ADORO INSTITUTE OF MULTIMEDIA B.

Sc ANIMATION, II SEM, STUDY MATERIAL ENGLISH II

Dedicated to

KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY, Govt.of.Karnataka.

Communication All of us know that man is a social animal. He cannot survive in isolation. As a member of the society he is dependant on others. For most of the things he has to take help from others. But the question is, how does one know what the other wants? One has to convey his feelings, thoughts, ideas, requirements, experiences, etc. to another in such a way that the latter understands those correctly. The same thing happens with business also. It provides information to the customers, government, owners, employees, etc. and at the same time receives information from them. In this COURSE let us know, how people convey their feelings, thoughts, ideas, messages, etc.

Meaning of Communication Communication may be defined as - A process of sharing facts, ideas, opinions, thoughts and information through speech, writing, gestures or symbols between two or more persons. This process of communication always contains messages, which are to be transmitted between the parties. There are two parties - one is Sender, who sends the message and the other Receiver, who receives it. Generally the process of communication is said to be complete when the receiver understands the message and gives the feedback or response. At road-crossings red light of the traffic signal sends the message to stop the vehicle. When people stop their vehicles by seeing the red light, it is the feedback or response. This feedback may be in any form. Even while talking to your friend nodding of the head is treated as feedback. Thus, feedback becomes an essential element in the process of communication along with message, sender and receiver. Hence Communication Process includes the following elements: - The person who sends the message. Also known as the source. - The person who receives the message. - Subject matter of communication. It may contain facts, ideas, feelings or thoughts. - Receivers response or reaction or reply to the message, which is directed towards the sender. This process can also be shown as follows: Sender Receiver

Feedback Message For sending the message to the receiver or getting the feedback from the receiver we need a medium, which is called as a medium or means of communication. It carries the message to the receiver and brings the feedback from the receiver.

Types of Communication When we talk to others or write to them, communication takes place between us. But for such a communication, language is essential. Communication with the help of words is known as verbal communication. Similarly when we meet our friends, we shake our hand with them. This also conveys some meaning. This is an example of non-verbal communication. Communication without any use of words is called non-verbal communication. Let us know further about these two. Verbal communication is made through words, either spoken or written. Communication through spoken words is known as oral communication, which may be in the form of lectures, meetings, group discussions, conferences, telephonic conversations, radio message etc. In written communication, message is transmitted through written words in the form of letters, memos, circulars, notices, reports, manuals, magazines, handbooks, etc. Non-verbal communication may be Visual, Aural or Gestural. Sometimes you look into some pictures, graphs, symbols, diagrams etc. and some message is conveyed to you. All these are different forms of visual communication. For example, the traffic policeman showing the stop sign, a teacher showing a chart of different animals are visual communication. Bells, whistles, buzzers, horns etc. are also the instruments through which we can communicate our message. Communication with the help of these type of sounds is called 'aural' communication.

For example, the bell used in schools and colleges to inform students and teachers about the beginning or end of periods, siren used in factories to inform the change of workshift of the workers are examples of aural communication. Communication through the use of various parts of the human body, or through body language is termed as gestural communication. Saluting our

national flag, motionless position during the singing of national anthem, waving of hands, nodding of head, showing anger on face, etc. are examples of gestural communication.

Intext Questions 12.2 (A) Fill in the blanks with appropriate words: (i) Communication with the help of words is known as _____________. (ii) Communication through spoken words is known as _____________. (iii) Communication through the use of various parts of human body is known as _____________. (iv) Communication with the help of pirctures, symbols, diagrams etc. is known as _____________. (B) Write V to the phrase that illustrates Verbal Communication or NV to the phrase that illustrates Non Verbal Communication. (i) A person reading a letter. (ii) A teacher looking to a student with anger. (iii) Saluting the national flag. (iv) Talking to a shopkeeper (v) Nodding head silently.

THEORIES AND MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication theory is a field of information and mathematics that studies the technical process of information and the human process of human communication. According to communication theorist Robert T. Craig in his 1999's essay 'Communication Theory as a Field', "despite the ancient roots and growing profusion of theories about communication," there is not a field of study that can be identified as 'communication theory'. Models of communication The studies on information theory by Claude Elwood Shannon, Warren Weaver and others, prompted research on new models of communication from other scientific perspectives like psychology and sociology. In science, a model is a structure that represents a theory. Scholars from disciplines different to mathematics and engineer began to take distance from the Shannon and Weaver models as a 'transmissible model': They developed a model of communication which was intended to assist in developing a mathematical theory of communication. Shannon and Weaver's work proved valuable for communication engineers in dealing with such issues as the capacity of various communication channels in 'bits per second'. It contributed to computer science. It led to very useful work on redundancy in language. And in making 'information' 'measurable' it gave birth to the mathematical study of 'information theory' D. Chandler, Harold Lasswell (19021978), a political scientist and communication theorist, was a member of the Chicago school of sociology. In his work 'The Structure and Function of Communication in Society' (1948) he defined the communication process as Who (says) What (to) Whom (in) What Channel (with) What Effect.

These first studies on communication's models promoted more researches on the topic. Wilbur Lang Schramm (19071987), called by communication theorist Everett Rogers as the founder of communication study, focused his studies on the experience of the sender and receiver (listener). Communication is possible only upon a common language between sender and receiver. In 1960, David Kenneth Berlo, a disciple of Schramm, expanded on Shannon and Weavers linear model of communication and created the Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication (SMCR Model) exposed in his work The Process of Communication, where communication appears as a regulated process that allows the subject to negotiate with his living environment. Communication becomes, then, a value of power and influence (psychology of communication.) Communication Theory as a Field- (R.T. Craig)

Although there exist many theories of communication (...) there is no consensus on communication theory as a field." In 1999 Craig wrote a landmark article. "Communication Theory as a Field" which expanded the conversation regarding disciplinary identity in the field of communication. At that time, communication theory textbooks had little to no agreement on how to present the field or what theories to include in their textbooks. This article has since become the foundational framework for four different textbooks to introduce the field of communication. In this article Craig "proposes a vision for communication theory that takes a huge step toward unifying this rather disparate field and addressing its complexities." To move toward this unifying vision Craig focused on communication theory as a practical discipline and shows how "various traditions of communication theory can be engaged in dialogue on the practice of communication." In this deliberative process theorists would engage in dialog about the

"practical implications of communication theories." In the end Craig proposes seven different traditions of Communication Theory and outlines how each one of them would engage the others in dialogue. Elements of communication Basic elements of communication made the object of study of the communication theory:

Source: Shannon calls it information source, which "produces a message or sequence of messages to be communicated to the receiving terminal."

Sender: Shannon calls it transmitter, which "operates on the message in some way to produce a signal suitable for transmission over the channel. In Aristotle it is the speaker (orator).[8]

Channel: For Shannon it is "merely the medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver.

Receiver: For Shannon the receiver "performs the inverse operation of that done by the transmitter, reconstructing the message from the signal."

Destination: For Shannon destination is "the person (or thing) for whom the message is intended".

Message: from Latin mittere, "to send". A concept, information, communication or statement that is sent in a verbal, written or recorded form to the recipient.

Feedback

CLASSICAL COMMUNICATION MODELS 1. Aristotles Model of Communication

2.

Aristotles model of proof. Kinnevay also sees a model of communication in Aristotles

description of proof: a. b. c. Logos, inheres in the content or the message itself Pathos, inheres in the audience Ethos, inheres in the speaker

3.

Bitzers Rhetorical Situation. Lloyd Bitzer developed described the Rhetorical

Situation, which, while not a model, identifies some of the classical components of a communication situation (The Rhetorical Situation, Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1 (Winter, 1968):1-15.).

Bitzer defines the rhetorical situation as a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action so as to bring about significant modification of the exigence. See more of Bitzer's approach here. E. 1. a. i. Early Linear Models The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model, 1949 Background Claude Shannon, an engineer for the Bell Telephone Company, designed the most

influential of all early communication models. His goal was to formulate a theory to guide the efforts of engineers in finding the most efficient way of transmitting electrical signals from one location to another (Shannon and Weaver, 1949). Later Shannon introduced a mechanism in the receiver which corrected for differences between the transmitted and received signal; this monitoring or correcting mechanism was the forerunner of the now widely used concept of feedback (information which a communicator gains from others in response to his own verbal behavior).

b. i.

Strengths This model, or a variation on it, is the most common communication model used in low-

level communication texts. ii. Significant development. Within a decade a host of other disciplinesmany in the

behavioral sciencesadapted it to countless interpersonal situations, often distorting it or making exaggerated claims for its use. iii. Taken as an approximation of the process of human communication. iv. Significant heuristic value. 1.) With only slight changes in terminology, a number of nonmathematical schemas have elaborated on the major theme. For example, Harold Lasswell (1948) conceived of analyzing the mass media in five stages: Who? Says what? In which channel? To whom? With what effect? In apparent elaboration on Lasswell and/or Shannon and Weaver, George Gerbner (1956) extended the components to include the notions of perception, reactions to a situation, and message context. v. The concepts of this model became staples in communication research

1.) Entropy-the measure of uncertainty in a system. Uncertainty or entropy increases in exact proportion to the number of messages from which the source has to choose. In the simple matter of flipping a coin, entropy is low because the destination knows the probability of a coins turning up either heads or tails. In the case of a two-headed coin, there can be neither any freedom of choice nor any reduction in uncertainty so long as the destination knows exactly what the outcome must be. In other words, the value of a specific bit of information depends on the probability that it will occur. In general, the informative value of an item in a message decreases in exact proportion to the likelihood of its occurrence.

2.) Redundancy-the degree to which information is not unique in the system. Those items in a message that add no new information are redundant. Perfect redundancy is equal to total repetition and is found in pure form only in machines. In human beings, the very act of repetition changes, in some minute way, the meaning or the message and the larger social significance of the event. Zero redundancy creates sheer unpredictability, for there is no way of knowing what items in a sequence will come next. As a rule, no message can reach maximum efficiency unless it contains a balance between the unexpected and the predictable, between what the receiver must have underscored to acquire understanding and what can be deleted as extraneous. 3.) Noise-the measure of information not related to the message. Any additional signal that interferes with the reception of information is noise. In electrical apparatus noise comes only from within the system, whereas in human activity it may occur quite apart from the act of transmission and reception. Interference may result, for example, from background noise in the immediate surroundings, from noisy channels (a crackling microphone), from the organization and semantic aspects of the message (syntactical and semantical noise), or from psychological interference with encoding and decoding. Noise need not be considered a detriment unless it produces a significant interference with the reception of the message. Even when the disturbance is substantial, the strength of the signal or the rate of redundancy may be increased to restore efficiency. 4.) Channel Capacity-the measure of the maximum amount of information a channel can carry. The battle against uncertainty depends upon the number of alternative possibilities the message eliminates. Suppose you wanted to know where a given checker was located on a checkerboard. If you start by asking if it is located in the first black square at the extreme left of the second row from the top and find the answer to be no, sixty-three possibilities remain-a high level of uncertainty. On the other hand, if you first ask whether it falls on any square at the top half of the board, the alternative will be reduced by half regardless of the answer. By following the first strategy it could be necessary to ask up to sixty-three questions (inefficient indeed!); but by consistently halving the remaining possibilities, you will obtain the right answer in no more than six tries. vi. Provided an influential yet counter-intuitive definition of communication.

Information is a measure of uncertainty, or entropy, in a situation. The greater the uncertainty, the more the information. When a situation is completely predictable, no information is present. Most people associate information with certainty or knowledge; consequently, this definition from information theory can be confusing. As used by the information theorist, the concept does not refer to a message, facts, or meaning. It is a concept bound only to the quantification of stimuli or signals in a situation. On closer examination, this idea of information is not as distant from common sense as it first appears. We have said that information is the amount of uncertainty in the situation. Another way of thinking of it is to consider information as the number of messages required to completely reduce the uncertainty in the situation. For example, your friend is about to flip a coin. Will it land heads up or tails up? You are uncertain, you cannot predict. This uncertainty, which results from the entropy in the situation, will be eliminated by seeing the result of the flip. Now lets suppose that you have received a tip that your friends coin is two headed. The flip is fixed. There is no uncertainty and therefore no information. In other words, you could not receive any message that would make you predict any better than you already have. In short, a situation with which you are completely familiar has no information for you [emphasis added]. vii. See Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1949). For a number of excellent brief secondary sources, see the bibliography. Two sources were particularly helpful in the preparation of this chapter: Allan R. Broadhurst and Donald K. Darnell, An Introduction to Cybernetics and Information Theory, Quarterly Journal of Speech 51 (1965): 442-53; Klaus Krippendorf, Information Theory, in Communication and Behavior, ed. G. Hanneman and W. McEwen (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 351-89. c. i. Weaknesses Not analogous to much of human communication.

