordinal scale, such as the scores for
an IQ test.
2. The data is collected from a representative, randomly selected portion of the
total population.
3. The when plotted, results in a normal distribution, bell-shaped distribution
curve.
4. There is homogeneity of variance. Homogeneou s, or equal, variance exists
when the standard deviations of samples are approximately equal.

TYPES OF T-TEST
T- Test Dependent: 1 sample; 2 scores

For instance, you wanted to know your students are actually learning from your
lessons. First you conducted a diagnostic exam for the lesson you were going to teach
them, then, after discussion, you will conduct the same test to see if their scores
increased, remained or decreased.

PRE-TEST POST-TEST
Harry 84 90
Ron 80 89
Hermoine 90 100

In this study, the condition being tested is the discussion of the lesson. We can
compare the scores based on the table; however, we can never be sure if the results
are significant or not without running the data in t-test.

T-Test Independent (equal/unequal variance): 2 samples; 2 scores

Equal Variance simply means that there are the same number of data set from
each score group. For example, you wanted to know which between sexes send more
text messages in a month.
 MALE FEMALE
50 100
34 62
56 71
67 93
55 85
23 29

Unequal Variance, on the other hand, has unequal number of individuals between
the groups being compared. For instance, you wanted to compare the frequency of
political interaction through comments in social media between millennials and
generation z.

Millennials Generation Z
4 6
7 4
6 1
9 9
1 7
2 5
0
3

GUIDE

Activity 7
 Give at least TWO (2) examples each of t-test dependent, t-test independent equal
variance and t-test independent unequal variance.

Activity 8

Gather and collate the following data from your section

Gender GPA last semester Grade in RPH

b. ANOVA

ANOVA is an extension of t-test since it can only cater and compare TWO
groups of data set. There are two types of ANOVA: One-Way ANOVA and Two-Way
ANOVA.

One-Way ANOVA is extremely similar with t-test, the only difference is that is can
compare more that two groups. For example, you wanted to know which among
genders send more text messages in a month.

MALE LESBIAN GAY QUEER FEMALE

50 49 55 26 100
34 0 89 66 62
56 34 43 21 71
67 78 32 90 93
55 50 23 56 85
23 80 67 45 29

Two-Way ANOVA on the other hand is a little different since it has two DVs. For
example, you wanted to know which medicine best cures insomnia and your basis of
cure is the length and quality of sleep of insomnia patients. In this case, your IV is
the medicine (placebo ang drug) and your DVs are quality and length of sleep.

QUALITY OF SLEEP LENGTH OF SLEEP

Belle Placebo-Q Placebo-L
Drug-Q Drug-L
Snoozy Placebo-Q Placebo-L
 Drug-Q Drug-L
Antukin Placebo-Q Placebo-L
Drug-Q Drug-L

c. Correlation

Correlation is a statistical term used to denote relationship between two

quantitative variables. The assumption is the relationship is linear, that one variable
increase or decrease for an increase or decrease in the other. The correlation
coefficient (r) reveals two things: the strength and direction of the relationship. A
correlation coefficient value of 1 means there is perfect relationship, however, this is
virtually impossible in the field of social sciences. The closer the value is to 1, the
stronger the relationship. Meanwhile to determine the direction, we have to look
whether the correlation coefficient is positive (+) or negative (-). If it is positive, it
means that the variable moves in the same direction, that is, as one increases, the
other increases as well. Whereas when the coefficient is negative, it simply means
that as one variable increases, there is a corresponding decrease in the other.

For example, you wanted to know whether academic achievement measured in

grade is related to a students’ happiness. Your IV is academic achievement and the DV
is happiness.

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT HAPPINESS

89 80
78 92
98 81
87 82

Activity 9

You wanted to know whether academic achievement measured in grade is related

to a students’ happiness. Your IV is academic achievement and the DV is happiness.
If the correlation coefficient resulted to 0.80, interpret the strength and direction
of correlation.
d. Regression

Regression is similar with correlation, the only difference is instead of

looking into relationships or tendencies, it predicts with accuracy what happens
to the other variable when the other variable changes.
 Similar with correlation, the regression (R) coefficient reveals the strength and
direction of the prediction, however, it also reveals the effect size. In a similar
example, you wanted to know whether academic achievement measured in grade is
related to a students’ happiness. Your IV is academic achievement and the DV is
happiness.

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT HAPPINESS

89 80
78 92
98 81
87 82

If the regression coefficient resulted to -0.71, it means that for every unit of
change in the academic achievement of the students, there is a corresponding 71%
decrease in their happiness.

Activity 10

Draft a mini research plan that will employ one of the discussed statistical tools.
Gather data and present the results.