(A1.

1) WATER
Theme A: Unity & diversity
FIRST Level of organization: Molecules

Guiding questions
1) What chemical & physical properties of water make it essential for life?
2) What are the challenges & opportunities of water as a habitat
 (A1.1.1) Water as medium of life.
•State that the first cells originated in water & that it remains the medium in which most processes of life occur.

• The Earth is covered mainly by water and so appears a mostly blue planet when viewed from space.
- About 71% of our planet’s surface is water
- About 97% of that water is found in oceans and only 3% is found in rivers and lakes as fresh water.

• Evidence from the geological record indicates that water has existed on Earth for more than 4 billion years ago.

• The first cells originated in water, where the oceans blocked harmful ultraviolet (UV) light radiation from the sun.
Ø This allowed life to evolve.

• During the formation of the first cells, a small volume of water became enclosed in a membrane.

-Substances were dissolved in this water and chemical reactions could occur.
- After billions of years of evolution, most molecules are still dissolved in water.
- The plasma membrane, the barrier between the inside and outside of a cell, only functions in
a watery environment.

List reasons why water is a substance on which life depends.

v Water was essential to the development of the first cells and remains essential as the medium, or facilitator, in which
life’s processes take place due to its solvent properties (discussed in detail later)
Some important defintions:
ü COVALENT BOND: a bond between atoms in which electrons are shared.

ü POLAR MOLECULE: A molecule where is unequal distribution of charge; one end is slightly positive and

the other end is slightly negative.

ü HYDROGEN BOND: A weak intermolecular (between two different molecules) force; a hydrogen atom in a

molecule is attracted to an partially negative atom, such as oxygen, in a

different molecule.
 (A1.1.2) Hydrogen bonds as a consequence of the polar covalent bonds within water molecules
•Explain the partial charges of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms within a water molecule.
-Water (H2O) is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom joined by a
POLAR COVALENT BOND.

-The bond between hydrogen and oxygen involves UNEQUAL SHARING OF ELECTRONS.

- The number of positive protons in each atom is different; oxygen atoms have 8 whilst hydrogen atoms have just 1
(having more protons, the oxygen atoms attract the electrons more strongly)

- Therefore, the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge, and the hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge
Ø THIS FEATURE of a molecule is called POLARITY.
 •Explain how a difference in electronegativity between two atoms results in a polar covalent bond.

Ø Electronegativity measures how strongly the nucleus of an atom attracts the electrons it shares with another atom.
Ø Electronegativity is influenced by:
The number of protons in the nucleus. Protons are positively charged and therefore attract the negatively charged electrons.
Ø Polarity describes the slight difference in electronegativity that occurs at the different poles of the
water molecule.

•Oxygen (due to having a higher electronegativity) attracts the electrons more strongly, forming a slightly
negative charge (δ–)

•The hydrogen atoms have a weaker attraction towards the electrons, resulting in a slightly
positive charge (δ+)
• Outline the cause of the formation of hydrogen bonds between water molecules.

- Hydrogen bonds are the intermolecular forces (not bonds) between

two DIFFERENT water molecules.

- The partially positive hydrogen atom of one water molecule is

attracted to the partially negative oxygen atom of ANOTHER water
molecule forming HYDROGEN BONDS.

• Outline the consequences of the collective strength of hydrogen bonds between water molecules.

Ø Although a hydrogen bond is a weak intermolecular force, there are many of them
between small water molecules.

Ø Collectively, they can be very strong and give water its unique properties,
which are very important to living things.

Ø They can break and reform continuously as water flows.

• State the location of the polar covalent bond within a water molecule.
• Draw two or more water molecules and hydrogen bonds between them with a notation to indicate polarity.

Because the
charges are partial,
the hydrogen bond
is weak (force) and
is indicated by a Delta symbol (δ) indicate a small charge
dashed line in
drawings.
ü Covalent bonding acts WITHIN a water
molecule.
ü Hydrogen bonds are formed BETWEEN
water molecules.
ü Do not confuse intra- (within) and inter-
(between).
Water polarity video
(A1.1.3) Cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen bonding and consequences for organisms.
•Define cohesion.
Ø Cohesion is the force by which molecules of the same type attract and stick together.

§ Water molecules stick together because of hydrogen bonding.

- A single hydrogen bond is a weak interaction.
- It is only because there are many hydrogen bonds in
water that they collectively exert large cohesive forces.

Water’s strong cohesive forces allows it to form

almost completely spherical droplets.
ü Water is pulled up into a domed droplet shape
instead of being pulled flat.