1.) Only a fraction of the information conveyed in interpersonal encounters can be taken as remotely corresponding to the teletype action of statistically rare or redundant signals.

2.) Though Shannons technical concept of information is fascinating in many respects, it ranks among the least important ways of conceiving of what we recognize as information. ii. Only formaldoes not account for content

1.) Mortensen: Shannon and Weaver were concerned only with technical problems associated with the selection and arrangement of discrete units of informationin short, with purely formal matters, not content. Hence, their model does not apply to semantic or pragmatic dimensions of language. 2.) Theodore Roszak provides a thoughtful critique of Shannons model in The Cult of Information. Roszak notes the unique way in which Shannon defined information: Once, when he was explaining his work to a group of prominent scientists who challenged his eccentric definition, he replied, I think perhaps the word information is causing more trouble . . . than it is worth, except that it is difficult to find another word that is anywhere near right. It should be kept solidly in mind that [information] is only a measure of the difficulty in transmitting the sequences produced by some information source [emphasis added] 3.) As Roszak points out, Shannons model has no mechanism for distinguishing important ideas from pure non-sense: In much the same way, in its new technical sense, information has come to denote whatever can be coded for transmission through a channel that connects a source with a receiver, regardless of semantic content. For Shannons purposes, all the following are information: E = mc2 Jesus saves. Thou shalt not kill. I think, therefore I am.

Phillies 8, Dodgers 5 Twas brillig and the slithy roves did gyre and gimble in the wabe. And indeed, these are no more or less meaningful than any string of haphazard bits (x!9#44jGH?566MRK) I might be willing to pay to have telexed across the continent. As the mathematician Warren Weaver once put it, explaining the strange way in which, in this theory, the word information is used .... It is surprising but true that, from the present viewpoint, two messages, one heavily loaded with meaning and the other pure nonsense, can be equivalent as regards information [emphasis added]. iii. Static and Linear 1.) Mortensen: Finally, the most serious shortcoming of the Shannon-Weaver communication system is that it is relatively static and linear. It conceives of a linear and literal transmission of information from one location to another. The notion of linearity leads to misleading ideas when transferred to human conduct; some of the problems can best be underscored by studying several alternative models of communication. 2. a. i. Berlos S-M-C-R, 1960 Background Ehninger, Gronbeck and Monroe: The simplest and most influential message-centered

model of our time came from David Berlo (Simplified from David K. Berlo, The Process of Communication (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1960)): ii. Essentially an adaptation of the Shannon-Weaver model.

b. i.

Significant after World War II because: The idea of source was flexible enough to include oral, written, electronic, or any other

kind of symbolic generator-of-messages. ii. Message was made the central element, stressing the transmission of ideas.

iii. The model recognized that receivers were important to communication, for they were the targets. iv. The notions of encoding and decoding emphasized the problems we all have (psycholinguistically) in translating our own thoughts into words or other symbols and in deciphering the words or symbols of others into terms we ourselves can understand. c. i. ii. Weaknesses: Tends to stress the manipulation of the messagethe encoding and decoding processes it implies that human communication is like machine communication, like signal-sending in

telephone, television, computer, and radar systems. iii. It even seems to stress that most problems in human communication can be solved by technical accuracy-by choosing the right symbols, preventing interference, and sending efficient messages. iv. But even with the right symbols, people misunderstand each other. Problems in meaning or meaningfulness often arent a matter of comprehension, but of reaction, of agreement, of shared concepts, beliefs, attitudes, values. To put the com- back into communication, we need a meaning-centered theory of communication. 3. a. Schramms Interactive Model, 1954 Background

Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to alter the mathematical model of Shannon and Weaver. He conceived of decoding and encoding as activities maintained simultaneously by sender and receiver; he also made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages. Notice also the inclusion of an interpreter as an abstract representation of the problem of meaning.

b. i.

Strengths Schramm provided the additional notion of a field of experience, or the psychological

frame of reference; this refers to the type of orientation or attitudes which interactants maintain toward each other. ii. Included Feedback

1.) Communication is reciprocal, two-way, even though the feedback may be delayed. a.) Some of these methods of communication are very direct, as when you talk in direct response to someone. b.) Others are only moderately direct; you might squirm when a speaker drones on and on, wrinkle your nose and scratch your head when a message is too abstract, or shift your body position when you think its your turn to talk.

c.) Still other kinds of feedback are completely indirect. 2.) For example, a.) politicians discover if theyre getting their message across by the number of votes cast on the first Tuesday in November; b.) commercial sponsors examine sales figures to gauge their communicative effectiveness in ads; c.) teachers measure their abilities to get the material across in a particular course by seeing how many students sign up for it the next term. iii. Included Context 1.) A message may have different meanings, depending upon the specific context or setting. 2.) Shouting Fire! on a rifle range produces one set of reactions-reactions quite different from those produced in a crowded theater. iv. Included Culture 1.) A message may have different meanings associated with it depending upon the culture or society. Communication systems, thus, operate within the confines of cultural rules and expectations to which we all have been educated. v. Other model designers abstracted the dualistic aspects of communication as a series of

loops, (Mysak, 1970), speech cycles (Johnson, 1953), co-orientation (Newcomb, 1953), and overlapping psychological fields (Fearing, 1953). c. i. Weaknesses Schramms model, while less linear, still accounts for only bilateral communication

between two parties. The complex, multiple levels of communication between several sources is beyond this model.

F. 1. a. i.

Non-linear Models Dances Helical Spiral, 1967 Background Depicts communication as a dynamic process. Mortensen: The helix represents the way

communication evolves in an individual from his birth to the existing moment. ii. Dance: At any and all times, the helix gives geometrical testimony to the concept that

communication while moving forward is at the same moment coming back upon itself and being affected by its past behavior, for the coming curve of the helix is fundamentally affected by the curve from which it emerges. Yet, even though slowly, the helix can gradually free itself from its lower-level distortions. The communication process, like the helix, is constantly moving forward and yet is always to some degree dependent upon the past, which informs the present and the future. The helical communication model offers a flexible communication process

b. i.

Strengths Mortensen: As a heuristic device, the helix is interesting not so much for what it says as

for what it permits to be said. Hence, it exemplifies a point made earlier: It is important to approach models in a spirit of speculation and intellectual play. ii. Chapanis (1961) called sophisticated play: The helix implies that communication is continuous, unrepeatable, additive, and accumulative; that is, each phase of activity depends upon present forces at work as they are defined by all that has occurred before. All experience contributes to the shape of the unfolding moment; there is no break in the action, no fixed beginning, no pure redundancy, no closure. All communicative experience is the product of learned, nonrepeatable events which are defined in ways the organism develops to be self-consistent and socially meaningful. In short, the helix underscores the integrated aspects of all human communication as an evolving process that is always turned inward in ways that permit learning, growth, and discovery. c. i. Weaknesses May not be a model at all: too few variables. Mortensen: If judged against conventional scientific standards, the helix does not fare well as a model. Indeed, some would claim that it does not meet the requirements of a model at all. More specifically, it is not a systematic or formalized mode of representation. Neither does it formalize relationships or isolate key variables. It describes in the abstract but does not explicitly explain or make particular hypotheses testable. ii. Generates Questions, but leaves much unaswered.

Mortensen: For example, does not the helix imply a false degree of continuity from one communicative situation to another? Do we necessarily perceive all encounters as actually occurring in an undifferentiated, unbroken sequence of events? Does an unbroken line not conflict with the human experience of discontinuity, intermittent periods, false starts, and so forth? Is all communication a matter of growth, upward and onward, in an everbroadening range of encounters? If the helix represents continuous learning and growth, how can the same form also account for deterioration and decay? What about the forces of entropy, inertia, decay, and pathology? And does not the unbroken line of a helix tacitly ignore the qualitative distinctions that inevitably characterize different communicative events? Also, what about movements which we define as utterly wasted, forced, or contrived? Along similar lines, how can the idea of continuous, unbroken growth include events we consider meaningless, artificial, or unproductive? Countless other questions could be raised. And that is the point. The model brings problems of abstraction into the open. rtificial, or unproductive? Countless other questions could be raised. And that is the point. The model brings problems of abstraction into the open. 2. a. i. Westley and MacLeans Conceptual Model, 1957 Background Westley and MacLean realized that communication does not begin when one person starts

to talk, but rather when a person responds selectively to his immediate physical surroundings. ii. Each interactant responds to his sensory experience (X1 . . . ) by abstracting out certain

objects of orientation (X1 . . . 3m). Some items are selected for further interpretation or coding (X) and then are transmitted to another person, who may or may not be responding to the same objects of orientation (X,b),

A conceptual model of communication. (Reprinted with permission from Westley and MacLean, Jr., 1957.) (a) Objects of orientation (X 1 ... X) in the sensory field of the receiver (B) are transmitted directly to him in abstracted form (XZ ... X 3) after a process of selection from among all Xs, such selection being based at least in part on the needs and problems of B. Some or all messages are transmitted in more than one sense (X3m, for example).

(b) The same Xs are selected and abstracted by communicator A and transmitted as a message (x') to B, who may or may not have part or all of the Xs in his own sensory field (X1b). Whether on purpose or not, B transmits feedback (fBA) to A.

(c) The Xs that B receives may result from selected abstractions which are transmitted without purpose by encoder C, who acts for B and thus extends B's environment. C's selections are necessarily based in part on feedback (fBC) from B.

(d) The messages which C transmits to B (x") represent C's selections both from the messages he gets from A (x') and from the abstractions in his own sensory field (X3c, X4), which may or may not be in A's field. Feedback moves not only from B to A (fBA) and from B to C (f BC) but also from C to A (fCA). Clearly, in mass communication, a large number of Cs receive from a very large number of As and transmit to a vastly larger number of Bs, who simultaneously receive messages from other Cs.

b. i. ii.

Strengths Accounts for Feedback Accounts for a sensory field or, in Newcombs (1953) words, objects of co-orientation.

iii. Accounts for non-binary interactionsmore than just two people communicating directly. iv. Accounts for different modes. E.g. interpersonal vs. mass mediated communication. c. i. Weaknesses Westley and MacLeans model accounts for many more variables in the typical

communication interaction. It is, however, still two-dimensional. It cannot account for the multiple dimensions of the typical communication event involving a broad context and multiple message. 3. a. i. Beckers Mosaic Model, 1968 Background Mortensen: Becker assumes that most communicative acts link message elements from

more than one social situation. In the tracing of various elements of a message, it is clear that the items may result in part from a talk with an associate, from an obscure quotation read years before, from a recent TV commercial, and from numerous other dissimilar situationsmoments of introspection, public debate, coffee-shop banter, daydreaming, and so on. In short, the elements that make up a message ordinarily occur in bits and pieces. Some items are separated by gaps in time, others by gaps in modes of presentation, in social situations, or in the number of persons present.

ii.

Mortensen: Becker likens complex communicative events to the activity of a receiver who

moves through a constantly changing cube or mosaic of information . The layers of the cube correspond to layers of information. Each section of the cube represents a potential source of information; note that some are blocked out in recognition that at any given point some bits of information are not available for use. Other layers correspond to potentially relevant sets of information.

b. i.

Strengths (from Mortensen) It depicts the incredible complexity of communication as influenced by a constantly

changing milieu. ii. It also accounts for variations in exposure to messages. In some circumstances receivers

may be flooded by relevant information; in others they may encounter only a few isolated items. Individual differences also influence level of exposure; some people seem to be attuned to a large range of information, while others miss or dismiss much as extraneous. iii. Different kinds of relationships between people and messages cut through the many levels of exposure. Some relationships are confined to isolated situations, others to recurrent events. Moreover, some relationships center on a particular message, while others focus on more diffuse units; that is, they entail a complex set of relationships between a given message and the larger backdrop of information against which it is interpreted. iv. It may be useful to conceive of an interaction between two mosaics. One comprises the information in a given social milieu, as depicted in the model; the other includes the private mosaic of information that is internal to the receiver. The internal mosaic is every bit as complex as the one shown in the model, but a person constructs it for himself. c. i. Weaknesses Even though this model adds a third dimension, it does not easily account for all the

possible dimensions involved in a communication event.

G. Multidimensional Models

1.

Ruesch and Bateson, Functional Model, 1951

a.

