Oprating System Solved Questions and Answers

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Operating System Question with answers

1. What is Operating System? Explain characteristics of OS?

--> An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a

computer user and computer hardware. An operating system is
a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management,
handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.

An operating system is software that enables applications to

interact with a computer's hardware. The software that
contains the core components of the operating system is called
the kernel.

The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable

applications (spftwares) to interact with a computer's hardware
and to manage a system's hardware and software resources.
Explain characteristics of OS?

--> Below are mentioned some of the most crucial and notable
characteristics of the operating system:
Work Management
One of the important characteristics of the operating system is
task management. It is also considered an important OS
function as it controls all the activities related to handling tasks
systematically. In summary, the OS determines the order in
which the activities are carried out, with a queue indicating the
jobs that await execution. Work management is the key to
controlling all tasks and their required resources without any
conflicts. It helps streamline processes to better schedule tasks
and effectively manage resources without compromising
performance.
Resource Management:
The hardware and software of a computer are closely
interconnected. Each of the two does not work without the
other. As a result, the operating system balances these two
resources. OS examines all tasks systematically and verifies if all
computer components are operational. All executing tasks
require resources for their execution. Ensuring they are allotted
the required resources is also an important characteristic of the
operating system.

Input and Output Control:

The three main jobs of a computer are Input, Output, and
Processing. The operating system also controls a computer's
input and output activities. It creates a dictionary of input and
output tasks that can run anytime the user issues a command.
The terms input and output describe where the task begins and
concludes. The operating system has a set of programs that
allow it to handle interrupts and process the input and output
instructions provided by the user.

Multitasking System:
Multitasking is now a standard feature of current operating
systems. They are capable of performing numerous jobs at
once. For example, if a user is working in Excel and wants to
print a page, he does not need to interrupt his work. With just
one command, the page will be printed, and the user can access
the drives without having to close the tab. As a result,
multitasking is one of the best characteristics of operating
systems.
Associated mechanism:
The following critical mechanisms also highlight some
characteristics of Operating systems:
It has a system to validate each user, which can include
password protection or other features.
It also protects against dangerous components by blocking
them before they reach the device. Many malware and
malicious software are currently affecting computer gadgets. As
a result, having this mechanism in the operating system is
critical.
Most operating systems also have a method for limiting the
number of resources available to each user. As a result, if the
boss has to give his employee access to his computer, he can
restrict access to specific files.

2. Explain in detail Memory Management Technique?

-->
3. What are the differences between?
a) Logical and physical address?

Parameter LOGICAL ADDRESS PHYSICAL ADDRESS

Basic generated by CPU location in a memory unit

Parameter LOGICAL ADDRESS PHYSICAL ADDRESS

Logical Address Space is set of Physical Address is set of all

all logical addresses generated physical addresses mapped to
Address by CPU in reference to a the corresponding logical
Space program. addresses.

User can view the logical User can never view physical
Visibility address of a program. address of program.

Generation generated by the CPU Computed by MMU

The user can use the logical

address to access the physical The user can indirectly access
Access address. physical address but not directly.

Logical address can be Physical address will not

Editable change. change.

Also called virtual address. real address.

b) Page table and segment table?

S.NO Paging Segmentation

In paging, the program is divided In segmentation, the program is

1. into fixed or mounted size pages. divided into variable size sections.

For the paging operating system For segmentation compiler is

2. is accountable. accountable.

Page size is determined by Here, the section size is given by the

3. hardware. user.

4. It is faster in comparison to Segmentation is slow.

S.NO Paging Segmentation

segmentation.

Paging could result in internal Segmentation could result in external

5. fragmentation. fragmentation.

In paging, the logical address is

split into a page number and Here, the logical address is split into
6. page offset. section number and section offset.

Paging comprises a page table While segmentation also comprises

that encloses the base address the segment table which encloses
7. of every page. segment number and segment offset.

The page table is employed to Section Table maintains the section

8. keep up the page data. data.

In segmentation, the operating system

In paging, the operating system maintains a list of holes in the main
9. must maintain a free frame list. memory.

10. Paging is invisible to the user. Segmentation is visible to the user.

In paging, the processor needs In segmentation, the processor uses

the page number, and offset to segment number, and offset to
11. calculate the absolute address. calculate the full address.

It is hard to allow sharing of Facilitates sharing of procedures

12. procedures between processes. between the processes.

In paging, a programmer cannot It can efficiently handle data

13 efficiently handle data structure. structures.

Easy to apply for protection in

14. This protection is hard to apply. segmentation.

15. The size of the page needs There is no constraint on the size of
S.NO Paging Segmentation

always be equal to the size of segments.

frames.

A page is referred to as a A segment is referred to as a logical

16. physical unit of information. unit of information.