• HOW ARE THE STRONG COHESIVE PROPERTIES OF WATER BENEFICIAL (USEFUL) TO LIVING ORGANISMS?
1) Water moving up the tallest trees
2) Use of water surfaces as habitat for some insects.
•Describe how water moves through the xylem of a vascular plant.

§ Water molecules stick together because of hydrogen bonding.

Xylem vessels
§ Cohesive forces allow water molecules to be sucked upwards from roots to leaves
along long vessels called xylem vessels by evaporative loss of water from leaves.
Note:
- Xylem vessels are long tubular vessels in plant that form a continuous tube from roots to the
leaves.
- As water molecules evaporate, they are replaced by water from the xylem into the leaf.

§ Compared with other liquids, water has extremely strong cohesive properties
that prevent it from ‘breaking’ under tension (pulling force).

§ Cohesion is the reason water can be drawn upwards all the way from the roots to
the top of the tallest trees (over 100 m) in one continuous column (which rarely breaks).

§ Each column of water is under tension, like, like a rope being pulled upwards.

§ Water moves upwards because the pulling forces in the leaves are greater than
the forces in the roots.

Note: For a column of water in a xylem vessel to break, many hydrogen bonds must be
broken simultaneously at one point along the vessel.
•Outline the cause of surface tension.

v The surface of a pond or other body of water acts

like an elastic membrane.

v Because water molecules are much more attracted

to each other by hydrogen bonding than to the air.
This is known as surface tension.

v Cohesion between water molecules due to hydrogen bonds is greater

than attractions between water and the floating object.

• State a benefit to living things that results from surface tension.

Use of Water Surfaces as Habitats:
• Water has a strong surface tension
• Living organisms make use of this property by using water surfaces as a habitat.
• Water striders (pond skaters) can walk on water surface without sinking in.
• For an object or living thing to sink in, many hydrogen bonds must be broken at once.
Note: Many pollutants, including detergents, interfere with surface tension and cause the
water striders to sink.
SURFACE TENSION:
Ø It is a property of the surface of the liquid that allows
it resist an extrenal force due to the cohesive forces.
Ø Water has strong cohesive forces due to hydrogen
bonds.

Ø Therefore, water has a high surface tension.

(A1.1.4) Adhesion of water to materials that are polar or charged and impacts for organisms
•Define adhesion.
•Explain why water is attracted to molecules that are polar or charged.
•Outline the cause of capillary action.

- Polar or charged molecules are called hydrophilic because they attract water.
- Adhesion is the attraction of water molecules to other polar or charged (hydrophilic) molecules.

Note: Water’s ability to adhere, or ‘stick to’ objects is so well known we have a term for it: to get wet.
Ø This happens because hydrogen bonds can form between water and the surface made of polar (charged) molecules.
This causes water to stick to the surface of the polar/hydrophilic solids.

Ø Adhesion can also cause water to be drawn through a narrow glass tube, a process known as
capillary action.
Ø Capillary action occurs when water is pulled through narrow tubes and space due to cohesion
and adhesion.

HOW ARE THE STRONG ADHESIVE PROPERTIES & CAPILLARY ACTION OF WATER BENEFICIAL (USEFUL)
TO LIVING ORGANISMS?
1) Permits water to move through the soil against the force of gravity
2) Allows plants to move water upwards to the leaves using capillary action.
 v Paper towel is made of wood pulp which is primarly plant
CELLULOSE.
v Plant cell walls are made of CELLULOSE which is polar/hydrophilic
so water adheres/sticks to it.

v This allows any structures made of cellulose like xylem vessles or

leaves to absorb water.
- The water adheres/sticks to cellulose by hydrogen bonds.

v Capillary action occurs when adhesion is greater than cohesion. -

v Plants and trees couldn’t thrive (grow) without - This also provides us with a meniscus which is important for
the capillary action due to adhesion to the xylem reading a graduated cylinder.
vessels made of cellulose.
v Capillary actions helps to bring water up into
the roots and all the way to the branches & leaves.
Photo taken by Yasmine Sharaf ElDinJ
• Outline the effect of capillary action in SOIL.

- Soil contains many vertical thin channels known as capillary tubes, in which
plant roots are located.
Note: Capillary action occurs in soils. This is why soil doesn’t dry out around plant roots.

1-Water in the soil adheres/sticks to the soil particles and

enters these capillary tubes.

2- Adhesion between water & the capillary tubes (through soil pores or
spaces between soil particles) in the soil causes the water to be drawn up by
capillary action through the dry soil, thus wetting it.

3- This is how water can rise up from an underground water source,

even though gravity tends to pull it down.
• Outline the effect of capillary action in PLANTS.