Mortensen: Ruesch and Bateson conceived of communication as functioning

simultaneously at four levels of analysis. One is the basic intrapersonal process (level 1). The next (level 2) is interpersonal and focuses on the overlapping fields of experience of two interactants. Group interaction (level 3) comprises many people. And finally a cultural level (level 4) links large groups of people. Moreover, each level of activity consists of four communicative functions: evaluating, sending, receiving, and channeling. Notice how the model focuses less on the structural attributes of communication-source, message, receiver, etc.and more upon the actual determinants of the process. b. Mortensen: A similar concern with communicative functions can be traced through the

models of Carroll (1955), Fearing (1953), Mysak (1970), Osgood (1954), and Peterson (1958). Petersons model is one of the few to integrate the physiological and psychological functions at work in all interpersonal events. 2. a. i. Barnlunds Transactional Model, 1970 Background Mortensen: By far the most systematic of the functional models is the transactional

approach taken by Barnlund (1970, pp. 83-102), one of the few investigators who made explicit the key assumptions on which his model was based. ii. Mortensen: Its most striking feature is the absence of any simple or linear directionality in

the interplay between self and the physical world. The spiral lines connect the functions of encoding and decoding and give graphic representation to the continuous, unrepeatable, and irreversible assumptions mentioned earlier. Moreover, the directionality of the arrows seems deliberately to suggest that meaning is actively assigned or attributed rather than simply passively received iii. Any one of three signs or cues may elicit a sense of meaning. Public cues (Cpu) derive from the environment. They are either natural, that is, part of the physical world, or artificial and man-made. Private objects of orientation (Cpr) are a second set of cues. They go beyond public inspection or awareness. Examples include the cues gained from sunglasses, earphones, or the sensory cues of taste and touch. Both public and private cues may be verbal or nonverbal in nature. What is critical is that they are outside the direct and deliberate control of the interactants.

The third set of cues are deliberate; they are the behavioral and nonverbal (Cbehj cues that a person initiates and controls himself. Again, the process involving deliberate message cues is reciprocal. Thus, the arrows connecting behavioral cues stand both for the act of producing themtechnically a form of encoding-and for the interpretation that is given to an act of others (decoding). The jagged lines (VVVV ) at each end of these sets of cues illustrate the fact that the number of available cues is probably without limit. Note also the valence signs (+, 0, or -) that have been attached to public, private, and behavioral cues. They indicate the potency or degree of attractiveness associated with the cues. Presumably, each cue can differ in degree of strength as well as in kind. t each end of these sets of cues illustrate the fact that the number of available cues is probably without limit. Note also the valence signs (+, 0, or -) that have been attached to public, private, and behavioral cues. They indicate the potency or degree of attractiveness associated with the cues. Presumably, each cue can differ in degree of strength as well as in kind."

b.

Strengths Mortensen: The assumptions posit a view of communication as transactions in which communicators attribute meaning to events in ways that are dynamic, continuous, circular, unrepeatable, irreversible, and complex.

c.

Weaknesses Mortensen: The exception is the assumption that communication describes the evolution of meaning. In effect, the model presupposes that the terms communication and meaning are synonymous and interchangeable. Yet nowhere does the model deal in even a rudimentary way with the difficult problem of meaning. The inclusion of decoding and encoding may be taken as only a rough approximation of the evolution of meaning, but such dualistic categories are not particularly useful in explaining the contingencies of meaning.

H. 1. a.

Suggestions for Communication Models A Systemic Model of Communication, 1972 Background Some communication theorists have attempted to construct models in light of General

Systems Theory. The key assumption of GST is that every part of the system is so related to every other part that any change in one aspect results in dynamic changes in all other parts of the total system (Hall and Fagen, 1956). It is necessary, then, to think of communication not so much as individuals functioning under their own autonomous power but rather as persons interacting through messages. Hence, the minimum unit of measurement is that which ties the respective parties and their surroundings into a coherent and indivisible whole.

b.

A Systemic Communication Model would have to address the following axioms by

Watzlawick and his associates (1967). i. The Impossibility of Not Communicating Interpersonal behavior has no opposites. It is not possible to conceive of nonbehavior. If all behavior in an interactional situation can be taken as having potential message value, it follows that no matter what is said and done, one cannot not communicate. Silence and inactivity are no exceptions. Even when one person tries to ignore the overtures of another, he nonetheless communicates a disinclination to talk. ii. Content and Relationship in Communication All face-to-face encounters require some sort of personal recognition and commitment which in turn create and define the relationship between the respective parties. Communication, wrote Watzlawick (1967), not only conveys information, but ... at the same time . . . imposes behavior [p. 51]. Any activity that communicates information can be taken as synonymous with the content of the message, regardless of whether it is true or false, valid or invalid. . . . Each spoken word, every movement of the body, and all the eye glances furnish a running commentary on how each person sees himself, the other person, and the other persons reactions. iii. The Punctuation of the Sequence of Events Human beings set up between them patterns of interchange (about which they may or may not be in agreement) and these patterns will in fact be rules of contingency regarding the exchange of reinforcement [pp. 273-274]. iv. Symmetrical and Complementary Interaction

A symmetrical relationship evolves in the direction of heightening similarities; a complementary relationship hinges increasingly on individual differences. The word symmetrical suggests a relationship in which the respective parties mirror the behavior of the other. Whatever one does, the other tends to respond in kind. Thus, an initial act of trust fosters a trusting response; suspicion elicits suspicion; warmth and congeniality encourage more of the same, and so on. In sharp contrast is a complementary relationship, where individual differences complement or dovetail into a sequence of change. Whether the complementary actions are good or bad, productive or injurious, is not relevant to the concept. 2. a. i. Browns Holographic Model, 1987 Background Rhetorical theorist, William Brown, proposed The Holographic View of Argument

(Argumentation, 1 (1987): 89-102). ii. Arguing against an analytical approach to communication that dissects the elements of

communication, Brown argued for seeing argument or communication as a hologram which as a metaphor for the nature of argument emphasizes not the knowledge that comes from seeing the parts in the whole but rather that which arises from seeing the whole in each part. iii. The ground of argument in a holographic structure is a boundaryless event. b. A model of communication based on Browns holographic metaphor would see

connections between divided elements and divisions between connections.

3. a. i.

A Fractal Model Background Polish-born mathematician, Benoit Mandelbrot, while working for IBM in the 1960s and

70s, became intrigued with the possibility of deriving apparently irregular shapes with a mathematical formula. "Clouds are not spheres," he said, "mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line." So if these regular geometric forms could not account for natural patterns, what could? ii. To solve the problem, Mandelbrot developed the fractal, a simple, repeating shape that can

be created by repeating the same formula over and over. I coined fractal from the Latin adjective fractus. The corresponding Latin verb frangere means to break: to create irregular fragments. It is therefore sensibleand how appropriate for our needs!that, in addition to fragmented fractus should also mean irregular, both meanings being preserved in fragment. Benoit Mandelbrot

Construction of a Fractal Snowflake A Koch snowflake is constructed by making progressive additions to a simple triangle. The additions are made by dividing the equilateral triangles sides into thirds, then creating a new triangle on each middle third. Thus, each frame shows more complexity, but every new triangle in the design looks exactly like the initial one. This reflection of the larger design in its smaller details is characteristic of all fractals. iii. Fractal shapes occur everywhere in nature: a head of broccoli, a leaf, a snowflakealmost any natural form. See http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/explorer/index.html. iv. Mandelbrots discovery changed computer graphicsby using fractal formulas, graphic engines could create natural-looking virtual landscapes. More importantly, fractal formulas can account for variations in other natural patterns such as economic markets and weather patterns.

Mandelbrot Set Polish-born French mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot coined the term fractal to describe complex geometric shapes that, when magnified, continue to resemble the shapes larger structure. This property, in which the pattern of the whole repeats itself on smaller and smaller scales, is called self similarity. The fractal shown here, called the Mandelbrot set, is the graphical representation of a mathematical function. v. Fractals allow for almost infinite density. For example, Mandelbrot considered the

deceptively simple question: How long is the coast line of Britain? A typical answer will ignore inlets and bays smaller than a certain size. But if we account for these small coastline features, and then those smaller still, we would soon find ourselves with a line of potentially infinite and constantly changing length. A fractal equation could account for such a line. vi. Fractal geometry is in some ways related to chaos theory, the science of finding pattern in apparently random sequences, like a dripping faucet or weather patterns. Chaos theory has been applied to computer-generated landscapes, organizational structures (http://www.cio.com/archive/enterprise/041598_qanda_content.html), and even washing machines. Of course, it has also been applied to economics and the stock market, in particular: The stock markets are said to be nonlinear, dynamic systems. Chaos theory is the mathematics of studying such nonlinear, dynamic systems. Does this mean that chaoticians can predict when stocks will rise and fall? Not quite; however, chaoticians have determined that the market prices are highly random, but with a trend. The stock market is accepted as a self-similar system in the sense that the individual parts are related to the whole. Another self-similar system in the area of mathematics are fractals. Could the stock market be associated with a fractal? Why not? In the market price action, if one looks at the market monthly, weekly, daily, and intra day bar charts, the structure has a similar appearance. However, just like a fractal, the stock market has sensitive dependence on initial conditions. This factor is what makes dynamic market systems so difficult to predict. Because we cannot accurately describe the current situation with the detail necessary, we cannot accurately predict the state of the system at a future time. Stock market success can be predicted by chaoticians. Short-term investing, such as intra day exchanges are a waste of time. Short-term traders will fail over time due to nothing more than

the cost of trading. However, over time, long-term price action is not random. Traders can succeed trading from daily or weekly charts if they follow the trends. A system can be random in the short-term and deterministic in the long term (http://www.duke.edu/~mjd/chaos/chaos.html).

vii. One key premise in both chaos theory and fractals is "sensitive dependence on initial conditions." One early chaos theorist studying weather patterns stumbled on this when he was using a simple computer program to plot the course of only 12 weather variables. The computer printout ran out of paper, so he noted the status of the variables at an earlier point, stopped the process, replaced the paper and restarted the process at the earlier point. Even though the variables started at the same point, the patterns quickly diverged, demonstrating the similar or even identical initial conditions can lead to radically different outcomes (This story is in James Gleick, Chaos: Making A New Science).

This phenomenon led researchers to talk about "the butterfly effect" to illustrate how a very small change can produce significant changes in a system. The butterfly effect refers to the fact that a butterfly flapping its wings over Beijing can result in a change in the weather patterns in New York two months later.

b. i.

Applying Fractals to Communication Like Dances Helix, seeing communication as a fractal form allows us to conceptualize the

almost infinite density of a communication event. ii. Margaret J. Wheatley has attempted to apply Fractal theory and the science of chaos to

management. (Leadership and the New Science: Learning about Organization from an Orderly Universe. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Kohler Publishers, 1992.) You can read some of Wheatley's ideas here. iii. The significance of this for the topic at hand is this: First, the patterns of complexity in natural systems, of which human beings are a part, is profoundly complex and not easily captured in any formula. Therefore, any predictions about the outcome of these systems are

necessarily limited because of the difficulty of being sensitive to initial conditions. A model of communication drawn from fractals and chaos theory would have to reflect this complexity and respond to variations in initial conditions. iv. In addition, if we marry the fractal to other mathematical constructs, we can develop an even richer heuristic. 1.) The mathematician Rudy Rucker, in a way that only mathematicians can, said Life is a fractal in Hilbert space. (Mind Tools: The Five Levels of Mathematical Reality (Boston : Houghton Mifflin, 1987) 248.) 2.) Hilbert Space is a theoretical multi-dimensional space. Rucker is saying that life is an infinitely variegated entity that exists in multiple dimensions. 3.) So, we can borrow Ruckers phrase and say that communication is a fractal in Hilbert space.

Theories of communication: Theories of Communication Chapter 1 focused on the developmental stages of Communication and summed up Communication as a complex and dynamic process leading to the evolution of meaning. The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many theories: structural and functional theories believe that social structures are real and function in ways that can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on psychology of individuals; interactionist theories view social life as a process of interaction; interpretive theories uncover the ways people actually understand their own experience; and critical theories are concerned with the conflict of interests in society and the way communication perpetuates domination of one group over another . The earliest theories were those propounded by Western theorists Siebert, Paterson and Schramm in their book Four Theories Of the Press (1956). These were termed "normative theories" by McQuail in the sense that they "mainly express ideas of how the media ought to or can be expected to operate under a prevailing set of conditions and values." Each of the four original or classical theories is based on a particular political theory or economic scenario. I) CLASSICAL THEORIES Authoritarian Theory According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the State, had to follow its bidding. Under an Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of thought was jealously guarded by a few people (ruling classes), who were concerned with the emergence of a new middle class and were worried about the effects of printed matter on their thought process. Steps were taken to control the freedom of expression. The result was advocacy of complete dictatorship. The theory promoted zealous obedience to a hierarchical superior and reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the censorship rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the press was justified on the ground that the State always took precedence over the individual's right to freedom of expression.

