GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY

ROBERT MUGABE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION & CULTURE

DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES

NAMES: MURAWU TALENT W & SHUVAI CHIMVURA

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MODULE:ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION HAPC 101
ASSIGNMENT QUESTION: DISCUSS THE OBSERVATION THAT COMMUNICATION IS VIEWED
DIFFERENTLY BY DIFFERENT AUTHORS AND SCHOLARS.
DUE DATE:
LECTURER: PROF MAREVA
MARK AND LECTURERS COMMENT:
ESSAY

Communication is a concept that has been analyzed and studied by different scholars and authors
throughout history. These scholars and authors has identified the nature , functions and the
effectiveness of communication . As a result communication is viewed differently by different scholars
and authors leading to many theories and frameworks . these scholars and authors include Deborah
Tannen , Marshal McLuhan, Jurgen Habermas, Erving Goffman , Schramm , Barnlund , Shannon and
Weaver, Ellis and McClintock and Gudykunst and Ting Toomey. This essay will discuss the observation
that communication is viewed differently by different scholars and authors.

Firstly, communication is viewed differently by well known authors Shannon and Weaver 1949 who
described communication using mathematical theory of communication . This model of
communication explains communication in many ways for example source, transmitter, a channel,
receiver and destination . According to the model communication is considered a linear process ,
meaning it is seen as a one way flow from the sender to the receiver . Shannon an weaver provides a
frame work for understanding various aspects of communication including information source ,
encoding , noise , decoding and feedback .There are scholars who adopt this view of communication ,
define communication as the transmission of information and ideas or emotions from on person to
another.On the other hand one might states that ,it does not mention the barriers to communication
and the effects are unknown . Hence , communication is viewed differently by different authors and
scholars.

Ellis and McClintock (1990) proposed transmission model of communication . They focus on the
sender and message within a communication encounter . The model assumes that the receiver either
successfully receives and understands the message or does not. It emphasizes effectiveness but also
acknowledges that there are barriers to effective communication such as noise. The sender has the
responsibility to ensure that the message is successfully conveyed. Similarly , Little John and Foss
(2017) defines communication as the process of creating shared meaning through symbolic
interaction. It may be prudent to say this model is limited because it privileges how the sender
communicates , with little attention paid to how the ,message is received. , Therefore ,
communication is viewed differently by different authors and scholars .

Moreover , communication is viewed differently by different authors and scholars. This is evidenced
by Gudykunst and Ting - Toomey (1988) who defines communication as an interactive process of
encoding and decoding symbols that occurs within a context of cultural and social exchange.
Likewise , Berger and Luckmann (1966) argue that communication is an essential aspect of the social
construction of reality , in which individuals create and sustain shared meanings through language
and symbols. These scholars focus on factors such as social identity , power relations , discourse
analysis and cultural norms. It emphasizes the role of language , symbols and culture in shaping
communication. One might say that his view on communication may have different communication
styles. Hence , communication is viewed differently by different scholars and authors.

Besides the above, communication is viewed differently by different authors and scholars another
perspective is that communication is a strategic process of persuasion and influence. Communication
is a means of achieving specific goals , such as changing values , attitude and behavior. Scholars who
adopt this view focus on factors such as design, messages and audiences. For example O’Keefe (1990)
defines communication as message with the intentions of creating a desired response from the
receiver. Also , Cialdini (2009) states that communication is a tool for social influence that involves the
strategic use of persuasion techniques , such as reciprocity , authority and social proof. One might
argue that , it have limitations of accuray and validity. Thus communication is viewed differently by
different scholars and authors .

Communication is viewed differently by well known author Deborah Tannen a linguist who explained
the differences of communication style between men and women. Her work mainly focus on the
impact of gender on communication dynamics,challenging on traditional desire of effective
communication and promoting understanding between genders.She argued that gender plays
important role in shaping communication patterns,with men often valuing freedom and
hierachy,while women prioritize connection and equality. On the other hand , according to Jones
(1998, p. 322) Tannen oversimplifies the complexities of where sex and gender intersects . Tannen
talks about gender differences , but then continues to divide the world into men an women , which
are sex differences not gender differences. Thus,communication is viewed differently by different
authors and scholars.

In contrast,communication is viewed differently by scholar called Marshal Mcluhan who has

contributed importance to the understanding of communication.Marshal argued that the medium
through which communication occurs is more important than the content itself.He says ‘The medium
is the message’ explaining that medium used to convey information shapes our perception and
understanding of that information.His perspective explains the role of technology in shaping
communication processes and how it influences society. He showed the artifacts such as media affect
any society by characteristics or content. Hence,communication is viewed differently by different
authors and scholars

Moreover,another influential author called Jurgen Habermas viewed communication in his own
way.Ge focused on the role of communication in the public sphere.He state that,inclusive and open
communication allows fore the sharing of ideas which led to the formation of public opinion and the
accountability of those powers.Hebermas believed that communication is for democratic societies to
function effectively.Jurgen Hebermas highlighted the political and social implication of
communication,emphasizing its role in shaping democratic process. One might say that, harbermas
problem is that he makes too rigid a categorical distinction between system an life world.
Therefore,communication is viewed differently by different scholars and authors.