- The cell wall of plants is made of cellulose (polar/hydrophilic).

- Water adheres (sticks) to cellulose molecules in cell walls.

- Cell walls can suck water up by capillary action from nearby

xylem vessels, keeping water flowing through plant tissue.

- If water evaporates from the cell walls in leaves, adhesive forces

cause water to be drawn out of the nearest xylem vessel.

Ø Thus, any cell wall that starts to dry out is automatically rewetted
as long as there is a source of water available.

- Water adheres strongly to most surfaces and can be drawn up long columns, i.e.. Xylem vessels, without danger of
water column breaking.
-Note: Cohesion is a far more significant force in xylem transport.

- If xylems vessels become air-filled, adhesion between water and the walls of the xylem vessels can help it to refill
with water from the roots.
(A1.1.5) Solvent properties of water linked to its role as a medium for
metabolism and for transport in plants and animals.
(D2.3.1) Solvation with water as the solvent.
•Identify solvent and solutes of a solution.
- When substances such as sugar(solute) dissolve, they separate and spread out in the liquid.

- This liquid is usually water (solvent) & the mixture is now called a solution.

- The solution is homogenous (the same throughout) because the solute particles are
evenly spread out.

•Define solvation.
- Solvation is the interaction of a solvent(water) with the dissolved solute (salt/sugar).

•Explain why water is able to dissolve charged and polar molecules.

- The polar nature of water allows it to form a shell (Hydration shell) around charged The water fomrs
and polar molecules by forming hydrogen bonds. hydrogen bonds with
solutes, forming
- This prevents the solute molecules from clumping together, so they remain dissolved. ‘hydration shells`

v The slightly negative charge of water oxygen (δ-) atom is attracted to positively charged ions of the solute.

v The slightly positive charge of water hydrogen atom (δ+) is attracted to negatively charged ions of the solute.
•State an example of the function of a molecule depending on it being
hydrophilic and soluble.

- All substances that dissolve in water are hydrophilic (water-loving)

- When a polar/hydrophilic solute dissolves in water, the solute molecules separate
from each other & become surrounded by water molecules (forming hydrogen bonds)

Examples of polar solutes:

1) Glucose

2) Sodium chloride/salt: particles with positive or negative charges such

as sodium and chloride ions.

3) Substances that water can stick to but does not dissolve, like cellulose (hydrophilic)

LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE

State an example of the function of a molecule depending on it being hydrophobic and insoluble.

- Molecules that are non-polar and not charged will not dissolve in water because they are hydrophobic (water-fearing)

- They are insoluble in water (not attracted to water), so they clump together when exposed to water.

Note: Hydrophobic substances are not repelled by water, but are just not attracted to it.

- They are attracted to other hydrophobic/non-polar solvents and can dissolve in

them, like acetone & benzene.

ü Reason: They do not have negative or positive charges so can’t form hydrogen

bonds with water.

Examples: Lipids (oils & fats)

All lipids(fats&oils) are
hydrophobic so
They will not mix with
water (they clump together)
Water solvent properties allows it to be used as a medium for 1- METABOLISM & 2-TRANSPORT
1-METABOLISM
- CYTOSOL is the liquid part of the cytoplasm (common in all cells).
Ø Cytosol is composed 80% of water and many other dissolved
substances.
Ø These dissolved substances are hydrophilic and are needed to carry
out METABOLIC PROCESSES need to keep the cell alive.

Define metabolism
The sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in
the cytoplasm.

Outline the role of water as a medium for metabolism.

- Water is polar so its solvent properties allow it to be used as
a medium for metabolism.

- Water is needed for cellular metabolism because it dissolves the reactants(solutes) and enzymes so they can come
together for chemical reactions to occur.

ü The hydrophilic solutes(reactants) can move around and interact in the watery cytosol.
ü Dissolved enzymes catalyze specific chemical reactions.

- Without water, the components of these reactions could not move and come together, thus, water is the medium for
metabolism
Water solvent properties allows it to be used as a medium for 1- METABOLISM & 2-TRANSPORT
2-TRANSPORT

Water is a Transport Medium of water-soluble substances in:

(A) Plants and (B) Animals

(A) Water as a medium for transport in PLANTS

•Describe the role of water as a medium for transport in vascular plants.

1) Dissolved mineral ions in water are transported in plants

in the XYLEM from roots to leaves.

2) Dissolved sugars (sucrose) which are products of

Photosynthesis are transported in the PHLOEM.