This theory stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy of Plato (407 - 327 B.C), who thought that the State was safe only in the hands of a few wise men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a British academician, argued that the power to maintain order was sovereign and individual objections were to be ignored. Engel, a German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating that freedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism. The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control over media by both dictatorial and democratic governments. Libertarianism or Free Press Theory This movement is based on the right of an individual, and advocates absence of restraint. The basis of this theory dates back to 17th century England when the printing press made it possible to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. The State was thought of as a major source of interference on the rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was granted precedence over the power of State. Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu, an early 16th century philosopher, John Locke of Great Britain in the17th century, John Milton, the epic poet ("Aeropagitica") and John Stuart Mill, an essayist ("On Liberty"). Milton in Aeropagitica in 1644, referred to a self righting process if free expression is permitted "let truth and falsehood grapple." In 1789, the French, in their Declaration Of The Rights Of Man, wrote "Every citizen may speak, write and publish freely." Out of such doctrines came the idea of a "free marketplace of ideas." George Orwell defined libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not want to hear". Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the Fourth Estate reflecting public opinion. What the theory offers, in sum, is power without social responsibility. Social Responsibility Theory Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Theodore Paterson. In their book Four Theories Of Press, they stated "pure libertarianism is antiquated,

outdated and obsolete." They advocated the need for its replacement by the Social Responsibility theory. This theory can be said to have been initiated in the United States by the Commission of The Freedom Of Press, 1949. The commission found that the free market approach to press freedom had only increased the power of a single class and has not served the interests of the less well-off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory advocated some obligation on the part of the media to society. A judicial mix of self regulation and state regulation and high professional standards were imperative. Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern variation in which the duty to one"s conscience was the primary basis of the right of free expression. Soviet Media/Communist Theory This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that "the ideas of the ruling classes are the ruling ideas". It was thought that the entire mass media was saturated with bourgeois ideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being incompatible with freedom of press and that modern technological means of information must be controlled for enjoying effective freedom of press. The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses of workers and not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it was the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests. Two more theories were later added as the "four theories of the press" were not fully applicable to the non-aligned countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, who were committed to social and economic development on their own terms. The two theories were: Development Communication Theory The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no development without communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism was legitimized, but under the Development communication theory, or Development Support

Communication as it is otherwise called, the media undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental programmes, accepting restrictions and instructions from the State. The media subordinated themselves to political, economic, social and cultural needs. Hence the stress on "development communication" and "development journalism". There was tacit support from the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this theory is that "development" is often equated with government propaganda. Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of modern media and its top-down nonparticipant character. The need for access and right to communicate is stressed. Bureaucratic control of media is decried. 2) MAGIC BULLET/ HYPODERMIC NEEDLE/ STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY Before the first World War, there was no separate field of study on Communication, but knowledge about mass communication was accumulating. An outcome of World War I propaganda efforts, the Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle Theory came into existence. It propounded the view that the mass media had a powerful influence on the mass audience and could deliberately alter or control peoples' behaviour. Klapper (1960) formulated several generalizations on the effects of mass media. His research findings are as follows: "Mass-media ordinarily does not serve as a necessary and sufficient cause of audience effect, but rather functions through a nexus of mediating factors and influences. These mediating factors render mass-communication as a contributory agent in a process of reinforcing the existing conditions." The main mediating factors which he considers responsible for the functions and effects of mass communications are - selective exposure i.e., people's tendency to expose themselves to those mass communications which are in agreement with their attitudes and interests; and - selective perception and retention i.e., people's inclination to organize the meaning of mass communication messages into accord with their already existing views.

3) TWO STEP FLOW THEORY In the early 40"s, before the invention of television, Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Goudet conducted an American survey on mass campaigns. The study revealed that informal social relationships had played a part in modifying the manner in which individuals selected content from the media campaign. The study also indicated that ideas often flowed from the radio and newspapers to opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of society. Thus, informal social groups have some degree of influence on people and mould the way they select media content and act on it. 4) ONE STEP FLOW THEORY This theory simply stated that mass communication media channels communicate directly to the mass audience without the message being filtered by opinion leaders. 5) MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY This was based on the idea that there are a number of relays in the communication flow from a source to a large audience. 6) USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY This theory propounded by Katz in 1970, is concerned with how people use media for gratification of their needs. An outcome of Abraham Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs, it propounds the fact that people choose what they want to see or read and the different media compete to satisfy each individual"s needs. In the hierarchy of needs, there are five levels in the form of a pyramid with the basic needs such as food and clothing at the base and the higher order needs climbing up the pyramid. The fulfillment of each lower level need leads to the individual looking to satisfy the next level of need and so on till he reaches the superior-most need of self-actualization. The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people use media for many purposes. As media users become increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should

direct our attention to the audience. Lull's television research found that families used television for communication facilitation, relationship building, intimacy, and for structuring the day. In general researchers have found four kinds of gratifications: 1. Information - we want to find out about society and the world- we want to satisfy our curiosity. This would fit the news and documentaries which both give us a sense that we are learning about the world. 2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to look for models for our behaviour. So, for example, we may identify with characters that we see in a soap. The characters help us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their actions and they succeed we feel better about ourselves. 3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media in order to find out more about the circumstances of other people. Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize with the lives of others so that we may even end up thinking of the characters in programme as friends. 4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment, relaxation or just to fill time. Riley and Riley (1951) found that children in peer groups used adventure stories from the media for group games while individual children used media stories for fantasizing and daydreaming. The study thus found that different people use the same messages from the media for different purposes. Katz replaced the question "what do media do to people?" with the question "what do people do with the media?" Katz, Gurevitch & Hass found that the media are used by individuals to meet the following specific needs : Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge and understanding); Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable experience); Personal integrative needs (strengthening self image);

Social integrative needs (strengthening self image); Tension release needs (escape and diversion) McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the following individual needs categories: 1) Diversion (emotional release) 2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for companionship). 3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self understanding.) 4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks.) B. Rubin and Bantz (1989) studied the uses and gratifications of "new technology" by examining VCR use. They found the following motives for VCR use: 1) library storage of movies and shows 2) watching music videos 3) Using exercise tapes 4) renting movies 5) letting children view 6) time-shifting 7) Socializing by viewing with others 8) Critical viewing including TV watching and studying tapes 7) SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that the media publicizes opinions that are mainstream and people adjust their opinions according to their perceptions to avoid being isolated. Individuals who perceive their own opinion as being accepted will express it, whilst those who think themselves as being a minority, suppress their views. Innovators and change agents are unafraid to voice different opinions, as they do not fear isolation. 8) CONSISTENCY THEORIES (1950s) Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about people"s need for consistency in their beliefs and judgements. In order to reduce dissonance created by inconsistencies in belief,

judgments and action people expose themselves to information that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they shut out other communications. 9) McCOMBS AND SHAW"S AGENDA SETTING THEORY

This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the significance of events in the public's mind. The media set the agenda for the audience's discussion and mentally order and organize their world. The theory is consistent with a "use and gratification" approach. McCombs and Shaw assert that the agenda-setting function of the media causes the correlation between the media and public ordering of priorities. The people most affected by the media agenda are those who have a high need for orientation 10) Media Dependency Theory

Developed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, the key idea behind this theory is that audiences depend on media information to meet needs and reach goals, and social institutions and media systems interact with audiences to create needs, interests, and motives in the person. The degree of dependence is influenced by the number and centrality of information functions and social stability. Some questions that this theory raised were : Do media create needs? Do people turn to media to achieve gratification and satisfy needs? Are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or all of these? "The media are our friends"?? 11) STEPHENSON"S PLAY THEORY

Play is an activity pursued for pleasure. The daily withdrawal of people into the mass media in their after hours is a matter of subjectivity. The effect of mass communication is not escapism nor seducing the masses. Rather it is seen as anti-anxiety producing, and are regarded as communication-pleasure.

12) MODELING BEHAVIOUR THEORY

Behaviors which are modeled from media experiences can become habitual if found useful and/or if they are reinforced in the environment. This is not about violent or criminal behavior. 13) STALAGMITE THEORIES

These theories suggest that mediated experiences induce long term effects that are very difficult to measure. The effects are like stalagmite drippings building up over time. Meaning Theory and the Cultivation Theory are two of the most significant Stalagmite theories. MEANING THEORY Media experiences mould meanings by putting things in a particular framework. Does "NYPD Blue" depict the real world of New York City police detectives? Questions like this are coming from a Meaning Theory focus on media. CULTIVATION THEORY George Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on viewers" ideas of the environment they lived in. He found that dominance of TV created a common view of the world and that it homogenized different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a bad place to live in leading to people becoming distrustful of the world. Over time, particular symbols, images, messages, meanings become dominant and are absorbed as the truth. Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are established. 14) Diffusion of innovations theory Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State University this theory traces the process by which a new idea or practice is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system. The model describes the factors that influence people's thoughts and actions and the process of adopting a new technology or idea.

15) Social learning theory Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this specifies that mass-media messages give audience members an opportunity to identify with attractive characters that demonstrate behavior, engage emotions, and allow mental rehearsal and modeling of new behavior. The behavior of models in the mass media also offers vicarious reinforcement to motivate audience members' adoption of the behavior. Baran and Davis (2000) classify mass communication theories into three broad categories: 1. microscopic theories that focus on the everyday life of people who process information - for example, uses and gratifications, active audience theory, and reception studies;

2. middle range theories that support the limited effects perspective of the media - for example, information flow theory, diffusion theory, and 3. macroscopic theories that are concerned with media's impact on culture and society - for example, cultural studies theory. Theories of mass communication have always focused on the "cause and effects" notion, i.e. the effects of the media and the process leading to those effects, on the audience's mind. Harold Lasswell and Berelson have succinctly expressed this idea. Lasswell's essential question is timeless (1949): "Who says what in what channel to whom with what effects?" Berelson said: "Some kinds of communication, on some kinds of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of conditions, have some kinds of effects." (1949). Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard centers handling and rerouting the great endless current of information.... " (Schramm W.1954) quoted in McQuail & Windahl (1981) 16) The Osgood and Schramm circular model emphasizes the circular nature of communication. The participants swap between the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder.

17) Gerbner's General Model Gerbner's General Model also emphasizes the dynamic nature of human communication.

18) The Shannon-Weaver Model. Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of communication known after them as the Shannon-Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information system into sub-systems so as to evaluate the efficiency of various communication channels and codes. They propose that all communication must include six elements: Source Encoder Channel Message Decoder Receiver This model is often referred to as an " information model" of communication. A drawback is that the model looks at communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors that disturb or otherwise influence messages as they are being transmitted 19) Berlo's S-M-C-R Model Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE, CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model focuses on the individual characteristics of communication and stresses the role of the relationship between the source and the receiver as an important variable in the communication process. The more highly developed the communication skills of the source and the receiver, the more effectively the message will be encoded and decoded. Berlo's model represents a communication process that occurs as a SOURCE drafts messages based on one's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. These MESSAGES are transmitted along CHANNELS, which can include sight,

hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A RECEIVER interprets messages based on the individual's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. The limitations of the model are its lack of feedback Terms used in the chapter: Mass-media: It is a collective phrase that represents not only the press, cinema, radio, television and internet, but also to some extent, books magazines, pamphlets , direct mail literature, posters, folk media, and natural communication methods such as rumours, education and preaching. It is so termed because its reach extends to vast heterogeneous populations. Generally the mass media employ technological means to communicate to the masses. They are founded on the idea of mass production and distribution. Wiebe defined mass media as those readily available to the general public. Selective attention: The media are full of competing messages. The process of screening vast amount of information in which one has no interest through mental filters is called selective attention, for example, an adult will be more tuned to listening to the news while a child would rather watch a cartoon show. Selective perception: This is the tendency to interpret communication messages in terms of one"s existing attitudes. People of distinct psychological character same media content in different ways. This depends on factors such as age, values, family, opinions etc. Selective perception is influenced by social relationships. Selective retention: The ability of an individual to retain certain messages in his mind while ignoring others is called selective retention. This is influenced by various psychological and physiological factors such as choice, values, culture, emotions etc.

Selective exposure: Some individuals are exposed to certain media effects/messages while some are not. This screening aspect depends on many factors such as reach of media, accessibility, age, cultural acceptability, taboos, etc. Opinion leaders/change agents: The opinions of people in a group are influenced by what they hear from "opinion leaders". An individual who is a member of a group manifests certain characteristics in his thinking and behaviour that contribute to the formation of "public opinion". The opinion of the leader is based on rational thinking due to education and experience. They weigh the pros and cons of the information they receive and then give their judgement on it. Encoder: In the process of communication, the sender or source of the message is referred to as the encoder. Decoder: The person receiving the message and decodes it is referred to as the decoder. Feedback: Feedback, a term form cybernetics, the study of messages. It refers to an inquiry, response or experiment. Feedback can be positive (when the required result is achieved) or negative; instantaneous(when the response is immediate) or delayed. Feedback is used to gauge the effectivenss of a particular message put forth or situation that has taken place. Noise: In all communication, there is a sender, a message/communication and a receiver. The meaning of a message is greatly dependent on the culture in which it is transmitted. The sender encodes a message, the receiver decodes it. Between the sender, the message and receiver, noise gets in the way and complicates the process. A noiseless communication does not exist. There always is some kind of noise entering the communication. Noise can be physical noise for example static or psychological i.e. when culture, taboos or values come into play to disrupt the

normal transmission process of communication. Misunderstanding of a particular message i.e. distortion of meaning is a form of noise, example, the game of Chinese Whisper"a person starts off with a particular message and the original message may be distorted by the time it comes to the final player.