Furthermore,communication is viewed differently by Erving Goffman,a sociology who focused on the

role of communication in social interaction.He introduced the concept of ‘face work’,which means the
strategies individuals employ to maintain their desired self- image during interaction.He stipulates the
significance of non verbal cues such as facial expressions and body language,in conveying meaning
and managing social impression.He also stated the performative nature of communication and its role
in shaping social identities. On the other hand one can conclude that , Goffman focuses mainly on
fiction . Therefore,communication is viewed differently by different scholars and authors.

Also,communication is viewed differently by Schramm 1997 .Who described communication as a

process in which participants alternate position as sender and receive and generate meaning by
sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contest.He stipulate that
physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter ,the
size,layout,temperature and lighting of a space influence our communication. Psychological context
include the mental and emotional factors in communication encounter.These psychological influences
are stress and anxiety that can affect our communication. One might argue that, Schramm model has
a shortcome that , it assumes that communicators take turns in exchanging information instead of
sending message simulteneously . Hence communication is viewed differently by authors and
scholars.

In addition,Barnlaud 1970 views that communication is a continuous and circular process that
involves the production of meaning in response to internal and external cues.The highlighted the
importance of cues in the communication process.Cues can be public,private or behavioral which
includes verbal and non verbal.His transactional model has been influential in shaping our
understanding of communication.He emphasizes on individual perspectives,unique background and
experiences that individual bring to communication process. One might say , his model of
communication has physical noise . if the receiver has no spoken reaction it is imposible to know if the
message was received correctly in communication models . Therefore communication is differently
viewed by different scholars and authors.

Communication is viewed differently by different authors and scholars ,another scholar is Aristole , a
great philosopher who introduced the earliest mass communication model called Aristoles model of
communication. This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal communication. It
consists of 5 basic elements which are speaker , speech, occasion, audience, and effects. Aristole
advises speakers to tailor their speeches to different audiences ,occasions and effects. The speaker
plays an important role in public speaking. The speaker ,must prepare his speech and analyse
audience needs before he enters the stage. The speaker’s words must influence the audiences mind
and persuade their thoughts towards him. On the other hand one might say that Aristole’s model of
communication have no feedback , no noise, and its public speaking centered. The model is mainly
focusing on the speaker and speech. Hence , communication is viewed by different authors and
scholars.

Apart from the above communication is viewed differently by different authors and scholars , another
prominent scholar who viewed communication differently is Bradford Hall. Hall compared three
theoretical perspectives on culture and communication that have been predominant. These are the
traditional paradigm , the coordinated management of meaning and the Ethnography of
communication. He elaborates on the conceptualizations of culture and communication and clarifies
the research goals from these paradigmatic perspectives. He pays particular attention to how each
research tradition conceive the forms, functions and locus of culture and communication. Bradford
also characterized the relationship between culture and communication in the three approaches as
synecdoche , irony and metaphor .Therefore , communication is viewed differently by different
authors and scholars.

Another notable observation is that communication is viewed differently by different authors and
scholars depending on their theoretical orientation and methodological approaches. Communication
is seen as a process of conveying meanings through language. Linguists study the structure and syntax
of language as well as the ways in which language is used to convey emotions , attitudes and
intentions. For instance, Halliday (1978) theory of language functions highlights the different roles
that language plays in communication such as expressing ideas , negotiating relationships and
establishing social identity. On the other hand one might say his communication model has many
weaknesses .Therefore communication is viewed differently by different authors and scholars.

In conclusion , communication is viewed differently by different authors and scholars , each offering
unique in sights into its nature and functions ,and depending on their disciplinary orientation ,
theoretical framework , cultural background and research interest. Some scholars view
communication as a message transmission process , while others highlight it as a social process of
negotiating and meaning making and others view it as a strategic influence and persuasion. These
differences reflects the nature of communication and provide a rich basis of analysis. As
communication continues to evolve , it is crucial to consider these different view points to adapt and
effectively engage in an increasingly inter connected world.

REFERENCES

Barnlund , D.C., “A Transactional Model of Communication,” in Foundations of Communication theory

, eds. Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York , NY : Harper and Row , 1970), 83-92.
Ellis ,R . and McClintock , You Take My Meaning : Theory into practice in Human Communication
(London Edward Arnold , 1990), 71.

Schramm , W.,The Beginnings of Communication study in America (Thousand Oaks , CA: Sage ,1997).

Shannon , C. and Warren Weaver , The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana , IL:
University of Illinois Press , 1949), 16.

Bradford J. Hall., Theories of Culture and communication (1992).

Jurgen Habermas ., The Theory of Communicative action , (Beacon Press, 1981).

Erving Goffman ., The Presentation of self in Everyday life ,(New York City - based publisher ,1956).

Marshall McLuhan., Understanding Media : The Extension of Man ,(McGraw - Hill , New York City,
1964)

Deborah Tannen ., You Just Don’t Understand . ( William Morrow , New York City , 1926).