Water solvent properties allows it to be used as a medium for 1- METABOLISM & 2-TRANSPORT
2-TRANSPORT

Water is a Transport Medium of water-soluble substances in:

(A) Plants and (B) Animals

(B) Water as a medium for transport in ANIMALS

•Describe the role of water as a medium for transport in animal blood.
• Blood consists of a liquid portion known as PLASMA and a
solid portion (red blood cells, white blood cells & platelets).

• PLASMA consists of 95% water and dissolved substances in it.

• Outline the mechanism of transport in the blood of the following molecules:

1) SODIUM CHLORIDE:
- It is an ionic (charged/hydrophilic) compound
- It is FREELY soluble in water, dissolving to form SODIUM (Na+)
and CHLORIDE (Cl) IONS which are carried by the blood plasma.

2) GLUCOSE:
- It is a POLAR molecule so it is FREELY soluble in water
- It is carried in the blood plasma
3) AMINO ACIDS:
- They have positive and negative charges (due to the amine and acid groups) therefore
soluble in water.
- R group varies, can be polar or nonpolar (hydrophilic or hydrophobic).

- Therefore, their solubility depends on the R group.

- It is also carried by the blood plasma

4) OXYGEN:
-Equal sharing of electrons so it is a non-polar molecule.
-HOWEVER, due to the small size of an oxygen molecule it is soluble in water, but only SPARINGLY (small amounts).
- Water becomes saturated with oxygen at relatively low concentrations.
- Also, as temperature increases, the solubility of oxygen decreases.
- At body temperature (37 °C) very little oxygen can be carried by the plasma , too little to
support aerobic respiration.

- THEREFORE, hemoglobin (not blood plasma) in red blood cells carry the majority of oxygen.
- Hemoglobin has 4 binding sites for oxygen and increases the capacity of blood to transport oxygen.
5) FAT MOLECULES:
-Large, non-polar molecule which are insoluble in water
- Due to their insolubility in water, they tend to coalesce (combine) in blood forming large droplets.

Ø TO PREVENT THIS FROM HAPPENING, small fat molecules are carried in a single layer of
phospholipids (in the plasma)
- These single layer of phospholipid molecules are known as lipoprotein complexes.

i- Hydrophilic phosphate heads of the

phospholipids face outwards and are in contact with water.

ii- The hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails face inwards and

are in contact with the fats.
(A1.1.6) Physical properties of water and the consequences for animals in aquatic habitats.

•Define physical property.

- A physical property is a characteristic of a material that can be observed or measured without changing its chemical
structure.

•List physical properties of water that are consequential for animals in aquatic habitats.
- Water has some distinctive physical properties, with major consequences for living organisms.

-The physical properties of water depend on the hydrogen bonding between water molecules and include:
1. Buoyancy
2. Viscosity
3. Thermal Conductivity
4. Specific heat
• Outline the cause and effect of buoyancy

1. BUOYANCY:
- Buoyancy is the vertical upward force applied to an object placed that is immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas).
- Buoyancy depends on DENSITY (unit: mass per unit volume)
- Objects float in water when their density is LESS than water and sink when they are DENSER.
Ø Watch this buoyancy experiment
BUOYANCY EXPERIMENT
 • Outline the cause and effect of buoyancy
1. BUOYANCY:
• The densities of living tissues are different.
• Bone is denser than water while.
adipose (fat) tissue are less dense than water

• Give examples of animal adaptations with buoyancy

1) The black-throated loon: The bird has HOLLOW BONES to decrease its weight (less dense), so the buoyant
force of water is able to hold the bird up, allowing it to float on water.

1) Ringed seal: The seal has a lot of adipose(fat) tissue stored known as blubber
which acts as a buoyancy aid.

3) Bony fish: They have an air-filled swim bladder which they use to control
their overall density.

4) Cyanobacteria: They have gas vesicles which they use to adjust how close to the surface they float.

• However, living organisms have an overall density close to that of water.

This makes it easier for them to use water as a habitat, because they do not need to use much energy to
float at a particular depth.
How bony fish control
their density in water
To affcet the
buoyancy?
 • Outline the cause and effect of viscosity.
2. VISCOSITY:
ü It is the stickiness of a fluid which determines how easily it can flow
OR
ü It is the resistance to flow.
• Viscosity is due to internal friction caused when one part of a
fluid moves relative to another part.
• The more viscous a fluid, the greater the friction and the
resistance to flow

• Compare viscosity of air to water to blood

v Pure water has a higher viscosity than other substances such as AIR & organic solvents, because it can form hydrogen
bonds with itself which causes internal friction and decrease water’s tendency to flow.

v Blood has a higher viscosity than water because of

the dissolved solutes which increase the viscosity of blood.

v Seawater has a higher viscosity than freshwater because

of the dissolved salts, with consequences for organisms
that swim in it.
Note: The viscosity of air is about 50 times smaller than that of water at the same temperature.