Defining Communication Theories Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or incompatible beliefs and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their efforts to avoid feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their own, change their beliefs to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a difficult decision. Communication Accommodation Theory This theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication Accommodation theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and convergence. Groups with strongethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval, frequently from powerless individuals. Coordinated Management of Meaning Theorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people co-create meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when stories

are told, and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the relationship between an individual and his or her society. Through a hierarchical structure, individuals come to organize the meaning of literally hundreds of messages received throughout a day. Cultivation Analysis This theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role in how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most people get much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape peoples sense of reality. This is especially the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent and scarier than is actually warranted. Cultural Approach to Organizations : The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organizations culture is composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories, rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an organization. Cultural Studies Theorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the dominant class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information presented to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influence and how power plays a role in the interpretation of culture. Dramatism This theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life requires an actor, a scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a purpose. A rhetorical critic can understand a speakers motives by analyzing these elements. Further, Dramatism argues that

purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors can be successful when they provide their audiences with a means for purging their guilt and a sense of identification with the rhetor. Expectancy Violations Theory Expectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of the violator. Violating anothers expectations may be a strategy used over that of conforming to anothers expectations. Face-Negotiation Theory Face-Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and collectivistic cultures negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on face management, which describes how people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation in order to maintain face. Self-face and other-face concerns explain the conflict negotiation between people from various cultures. Groupthink The groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider alternatives that may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend that group members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of which can have lasting consequences. Muted Group Theory Muted Group Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and perhaps European Americans better than African Americans or other groups). This is the case because the variety of experiences of European American men are named clearly in language, whereas the experiences of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this problem with

language, women appear less articulate than men in public settings. As women have similar experiences, this situation should change. The Narrative Paradigm This theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm proposes a narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic, or the logic of good reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by whether their stories hang together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true (fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm allows for a democratic judgment of speakers because no one has to be trained in oratory and persuasion to make judgments based on coherence and fidelity. Organizational Information Theory This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of making sense of equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making process through enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are successful to the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality through these means. Relational Dialectics Theory Relational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in relationships continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people wish to have both autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and predictability. As people communicate in relationships, they attempt to reconcile these conflicting desires, but they never eliminate their needs for both of the opposing pairs. The Rhetoric Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical, emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Rhetorical syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are also used in persuasion.

Social Exchange Theory This theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction of both peoples self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous to economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return on their expenditures. Social Penetration Theory This theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and predictable fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way that superficial relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although self-disclosure can lead to more intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more persons vulnerable. Spiral of Silence Theory Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that mass media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority view. Standpoint Theory This theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they occupy different places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social situation from particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a partial understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the

social situation more fully than those at the top. Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist Standpoint Theory because of its application to how womens and mens standpoint differ. Structuration Theory Theorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and organizations create structures, which can be interpreted as an organizations rules and resources. These structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization. Structuration theorists posit that groups and organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their members utilize their structures. Power structures guide the decision making taking place in groups and organizations. Symbolic Interaction Theory This theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to people, things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language that people use both with others and in private thought. Language allows people to develop a sense of self and to interact with others in community. Uncertainly Reduction Theory Uncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are located in both behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to behave (or how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they think of the other and what the other person thinks of them. Further, peoples uncertainty is both individual level and relational level. People are highly motivated to use communication to reduce their uncertainty according to this theory. Uses and Gratifications Theory Uses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media forms. The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limit the effect on their

audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media. Uses and Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do with the media? A New Model of Communication Looking back some years, things were pretty clear in terms of the communication process and the flow of information. Organisations sent out press releases to mass media, which acted as gate keepers and reserved the right to distribute it (or not) to the general or more specialised audiences. Consumers were then either non-responsive or persuaded by the information bits. Everyone knew its role in this scheme and surprises were rare. Moving fast forward, today we experience a chaotic explosion of information, in which RSS feeds, social media and other news aggregators barely manage to keep us informed. We are certainly long past the one way communication of the Mad Men area, but for sure we no longer are in the two-way model either. One-way, two-way or the high way? Where are we today? Models of communication Several models of communication have emerged and evolved as interactions between people changed. Among the main players in this game were the communication channels, which developed as technology advanced. The first steps of progress were slow, from newspapers to radio and TV, but then internet came about to change the pace. Speed, instant access, 24/7 connectivity were the new criteria. And everything after that changed. One Way Communication or The Linear Model

The linear model of communication was defined in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver, who were working at the Bell Laboratories. It was a technical model meant to be applied for radio and telephone communication, but nevertheless remained as the first major communication model. The graph above describes the model, but heres how an example would look like. A musician (the source) has some feelings he wants to share with the world (the message). In order to transmit them he gives a live performance at the opera. By playing an instrument (the transmitter) his feelings (the message) are coded into sound (the signal). Sounds travel by air (the channel) and reach the audience ears (the receiver). The listeners (destination) decode the signals and interpret their own message. Two Way Communication or The Interactional Model The Interactional Model developed by Wilbur L. Schramm goes one step further and states that destination can become in turn a source and notions as feedback come into play. In our case the audience who praises the artist with applause at the end follows the same process of communication only that in the opposite direction. Multiple Way Communication or the Transactional Model Developed by Barnlund in 2008, the Transactional Model states that people actively engage in conversation as both senders and receivers of information and they do so not only at verbal level, but also at non-verbal and para-verbal levels. They also come into the conversation

carrying their cultural background and education, but leave the conversation influenced by the exchange. For instance, members of the audience may not like or understand a piece of national music or others may leave the opera changed for life by the experience. Summing up: Communication happens vertically from communicators to people, but also horizontally among the members of the public who start exchanging opinions about the messages they receive. Peer review is a strong argument. 3D Communication or the Empowering Model Lets take a step beyond the existing models. In the social media age of today, the transactional model surely remains valid, as we continue to influence each other, but a z axis is added to x and y as players start occupying a place in space that allows them to interact in any way with all other players and play all roles at the same time, depending on the perspective. The individual is empowered by social media to become an opinion leader, a gate-keeper of his own and influence its own community. He becomes a source of news for his community and sometimes for the traditional media themselves. He is approached directly by organisations and approaches them directly. The individual is simultaneously consumer, producer, evaluator and influencer. He has the power.

The Empowering Model of Communication TYPES OF COMMUNICATION: Most animals communicate with each other in some way. Dogs bark at those they perceive as a threat in order to communicate their hostility and in some cases the threat that they will attack if provoked; bees have a pouch in which they carry the scent of their hive so as to identify themselves as members of the community. However, it is only in humans that communication breaks off into different types of communication: verbal and non-verbal, and formal and informal. Verbal communication is just what one would expect from the name: communication using words, and in some cases written characters. There are subcategories for verbal communication, depending on who is at the receiving end of the communication. The main division is between interpersonal communication, in which one person speaks directly to another person, and public or group speaking, in which one person speaks to a large group. From here, the intention of the person speaking breaks it down into still further categories depending on

whether they are trying to persuade the listener or listeners to think or act in a certain way, to convey information in the clearest manner possible, or even to entertain. However, in many cases, the intentions of the speaker will overlap: speakers may want to persuade, inform, and entertain their audiences all at the same time. Sometimes, they may even be unaware of what their true intentions are themselves. Non-verbal communication is the type that is more similar to what the dogs and bees mentioned above do. Non-verbal communication includes all the information we convey to others, whether consciously or subconsciously, without actually using any words. Probably the most ubiquitous example of non verbal communication is that of facial expressions. For example, when a person rolls their eyes at someone, they are expressing skepticism about what the speaker said. They are not using any words to convey this message, but using their understanding of the non-verbal cues they can send that message without having to explicitly say, I really find what you are saying unbelievable. Not all facial expressions are so calculated though: there are those like smiles that come naturally when someone is happy, and indicate this to others. Beyond these more explicit examples, there are more subtle instances of non-verbal communication. For example, clothing: just as the male peacock uses a vibrant display of his colorful feathers to signal to a potential mate that he is a desirable choice, people use clothing in order to send messages about themselves (whether they are true or not). In this vein, a man going to a job interview will usually wear a suit and tie in order to convey the idea that he is a very professional person. Unlike facial expressions, this kind of non-verbal communication is more like verbal communication because it is arbitrary there is no intrinsic reason why a suit and tie should convey the idea of professionalism any more than a Japanese kimono would. It is simply that it has become a cultural norm that a suit and tie is what a professional person wears, and as such it becomes a symbol and a means of non-verbal communication. Formal communication is more strongly associated with large and small group speaking. It is more rule bound, and is more centered on the speaker getting some kind of result. For example, speaking to a board room full of business executives in order to convince them to accept a marketing strategy is an example of formal communication: what is said and how it is

said is rule-bound to what is considered appropriate for the setting, and it is directed toward the specific end of getting the executives to accept the ad campaign. Furthermore, their are instances of symbolic non-verbal communication, such as the wearing of business attire in order to appear professional. Informal communication is associated with interpersonal communication. While it is still rule bound by the social norms of the those communicating, there is much more room for the speaker to be free in what he or she says. Informal communication is also much less tied to specific ends: in many cases, it takes place simply for the speaker to express what they think and feel about anything in particular, and the speaking is undertaken as an end it itself. It is a much more emotionally involved form of communication, in large part because there is less emphasis on symbolic non-verbal communication and more emphasis on saying what one really feels. Although these various types of communication are very different, they are all indispensable tools for communicating with and understanding others. In order to be able to look at others and truly appreciate what they are trying to convey and whether what they are saying has any value, one needs to have a thorough understanding of all types.

12.4 Communication in Business Business persons share their business information with employees, suppliers, customers, distributers, Government, banks, insurance companies, etc. This sharing of information regarding business activities and their results is known as business communication. Business commuication plays a very important role in the success of any business enterprise. Let us discuss the importance of communication in business. i. Business communication helps in providing information to the customers regarding the products and services of the business organization. ii. Effective communication facilitates quick-decision making. In todays world ofcompetition, quick-decisions are necessary. Proper Communication saves times, reduces wastage and cost and induces prompt action. iii. Proper communication helps businesspersons in managing the affairs of the business

Intext Questions 12.3 Fill in the blanks: (i) Business communication helps in providing information to customers regarding ________________. (ii) Business communication helps in taking ________ decisions. (iii) Proper business communication motivates the employees because their ______________ are taken care of properly. (iv) Sharing of information regarding business activities and their results is known as_________. (v) Proper communication saves _________ and induces _________ action.

12.5 Means of Communication There are various ways through which we communicate with each other. These may be called as the means of communication. In face-to-face contact we use different parts of our body or we directly talk to others while communicating our message. Where face-to-face communication is not possible, we take the help of some other means through which we usually convey our messages. For example, we may use letters to convey written messages; talk to others over telephones; send telegrams and use various other modern machines like computers, fax machine, etc. to communicate our messages. The means to be used in our communication process depend upon the purpose of communication. For example, to send any urgent message we generally use telephone; for any important matter for which a written document is required, we use letter, telegram, fax, etc. Now-a-days modern technology has given us a wide option to choose the means according to our requirement and liking. Let us discuss some of the important means of Communication commonly used in business. Letters: Letters are a written form of communication. These can be sent or received by individuals or organisations. Written messages in the form of letters can be delivered to the receivers through special messenger, post offices or private couriers. This method is mostly used where face-toface communication is difficult or other means are not easily available. It helps in keeping a record of the communication. The cost involved is low in this means of communication.

Telegram: It is also a form of written communication by which messages can be sent quickly to distant places. It is generally used when there is an urgency of communicating any important message. It transmits message much faster than ordinary postal mail. This facility is available in all telegraph offices, where on payment of specific fee, we send our message. Charges are payable on the basis of number of words used in writing the message including the address of the receiver and senders name. Hence, telegraphic messages are written in brief. Telegrams can be sent as ordinary or express. Express telegrams travel faster than ordinary telegram, for which extra charge is to be paid. To send telegrams to foreign countries cablegrams are used. Telegrams can also be sent by using telephone, which is called as phonogram. Here by ringing up the telegraph

office through a telephone, the message can be recorded and later the telegraph office transmits the message to the receiver.

Phones: Telephone is a very popular form of oral communication. It is widely used for internal and external business communications. Long distance communication is facilitated by STD (Subscriber Trunk Dialing) while international communication can be made through ISD (International Subscriber Dialing) facilities. Both government and private agencies provide telecom services. Telephone is mostly preferred as it helps in establishing instant communication. In business firms as well as government and private offices automatic switchboards known as private automatic branch exchange (PABX) are installed to facilitate internal as well as external communication. Now-a-days mobile phones are very popular as they give an access to the receiver at any time, anywhere. This is an improvement over the fixed line telephone. It possesses many modern features like Short Messaging Services (SMS), Multi Media Messaging Services (MMS) etc., by using which written messages can be sent to the receivers. Both private as well as government organizations provide this services. MTNL. BSNL, Airtel, Idea, Hutch, Reliance and Tata are the leading mobile service provider in our country. Telex: Telex provides a means of printed communication using teleprinter. Teleprinters consist of machines installed at different places which are connected to a central exchange through cable. In each machine a standard keyboard is fitted. Any message typed by using those keyboards at one end is automatically typed at the other end. Hence instant transmission is possible. Fax: Fax or facsimile is an electronic device that enables instant transmission of any matter, which may be handwritten or printed like letters, diagrams, graphs, sketches, etc. By using telephone lines this machine sends the exact copy of the document to another fax machine at the receiving end. For sending any message the documents on which message, diagram or drawing is typed or drawn has to be put in the fax machine and the fax number (a telephone number) of the

other party has to be dialed. Then the fax machine at the receiving end wills SMS sends only text. MMS sends pictures sound and text instantly produce the replica of the matter. This is the most commonly used means of written communication in business. The main advantages of Fax system are easy operation, instant transmission of handwritten or printed matters over any distance, simultaneous transmission to two or more receivers, etc. The machine also records each transaction of communication. The only limitation is that fax machines accept document upto a standard size. Again, as a usual practice, a copy of the same document is sent to the receiver through post for their record. The receiver at the other end also makes a photocopy of the document immediately after receiving the message through fax machine, because there may be chances that the ink used by the machine may fade away after some time. E-mail: Electronic mail, popularly known as e-mail is a modern means of communication. The system makes use of electronic methods of transmitting and receiving information. In this case individuals, through the internet, open an e-mail account in their name from any ISP (Internet Service Provider). Then letters, messages, pictures or sounds can be sent through their computer to the e-mail accounts of other individuals. Whenever the other person will access his e-mail account he receives the message. The information is communicated audio visually and the process is extremely fast. This method is gaining popularity with increased use of internet among the users. Voice Mail: It is a computer-based system for receiving and responding to incoming telephone calls. It records and stores telephone messages through computer memory. The caller can get the required information by dialing the voice mail number and then following the instructions of the computer. The individuals can also record their messages through voice mail. The receivers at their own convenience can get the message from the machines and take action accordingly. You can get information regarding admission, examination and result of NIOS through an interactive Voice Mail System, which has been installed at its headquarters at New Delhi. You can dial any of the two telephone numbers, 011-26291054 or 011-26291075 to get information from the voice mail.

Pager: This is an instrument which can be used to receive any short messages from the sender at any time. Within a limited area if any body wants to send any message to a person who does not have any fixed work place or he/she is in motion, then the message can be sent through pager. The sender dials a telephone number and gives his message orally to the company operating the pager service. This message is transmitted by the company to the person possessing the pager. The message travels through air in the form of electronic signal, which is converted into written message through pager. By reading that message the receiver will take action immediately. It is a system of one-way communication, which means; the receiver can only receive the message but cannot send any message through this machine. Teleconferencing: Conference generally refers to a meeting of people for consultation or discussion regarding any common issues. Here people sit together and interact face to face with each other. But, teleconferencing is a system through which people interact with each other without physically sitting in front of others. People can hear the voice and see the picture of others and also respond to their queries even if sitting in different countries. It requires the use of modern electronic devices like telephone, computers, television etc. For every teleconferencing a central controlling unit is required that facilitate the entire process of communication. There are two different types of teleconferencing, one, audio-conferencing and other, videoconferencing. Let us know more about them. Audio-conferencing - It is a two-way audio communication system in which the participants listen to the voice and respond immediately sitting at different places. People may listen to the voice through radio or television and put their queries by using telephone. Video-conferencing - Besides listening to the voice, the participants of the conference can also see the picture of each other while talking themselves. This is called video-conferencing. There are two different types of video conferencing process. i. One-way video and two-way audio: In this system, the participants can listen to the voice and see the picture of the persons sitting at the studio. The audience maintains a contact with the studio through telephone and the persons at the studio listen to the voice of the participants.

ii. Both way audio and video: Here participants at both the end i.e., studio as well as audience end, are able to listen to the voice and see the picture of each other while talking amongst themselves.

Types of Communication Medium We divide the different types of communication medium into two different categories: 1. Physical media 2. Mechanical media This site focus on the internal communication. Our listings of types of communication medium therefore exclude external media. Physical media With physical media we mean channels where the person who is talking can be seen and heard by the audience. The whole point here is to be able to not only hear the messages but also to see the body language and feel the climate in the room. This does not need to be two-way channels. In certain situations the receiver expect physical communication. This is the case especially when dealing with high concern messages, e.g. organizational change or down sizing. If a message is perceived as important to the receiver they expect to hear it live from their manager.

Large meetings, town hall meetings Department meetings (weekly meetings) Up close and personal (exclusive meetings) Video conferences Viral communication or word of mouth

Large meetings Large meetings have got great symbolic value and should be used only at special occasions. This channel works very well when you need to get across strategic and important messages to a large group of people at the same time, creating a wide attention, get engagement or communicate a sense of belonging. Large meetings are excellent when you want to present a new vision or strategy, inform about a reorganisation or share new values. The opportunity for dialogue is limited at large meeting, of course but you can create smaller groups where dialogue can be performed. Weekly departmental meetings In the weekly meetings you and your group communicate daily operative issues, gives status reports and solves problems. Weekly meetings are also used to follow up on information from large meetings, management team meetings etc from a whats-in-it-for-us-perspective. This type of smaller group meetings gives good opportunities for dialogue. This channel is often the most important channel you have as a manager, because thats where you have the opportunity to build the big picture, you can prepare for change, you can create ownership of important strategies and goals etc. This is a favourite among the types of communication medium. Up close and personal This is a form of meetings where, often, a senior manager meets with a random selection of employees to discuss and answer questions. Some managers use this as a on going activities on a monthly basis. It can also be used in specific projects or campaigns e.g. launching new strategies. Viral communication Or viral marketing as it is also called works external as well as internal and refer to marketing techniques that use pre-existing social networks to produce increases in awareness or knowledge through self-replicating viral processes. It can be word-of-mouth delivered or enhanced by the network effects of social media.

Mechanical media The second of the two types of communication medium is mechanical media. With mechanical media we mean written or electronic channels. These channels can be used as archives for messages or for giving the big picture and a deeper knowledge. But they can also be very fast. Typically though, because it is written, it is always interpret by the reader based on his or her mental condition. Irony or even humour rarely travels well in mechanical channels.

E-mail Weekly letters or newsletters Personal letters Billboards Intranet Magazines or papers Sms Social media

E-mail E-mail is a good channel for the daily communication to specific target groups. It is suitable mainly for up-to-date and simple messages and where there is no risk of misunderstanding, E-mail is an important supplement to weekly meetings and the Intranet. Invitation to and agenda for meetings can with advantage be sent out with e-mail before the meeting, while background facts and minutes from meetings is well suited to be stored on the Intranet. Some short e-mail tips:

Wright short and to the point. Target your messages to the audience and avoid sending unnecessary all-employees-emails.

Set up your subject line to describe what the e-mail is about. Clearly state if the message is for information or for action.

Avoid attaching large documents if possible. Post a link or direct to the source instead.

Weekly letters Managers that have large groups of employees and who has difficulties in meeting all of them often choose to publish a personally weekly letter. It is sort of a short summary of news with personally reflections. Many employees often appreciate it because it has the potential to give the whats-in-it-for-us angle. They can also contain summaries and status in tasks, projects or issues yesterday, today and tomorrow. Personal letters At special occasions it can be justified to send a personal letter to employees in order to get attention to a specific issue. E.g. pat on the back letter after extra ordinary achievements. Or it can be a letter with your personal commentary on an ongoing reorganization that affects many employees. One other example is a letter that summarizes the past year and wishes all the best for the holidays. Billboard One of the most forgotten types of communication medium is clearly the billboard. Especially today, when everything is about social media. But the good thing with the billboard is that you can use billboards to inform people who does not have computers and/or access to the Intranet or to reach people that work part time and does not attend weekly meetings.

News summary Weekly letters Minutes from meetings Schedules Holiday lists

You can also use the billboard to gather ideas e.g. for items for upcoming meetings Intranet

The Intranet is of course one of the most used types of communication medium and a very important communication channel and work tool for you as a manager, but it is also your job to help your employees prioritise and pick out the information on the Intranet, as well as translating messages into local consequences. Ask your self: what information concerns you employees? In what way are they concerned? How do I best communicate this to my employees? Weekly meeting or your weekly letter can be a suitable channel to discuss or inform of information found on the Intranet. Employee magazine A Magazine offers the opportunity to deepen a specific issue, explain context, describing consequences or tell a story. It also has the opportunity to reach many employees. If you want to create a broad internal understanding of strategic messages the magazine can be a good vehicle to use e.g. by writing an article based on an interview with you. As were the case with the Intranet you also have to translate the information in the magazine to your employees. You can ask yourself: What does the content in a specific article mean to us? How shall I best communicate it to the employees? Sms Or text messaging to the mobile phone is one of the new types of communication medium and not a very widely used channel but where it is used it is proven very effective. Some companies use it as an alert system e.g. for giving managers a head start when something important will be published on the Intranet. The advantage with Sms is that it is fast. But it should be used rarely as an exclusive channel. Some companies use it as a subscription tool where you can subscribe to e.g press-releases. Social media Wikipedia describe social media as Media designed to be disseminated through social interaction, created using highly accessible and scalable publishing techniques. Social media supports the human need for social interaction, using Internet- and web-based technologies to transform broadcast media monologues (one to many) into social media dialogues (many to

many). It supports the democratization of knowledge and information, transforming people from content consumers into content producers. Businesses also refer to social media as usergenerated content (UGC) or consumer-generated media (CGM). More and more companies are using social media in their external marketing, setting up twitter and Facebook accounts etc. But these channels are also used internal where managers become friends on Facebook with their employees or where managers use blog and twitter targeting their employees. Push or Pull You can also divide the different types of communication medium in Push or Pull channels. Push channels are channels where the sender are pushing the message to the receiver. Meaning it is up to the sender to control the communication.

E-mail News letters and letters (if sent out) Magazines (if sent out) Meetings Telephone Sms

Pull channels on the other hand is when the receiver is pulling the message from the sender. It is up to the receiver when he or she wants to take in the message.

Intranet Billboards New letters and letters (if not sent out) Magazines (if not sent out) Social media

Push channels are often regarded as having higher reliability than pull channels because of the fact that it is more active in the communication.

The ambition Stairway Choosing the right types of communication medium is first and most about understanding your ambition with the communication. What effect is you looking for after you have communicated? Increased knowledge, better understanding more motivation or involvement, or do you want it to lead to some sort of action or changed behavior

The Ambition Stairway is a useful tool for you to use when deciding what channels to use for your level of ambition. Witch gives you control of the different types of communication medium. Also, it is important to realise that just publishing something on the Intranet will not get employees motivated and involved.

Choosing the right channels for your messages

BUSINESS REPORT WRITING Business Statistics Introduction As the business environment grows in its complexity, the importance of skillful communication becomes essential in the pursuit of institutional goals. In addition to the need to develop adequate statistical skills, you will find it necessary to effectively communicate to others the results of your statistical studies. It is of little use to formulate solutions to business problems without transmitting this information to others involved in the problem-solving process. The importance of effectively communicating the results of your statistical study cannot be overemphasized. Unfortunately, it seems that many business managers suffer from inadequate communication skills. The December 1990 issue of the Training and Development Journal reports that "Executives polled in a recent survey decry the lack of writing skills among job candidates." A report in 1993 issue of Management Review notes the "liability imposed on businesses by poor writing sills." The report states that employers are beginning to place greater emphasis on communication in hiring practices. Many employers have adopted policies requiring job candidates to submit a brief written report as part of the screening process. An August 1992 issue of Marketing News reveals that "Employers seek motivated communicators for entry-level marketing positions." Obviously, the pressing lack of adequate writing and communications skills in American businesses is well documented. Therefore, the purpose of this appendix is to illustrate some of the major principles of business communication and the preparation of business reports. We examine the general purpose and essential features of a report and stress the benefits of effective report writing. Emphasis is placed on the customary form a business report should take and the format, content, and purpose of its component parts. We will study illustrations of practical reports and the problems will provide the opportunity for students to develop and sharpen their communication skills.