Watch this video about viscosity:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9NYs3Y-IjGw
2. VISCOSITY:
• Give examples of animal adapation with viscosity

Ø The black-throated loon and the ringed seal need to produce

resistance against the water to achieve the movement.
1) The black throated loon has webbed feet to push against the water.

2)The seal uses flippers(modified arms) to propel itself through water.

• Discuss differences in the phyiscal proerties of the loon and seal main habitats
v The loon flies so main habitat is AIR while the seal spends far more time submerged
in WATER.
v The energy requiremnet for movement in air and water DIFFER due to differences in:
a- Buoyancy: Air is less dense so it provides less upward bouyant force than water
which means that the bird expend MORE ENERGY to stay in the air than the seal
floating on water.
b-Viscosity: Water is more viscous than air, so the seal must use more energy to
move through it
•Define thermal conductivity.
3. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:
• The rate at which heat passes through a material
• The thermal conductivity is measured by how much energy transfers through
a material
Ø Water has a higher thermal conductivity than air, fats & oils.
Note: Water conducts heat about 28 times better than air
Ø Water absorbs and transfers heat more readily than air because water particles are packed more tightly together
3. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:

• Aquatic warm-blooded animals are at much greater risk of the loss of body heat than
land-based warm-blooded animals. WHY?
- Water has greater thermal conductivity than air so it conducts HEAT AWAY from the
bodies of aquatic animals, while air acts as an insulator.
- Therefore, it is easier for the loon(bird) in the air to maintain the body temperature
than it is for the seal.

• How are the loon and seal adapted to live on and in water?
- The black-throated loon traps air in the feathers to form an effective insulating layer
which helps to maintain its body temperature.
- The seal relies on the thick blubber to insulate its body

• Water is useful when there is a need to absorb and transfer heat. Explain
-The high water content of blood allows it to carry heat from parts of the body where it is
generated (such as contracting muscles) to the skin where the water evaporates and leaves
the body Cooling of body
•Define specific heat capacity.
4. SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

• Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of material by s 1 °C.
Note:
The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g−1 K−1.
For air, the value is only 1.01 J g−1 K−1
Water has the highest specific heat capacity of any liquid
•Describe why water has a high specific heat capacity.
Ø Hydrogen bonds restrict the motion of water molecules.
Ø For the temperature of water to increase, hydrogen bonds must be broken, and a
LARGE AMOUNT OF HEAT energy is needed to do this Water heats up very slowly
Ø For the temperature of water to decrease (cool down), water must lose an equally
LARGE AMOUNTS OF HEAT energy Water cools down very slowly

Therefore: 1- water’s temperature remains relatively stable

2- Aquatic environments (rivers, ponds, lakes & seas) are very slow to change temperature
when the surrounding air temperature changes.
Note: Aquatic habitats are more thermally stable than terrestrial (land) habitats.

• Outline a benefit to life of water's high specific heat capacity.

1-The high specific heat capacity of water provides a thermally stable habitat for aquatic organisms.
2- The high specific heat capacity of water also helps birds and mammals (which contain a lot of water) to maintain
constant/stable body temperatures
•Compare the physical properties of water to those of air.
After studying the topic, think how can you answer the following question.
Some keywords to help youJ
v surface tension (allows some insects to move on water’s surface),
v polarity / capillarity / adhesion (helps plants transport water)
v Polar solvent (capable of dissolving substances for transport in blood);
v thermal conductivity (body cooling)
v Specific heat capacity (habitat – place for aquatic organisms to live)
v Metabolism (involved in chemical reactions in cells)

Describe the significance of water

to living organisms.
After studying this subtopic you should be able to:

•Explain that water is the substance in which cells first developed and life’s processes still occur.
•Explain how a difference in electronegativity between two atoms results in a polar covalent bond.
•Draw two or more water molecules and hydrogen bonds between them with a notation to indicate polarity.
•Explain that water molecules are attracted to each other and that this property, cohesion, has important
impacts on organisms.
•Explain how the properties of water affect its roles as a metabolic medium and a means of transport.
•Explain how the solvent properties of water are linked to its role as a medium for metabolism.
•Explain how the cohesive and adhesive properties of water are linked to its role as a medium for transport in
plants and animals.
•Describe the properties of water including buoyancy, viscosity, thermal conductivity and specific heat
capacity.
•Contrast, using examples, how the physical properties of water and air have consequences for animals that live
in these two habitats.
BIBLIOGRAPHY