The Need to Communicate Most business decisions involve the cooperation and interaction of several individuals. Sometimes dozens of colleagues and co-workers strive in unison to realize mutual goals. Lines of communication must therefore be maintained to facilitate these joint efforts. Without communicating ideas and thoughts it would be impossible to identify common objectives and purposes necessary for successful operations. Without communication and the team effort it permits, the successful completion of any important project can be jeopardized. Some aspects of the project would be unnecessarily replicated while other tasks would be left unattended. Further, in the absence of adequate communication, colleagues would find themselves working at Coors purposes and perhaps pursuing opposing goals. What one team member may have worked to assemble one day, a second team member may dismantle the next. Without communication the chances for a successful outcome of any business endeavor are significantly reduced. The Characteristics of the Reader Business reports are quite often intended for a wide variety of different audiences. It is critical that you carefully identify the intended audience for your report, otherwise it is likely that your report will be misdirected and less effective. You should consider exactly what the readers of your report already know and what they need to know to make informed decisions. You should also consider the attitude the audience will adopt toward your report. If you fear that the readers may be somewhat hostile toward your report, you may want to offer more supporting evidence and documentation that you would if their reception was thought to be more favorable. The educational background and work experience of the audience is also a key factor in the formulation of your report. A report written for top executives will differ considerably from the prepared for line supervisors in terms of style, word usage, and complexity. Even age, gender, and other demographic characteristics might serve to shape the report. One thing is certain. Whether you earn your livelihood as an accountant, a marketing manager, a production supervisor, or a sales representative, you will work in a vacuum. You will find it necessary to constantly communicate with others in order to successfully complete your job. Generally speaking, the larger the institution in which you work, the greater will be the need

to prepare written reports. As the organization grows in complexity, so does the required degree of formal communication.

The Purpose of Statistical Studies Given the importance of communication, it should come as no surprise that the primary purpose of a report is to convey information. In this effort, statistical reports are fairly concise and follow a rather predetermined pattern. This familiar pattern permits easy recognition of the essential features and allows the reader to quickly comprehend the study. We will examine two types of statistical studies: Statistical reports and statistical abstracts. These studies are quite similar to purpose and in the composition of their component parts. However, a statistical report is the result of a more complete and exhaustive study. Its focus is on complex issues that could affect the long-term future and direction of the organization. It is used when decisions such as plant locations, major capital projects, and changes in the product line are made. A statistical abstract, on the other hand, is used when the problem is of less complexity and consequences. Each of these is examined in detail.

Statistical Reports To complete a statistical report you must isolate the problem and collect the necessary data. The population must be clearly identified and a sample carefully chosen. The researcher then conducts the study and prepares to report the results. As noted above, the procedure to be followed in reporting a statistical study consists of rather precise and well-defined steps that may be modified only slightly. Immediately following the title page the statistical report provides an account of its conclusions and recommendations. In a business setting this opening statement is usually referred to as an executive summary.

Executive Summary The intent of the executive summary is to immediately provide the time-constrained reader with the important facts and findings derived from the study. It summarizes these findings and conclusions, along with any recommendations, and places them at the beginning of the study. This placement provides easy access to the more important information relevant to any decision that a manager must make. If the manger is interested in any further details, he or she may consult the main body of the report. The executive summary should be written in a non-technical manner. It is intended for upper-level managers whose expertise often lies in business management and not in technical fields such as chemistry, physics, or even, in many cases, statistics. They generally have little concern for the technical aspect of the report. They only want to be assured that you have considered all relevant business factors and followed proper scientific procedures in the formulation of the report. If the reader then decides a more complete technical explanation, he or she can read any additional portion of the report. The executive summary seldom exceeds one or two pages. Although the executive summary precedes the main report when it is submitted in final form, the summary is written only after the study has been conducted and the rest of the report has been completed. The summary should include no new information not presented in the report, and should not offer conclusions based on data or information not contained in the report. INTRODUCTION The second step is a brief introduction describing the nature and scope of the problem. Any relevant history or background of the problem that is essential to a thorough understanding and provides clarification for the rest of the study should also be included. A statement is made explaining why the resolution of this issue is important and the critical need to formulate a course of action.

METHODOLOGY The third section of a statistical report is more technical than the rest of the study, as it explains the exact nature of the statistical tests that you indeed to conduct. It describes in detail the precise quantitative tools and techniques to be used, and reveals the manner in which they will lead to the desired results. It is also customary to briefly characterize the data set and the manner in which the sample was taken. This will become familiar to you as you gain an increased understanding of statistical analysis and its many applications. The methodology that you use will depend largely on what you want to accomplish. This fact too will become more evident as you gain more insight into the process of statistical analysis as described in this text.

Findings It is here that the true statistical analysis is preformed. The findings consist of the actual statistical computations that provide the information required to make decisions and recommendations. These calculations may vary from simple descriptive techniques to the more advanced inferential analysis. The computations are shown in sufficient detail to reveal and validate the statistical test without providing needless information or becoming overly cumbersome. In addition, comments regarding the computations are provided to note the results and draw attention to their significance. That is, the results of the computations are merely cited or quoted. No effort is made to discuss or interpret these computations. This is left for the next segment. Discussion and Interpretation Based on the findings from the he previous section, the researcher now woofers a discussion and interoperation of the report's major implications. The researcher should provide an interpretation of the findings in a meaningful and yet non-techincal sense. This section has a

considerable impact on the formulation of the solution to the problem described in the introduction, which motivated the report. Conclusions and Recommendations This final segment often repeats some of the information found in the executive summary, yet allows the researcher to explain in greater detail how and why the conclusions were reached. A more complete discussion of the recommendations may also be included. It is important that this section be based on the results of the findings and not other conclusions or recommendations not supported by the analysis. If reports are prepared in this organized form, they are inherently more useful and lend the researcher a sense of credibility and authority. The report will command respect from those who rely on it to make important decisions. STATISTICAL ABSTRACT

The statistical abstract is used when the issue is less complex and does not have the long range implications associated with a statistical report. The statistical abstract is shorter and less formal that the report form. Unlike the statistical report, the statistical abstract is seldom accompanied by an executive summary. The less complex nature of the issue the abstract is to address makes such a formal summary unnecessary. Other than the executive summary, the abstract contains essentially the same features as the report. However, the components parts of the abstract are much less detailed and shorter in length. The statistical abstract can sometimes be presented in a single page. The following discussion of the abstract's main components reveals that each resembles those found in the statistical report, but in somewhat abbreviated form.

Introduction The introduction is a brief statement describing the motivation for the study. It explains what problem or concerns prompted the study and why the study is important. Little or no reference is made to historical developments as was the case with the report form. Methodology As with the report form, the methodological statement contained in the abstract describes in some technical detail the statistical tools and techniques that will be used to complete the study. This is perhaps the most technical component of the abstract. A brief description of the population and the manner in which the sample was taken is customary. Findings This section includes the actual statistical computations and implements the statistical tools described in the methodology section. Due to the less involved, less complex nature of the problem, this section may consist of only a few calculations, which will serve as the basis for the study's conclusion. Brief commentary is provided regarding the outcome of the computations. Discussion and Interpretation Relying on the findings in the previous section, the researcher presents a discussion of the study's findings and offers an interpretation. This interpretation translates the technical findings for those who are less trained in statistical procedures. Conclusion and Recommendation The abstract may be completed without a conclusion or any statement regarding recommendations. The study may have been requested by a superior who simply requires more information to make his or her own managerial decision. This superior may consider a recommendation for action as a usurpation of his or her administrative power. Remember, the abstract is used when the decision to be made is of lesser consequence; the decision can often be

administered by a single authority. For this reason, a recommendation is not usually offered unless specifically requested. COVER LETTERS: A cover letter, covering letter, motivation letter, motivational letter or a letter of motivation is a letter of introduction attached to, or accompanying another document such as a rsum or curriculum vitaes All cover letters should: Explain why you are sending a resume. Don't send a resume without a cover letter. Don't make the reader guess what you are asking for; be specific: Do you want a summer internship opportunity, or a permanent position at graduation; are you inquiring about future employment possibilities? Tell specifically how you learned about the position or the organization a flyer posted in your department, a web site, a family friend who works at the organization. It is appropriate to mention the name of someone who suggested that you write. Convince the reader to look at your resume. The cover letter will be seen first. Therefore, it must be very well written and targeted to that employer. Call attention to elements of your background education, leadership, experience that are relevant to a position you are seeking. Be as specific as possible, using examples. Reflect your attitude, personality, motivation, enthusiasm, and communication skills. Provide or refer to any information specifically requested in a job advertisement that might not be covered in your resume, such as availability date, or reference to an attached writing sample.

Indicate what you will do to follow-up. In a letter of application applying for an advertised opening applicants often say something like "I look forward to hearing from you." However, if you have further contact info (e.g. phone number) and if the employer hasn't said "no phone calls," it's better to take the initiative to follow-up, saying something like, "I will contact you in the next two weeks to see if you require any additional information regarding my qualifications." In a letter of inquiry asking about the possibility of an opening don't assume the employer will contact you. You should say something like, "I will contact you in two weeks to learn more about upcoming employment opportunities with (name of organization)." Then mark your calendar to make the call. Page margins, font style and size For hard copy, left and right page margins of one to 1.5 inches generally look good. You can adjust your margins to balance how your document looks on the page. Use a font style that is simple, clear and commonplace, such as Times New Roman, Arial or Calibri. Font SIZES from 10-12 points are generally in the ballpark of looking appropriate. Keep in mind that different font styles in the same point size are not the same size. A 12-point Arial is larger than a 12-point Times New Roman. If you are having trouble fitting a document on one page, sometimes a slight margin and/or font adjustment can be the solution. Serif or sans serif? Sans (without) serif fonts are those like Arial and Calibri that don't have the small finishing strokes on the ends of each letter. There is a great deal of research and debate on the pros and cons of each. Short story: use what you like, within reason; note what employers use; generally sans serif fonts are used for on-monitor reading and serif fonts are used for lengthly print items (like books); serif fonts may be considered more formal. Test: ask someone to look at a document for five seconds; take away the document; ask the person what font was on

the document; see if s/he even noticed the style. A too-small or too-large font gets noticed, as does a weird style. Should your resume and cover letter font style and size match? It can be a nice touch to look polished. But it's also possible to have polished documents that are not in matching fonts. A significant difference in style and size might be noticed. Remember that you can have your documents reviewed through advising, and that might be a fine-tuning question you ask. Sample cover letter format guidelines:

(Hard copy: sender address and contact info at top. Your address and the date can be leftjustified, or centered.)

Your Street Address City, State Zip Code Telephone Number E-mail Address Month, Day, Year Mr./Ms./Dr. FirstName LastName Title Name of Organization Street or P. O. Box Address City, State Zip Code Dear Mr./Ms./Dr. LastName: Opening paragraph: State why you are writing; how you learned of the organization or position, and basic information about yourself. 2nd paragraph: Tell why you are interested in the employer or type of work the employer does

(Simply stating that you are interested does not tell why, and can sound like a form letter). Demonstrate that you know enough about the employer or position to relate your background to the employer or position. Mention specific qualifications which make you a good fit for the employers needs. (Focus on what you can do for the employer, not what the employer can do for you.) This is an opportunity to explain in more detail relevant items in your resume. Refer to the fact that your resume is enclosed. Mention other enclosures if such are required to apply for a position. 3rd paragraph: Indicate that you would like the opportunity to interview for a position or to talk with the employer to learn more about their opportunities or hiring plans. State what you will do to follow up, such as telephone the employer within two weeks. If you will be in the employers location and could offer to schedule a visit, indicate when. State that you would be glad to provide the employer with any additional information needed. Thank the employer for her/his consideration. Sincerely, (Your handwritten signature [on hard copy]) Your name typed (In case of e-mail, your full contact info appears below your printed name [instead of at the top, as for hard copy], and of course there is no handwritten signature) Enclosure(s) (refers to resume, etc.) (Note: the contents of your letter might best be arranged into four paragraphs. Consider what you need to say and use good writing style. See the following examples for variations in organization and layout.)

Cover letters generally fall into one of two categories: 1. Letter of application: applying for a specific, advertised opening. See:

Sample 3.1: letter of application following personal meeting, hard copy version Sample 3.2: letter of application for advertised position, e-mail version Sample 3.3: letter of application for advertised position, e-mail version Sample 3.4: letter of application for advertised position, hard copy version

2. Letter of inquiry: expressing interest in an organization, but you are not certain if there are current openings. See: Sample 3.5: letter of inquiry about employment possibilities, e-mail version Sample 3.6: letter of inquiry about internship opportunities, hard copy version

Information-seeking letters and follow-up To draft an effective cover letter, you need to indicate that you know something about the employing organization. Sometimes, even with research efforts, you dont have enough information to do this. In such a case it is appropriate to write requesting information. See Sample 4.1: Information seeking letter, hard copy version. After you receive the desired information you can then draft a follow-up letter that: Thanks the sender for the information; Markets why you would be a good job candidate for that organization based on the information; and Explains why you are sending your resume.

....which means it does what all cover letters should do, as explained at the start above! See Sample 5.2: Follow up letter to information seeking meeting.

Sample 3.1 Letter of application, hard copy version

E-2 Apartment Heights Dr. Blacksburg, VA 24060 (540) 555-0101 abcd@vt.edu February 22, 2011 Dr. Michelle Rhodes Principal, Wolftrap Elementary School 1205 Beulah Road Vienna, VA 22182 Dear Dr. Rhodes: I enjoyed our conversation on February 18th at the Family and Child Development seminar on teaching elementary children and appreciated your personal input about balancing the needs of children and the community during difficult economic times. This letter is to follow-up about the Fourth Grade Teacher position as discussed at the seminar. I will complete my M.Ed. in Curriculum and Instruction at Virginia Tech in May 2011, and will be available for employment as soon as needed for the 2011-12 school year. My teacher preparation program at Virginia Tech has included a full academic year of student teaching. Last semester I taught second grade and this semester am teaching fourth grade. These valuable experiences have afforded me the opportunity to:

Develop lesson plans on a wide range of topics and varying levels of academic ability, Work with emotionally and physically challenged students in a total inclusion program, Observe and participate in effective classroom management approaches, Assist with parent-teacher conferences, and Complete in-service sessions on diversity, math and reading skills, and community relations.

My experience includes work in a private day care facility, Rainbow Riders Childcare Center, and in Virginia Techs Child Development Laboratory. Both these facilities are NAEYCaccredited and adhere to the highest standards. At both locations, I led small and large group activities, helped with lunches and snacks, and implemented appropriate activities. Both experiences also provided me with extensive exposure to the implementation of developmentally appropriate activities and materials. I enthusiastically look forward to putting my knowledge and experience into practice in the public school system. Next week I will be in Vienna, and I plan to call you then to answer any questions that you may have. I can be reached before then at (540) 555-7670. Thank you very much for your consideration. Sincerely, (handwritten signature) Donna Harrington Enclosure Sample 3.2 Letter of application, e-mail version

Subject line: (logical to recipient!) Application for sales representative for mid-Atlantic area April 14, 2010 Mr. William Jackson

Employment Manager Acme Pharmaceutical Corporation 13764 Jefferson Parkway Roanoke, VA 24019 jackson@acmepharmaceutical.com Dear Mr. Jackson: From the Acme web site I learned about your need for a sales representative for the Virginia, Maryland, and North Carolina areas. I am very interested in this position with Acme Pharmaceuticals, and believe that my education and employment background are appropriate for the position. You indicate that a requirement for the position is a track record of success in meeting sales goals. I have done this. After completion of my B.S. in biology, and prior to beginning my masters degree in marketing, I worked for two years as a sales representative with a regional whole foods company. My efforts yielded success in new business development, and my sales volume consistently met or exceeded company goals. I would like to repeat that success in the pharmaceutical industry, using my academic background in science and business. I will complete my M.S. in marketing in mid-May and will be available to begin employment in early June. Attached is a copy of my resume, which more fully details my qualifications for the position. I look forward to talking with you regarding sales opportunities with Acme Pharmaceuticals. Within the next week I will contact you to confirm that you received my e-mail and resume and to answer any questions you may have. Thank you very kindly for your consideration. Sincerely, Layne A. Johnson 5542 Hunt Club Lane, #1

Blacksburg, VA 24060 (540) 555-8082 lajohnson@vt.edu Resume attached as MS Word document (assuming company web site instructed applicants to do this) Sample 3.3 Letter of application, e-mail version

Subject line: (logical to recipient!) Application for marketing research position #031210-528 March 14, 2010 Ms. Charlene Prince Director of Personnel Large National Bank Corporation Roanoke, VA 24040 cprince@largebank.com Dear Ms. Prince: As I indicated in our telephone conversation yesterday, I would like to apply for the marketing research position (#031210-528) advertised in the March 12th Roanoke Times and World News. With my undergraduate research background, my training in psychology and sociology, and my work experience, I believe I could make a valuable contribution to Large National Bank Corporation in this position. In May I will complete my B.S. in Psychology with a minor in Sociology at Virginia Tech. As part of the requirements for this degree, I am involved in a senior marketing research project that has given me experience interviewing and surveying research subjects and assisting with the analysis of the data collected. I also have completed a course in statistics and research methods.

My experience also includes working part-time as a bookkeeper in a small independent bookstore with an annual budget of approximately $150,000. Because of the small size of this business, I have been exposed to and participated in most aspects of managing a business, including advertising and marketing. As the bookkeeper, I produced monthly sales reports that allow the owner/buyer to project seasonal inventory needs. I also assisted with the development of ideas for special promotional events and calculated book sales proceeds after each event in order to evaluate its success. I believe my combination of business experience and social science research training is an excellent match for the marketing research position you described. Enclosed is a copy of my resume with additional information about my qualifications. Thank you very much for your consideration. I look forward to receiving your reply. Sincerely, Alex Lawrence 250 Prices Fork Road Blacksburg, VA 24060 (540) 555-1234 alex.lawrence@vt.edu Resume attached as MS Word document Sample 3.4 Letter of application, hard copy version

1000 Terrace View Apts. Blacksburg, VA 24060 (540) 555-4523 stevemason@vt.edu March 25, 2010

Ms. Janice Wilson Personnel Director Anderson Construction Company 3507 Rockville Pike Rockville, MD 20895 Dear Ms. Wilson: I read in the March 24th Washington Post classified section of your need for a Civil Engineer or Building Construction graduate for one of your Washington, DC, area sites. I will be returning to the Washington area after graduation in May and believe that I have the necessary credentials for the project. Every summer for the last five years I have worked at various levels in the construction industry. As indicated on my enclosed resume, I have worked as a general laborer, and moved up to skilled carpentry work, and last summer served as assistant construction manager on a two million dollar residential construction project. In addition to this practical experience, I will complete requirements for my B.S. in Building Construction in May. As you may know, Virginia Tech is one of the few universities in the country that offers such a specialized degree for the construction industry. I am confident that my degree, along with my years of construction industry experience, make me an excellent candidate for your job. The Anderson Construction Company projects are familiar to me, and my aspiration is to work for a company that has your excellent reputation. I would welcome the opportunity to interview with you. I will be in the Washington area during the week of April 12th and would be available to speak with you at that time. In the next week to ten days I will contact you to answer any questions you may have. Thank you for your consideration.

Sincerely, (handwritten signature) Jesse Mason Enclosure

Sample 3.5 Letter of inquiry about employment possibilities, e-mail version

Subject: (logical to recipient!) Inquiry about software engineering position after completion of M.S. in computer engineering December 12, 2009 Mr. Robert Burns President, Template Division MEGATEK Corporation 9845 Technical Way Arlington, VA 22207 burns@megatek.com Dear Mr. Burns: Via online research in Hokies4Hire through Career Services at Virginia Tech, I learned of MEGATEK. Next May I will complete my master of science in computer engineering. From my research on your web site, I believe there would be a good fit between my skills and interests and your needs. I am interested in a software engineering position upon completion of my degree. As a graduate student, I am one of six members on a software development team in which we are writing a computer-aided aircraft design program for NASA. My responsibilities include designing, coding, and testing of a graphical portion of the program which requires the use of

ZX-WWG for graphics input and output. I have a strong background in CAD, software development, and engineering, and believe that these skills would benefit the designing and manufacturing aspects of template software. Enclosed is my resume with further background information. My qualifications equip me to make a contribution to the project areas in which your division of MEGATEK is expanding efforts. I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss a position with you, and will contact you in a week or ten days to answer any questions you may have and to see if you need any other information from me. Thank you for your consideration. Sincerely, Morgan Stevens 123 Ascot Lane Blacksburg, VA 24060 (540) 555-2556 mstevens@vt.edu Resume attached as MS Word document

Sample 3.6 Letter of inquiry about internship opportunities, hard copy version

2343 Blankinship Road Blacksburg, VA 24060 (540) 555-2233 StacyLeeGimble@vt.edu January 12, 2010 Ms. Sylvia Range Special Programs Assistant

Marion County Family Court Wilderness Challenge 303 Center Street Marion, VA 24560 Subj: Wilderness Challenge internship position Dear Ms. Range: This semester I am a junior at Virginia Tech, working toward my bachelor's degree in family and child development. I am seeking an internship for this summer 2010, and while researching opportunities in the field of criminal justice and law, I found that your program works with juvenile delinquents. I am writing to inquire about possible internship opportunities with the Marion County Family Court Wilderness Challenge. My work background and coursework have supplied me with many skills and an understanding of dealing with the adolescent community; for example:

10 hours per week as a volunteer hotline assistant for a local intervention center. After a 50-hour training program, I counseled teenagers about personal concerns and referred them, when necessary, to appropriate professional services for additional help.

Residence hall assistant in my residence hall, which requires me to establish rapport with fifty residents and advise them on personal matters, as well as university policies. In addition, I develop social and educational programs and activities each semester for up to 200 participants.

My enclosed resume provides additional details about my background. I will be in the Marion area during my spring break, March 6-10. I will call you next week to see if it would be possible to meet with you in early March to discuss your program. Thank you for your consideration.

Sincerely, (handwritten signature) Stacy Lee Gimble Encl. Sample 4.1 Information seeking letter, hard copy version

23 Roanoke Street Blacksburg, VA 24060 (540) 555-1123 K.Walker@vt.edu October 23, 2010 Mr. James G. Webb Delon Hampton & Associates 800 K Street, N.W., Suite 720 Washington, DC 20001-8000 Dear Mr. Webb: Next May I will complete my bachelors degree in Architecture at Virginia Tech, and am researching employment opportunities in the Washington area. I obtained your name from Professor (lastname) who teaches my professional seminar class this semester. S/he indicated that you had volunteered to provide highly motivated graduating students with career advice, and I hope that your schedule will permit you to allow me to ask for some of your time and advice. I am particularly interested in historic preservation and have done research on the DHA website to learn that your firm does work in this area. I am also interested in learning how the architects in your firm began their careers. My resume is enclosed simply to give you some information about my background and project work.

Within two weeks I will call you to arrange a time to speak to you by telephone or perhaps visit your office if that would be convenient. I will be in the Washington area during the week of November 22. I very much appreciate your time and consideration of my request, and I look forward to talking with you. Sincerely, (handwritten signature) Kristen Walker Encl.

Sample 5.2 Follow-up letter to information seeking meeting, e-mail version

Subject: (logical to recipient!) Thank you for meeting Tuesday, Nov. 23 November 26, 2010 Mr. James G. Webb Delon Hampton & Associates 800 K Street, N.W., Suite 720 Washington, DC 20001-8000 webb@delon.com Dear Mr. Webb: Thank you so much for taking time from your busy schedule to meet with me on Tuesday. It was very helpful to me to learn so much about the current projects of Delon Hampton & Associates and the career paths of several of your staff. I appreciate your reviewing my portfolio and encouraging my career plans. I also enjoyed meeting Beth Ormond, and am glad to have her

suggestions on how I can make the most productive use of my last semester prior to graduation. Based on what I learned from my visit to your firm and other research I have done, I am very interested in being considered for employment with DHA in the future. I will be available to begin work after I graduate in May 2011. As you saw from my portfolio, I have developed strong skills in the area of historical documentation and this is a good match for the types of projects in which your firm specializes. I have enclosed a copy of my resume to serve as a reminder of my background, some of which I discussed with you when we met. During the next few months I will stay in contact with you in hopes that there may be an opportunity to join your firm. Thank you again for your generous help, and I hope you are enjoying a pleasant holiday. Sincerely, Kristin Walker 23 Roanoke Street Blacksburg, VA 24060 (540) 555-1123 kwalker@vt.edu (E-mail version of course has no handwritten signature, and your signature block appears below your name at the close.)

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Deutsch, K. On Communication Models in the Social Sciences, Public Opinion

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Communication Review, 4:171-199, 1956. 5. Kaplan, A. The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral Science. San

Francisco: Chandler, 1964. 6. Lackman, R. The Model in Theory Construction, Psychological Review, 67:113-129,

1960. 7. Sereno, K. K., and Mortensen, C. D. Foundations of Communication Theory. New

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