Paging results in a less efficient Segmentation results in a more

17. system. efficient system.

c) First-fit placement and best-fit placement?

d) Contiguous and non – contiguous storage allocation

Contiguous Memory Non-Contiguous Memory

S.NO. Allocation Allocation

Contiguous memory allocation Non-Contiguous memory allocation

allocates consecutive blocks of allocates separate blocks of
1. memory to a file/process. memory to a file/process.

2. Faster in Execution. Slower in Execution.

3. It is easier for the OS to control. It is difficult for the OS to control.

Overhead is minimum as not much

address translations are there while More Overheads are there as there
4. executing a process. are more address translations.

5. Both Internal fragmentation and Only External fragmentation occurs

 Contiguous Memory Non-Contiguous Memory
S.NO. Allocation Allocation

external fragmentation occurs in in Non-Contiguous memory

Contiguous memory allocation allocation method.
method.

It includes single partition allocation It includes paging and

6. and multi-partition allocation. segmentation.

7. Wastage of memory is there. No memory wastage is there.

In contiguous memory allocation, In non-contiguous memory

swapped-in processes are allocation, swapped-in processes
arranged in the originally allocated can be arranged in any place in the
8. space. memory.

It is of five types:
1. Paging
2. Multilevel Paging
It is of two types:
3. Inverted Paging
1. Fixed(or static) partitioning 4. Segmentation
9. 2. Dynamic partitioning 5. Segmented Paging

It could be visualized and It could be implemented using

10. implemented using Arrays. Linked Lists.

Degree of multiprogramming is Degree of multiprogramming is not

11. fixed as fixed partitions fixed

f) Segmentation and paging storage?

4. Define the virtual memory? What are its advantages?

--> Virtual Memory is a storage scheme that provides user an illusion of having a very
big main memory. This is done by treating a part of secondary memory as the main
memory.

In this scheme, User can load the bigger size processes than the available main memory
by having the illusion that the memory is available to load the process.

Instead of loading one big process in the main memory, the Operating System loads the
different parts of more than one process in the main memory.

By doing this, the degree of multiprogramming will be increased and therefore, the CPU
utilization will also be increased.

Play Video

How Virtual Memory Works?

In modern word, virtual memory has become quite common these days. In this scheme,
whenever some pages needs to be loaded in the main memory for the execution and
the memory is not available for those many pages, then in that case, instead of stopping
the pages from entering in the main memory, the OS search for the RAM area that are
least used in the recent times or that are not referenced and copy that into the
secondary memory to make the space for the new pages in the main memory.

Since all this procedure happens automatically, therefore it makes the computer feel like
it is having the unlimited RAM.

What are its advantages?

--> Advantages of Virtual Memory
1. The degree of Multiprogramming will be increased.
2. User can run large application with less real RAM.
3. There is no need to buy more memory RAMs.

Disadvantages of Virtual Memory

1. The system becomes slower since swapping takes time.
2. It takes more time in switching between applications.
3. The user will have the lesser hard disk space for its use.
 4. What is the demand paging?

--> Demand Paging is a popular method of virtual memory management. In demand

paging, the pages of a process which are least used, get stored in the secondary
memory.

A page is copied to the main memory when its demand is made or page fault occurs.
There are various page replacement algorithms which are used to determine the pages
which will be replaced. We will discuss each one of them later in detail.

5. When will the page faults occur? What is the procedure

for handling the page fault?

--> What is Page Fault in Operating System?

Page faults dominate more like an error. A page fault will happen if a program tries to
access a piece of memory that does not exist in physical memory (main memory). The
fault specifies the operating system to trace all data into virtual memory management
and then relocate it from secondary memory to its primary memory, such as a hard disk.
A page fault trap occurs if the requested page is not loaded into memory. The page
fault primarily causes an exception, which is used to notify the operating system to
retrieve the "pages" from virtual memory to continue operation. Once all of the data
has been placed into physical memory, the program resumes normal operation. The
Page fault process occurs in the background, and thus the user is unaware of it.

1. The computer's hardware track to the kernel and the program counter is often saved on
the stack. The CPU registers hold information about the current state of instruction.
2. An assembly program is started, which saves the general registers and other volatile data
to prevent the Operating system from destroying it.

Page Fault Handling

A Page Fault happens when you access a page that has been marked as invalid. The
paging hardware would notice that the invalid bit is set while translating the address
across the page table, which will cause an operating system trap. The trap is caused
primarily by the OS's failure to load the needed page into memory.

Play Video

Now, let's understand the procedure of page fault handling in the OS:

1. Firstly, an internal table for this process to assess whether the reference was valid or
invalid memory access.
2. If the reference becomes invalid, the system process would be terminated. Otherwise, the
page will be paged in.
3. After that, the free-frame list finds the free frame in the system.
4. Now, the disk operation would be scheduled to get the required page from the disk.
5. When the I/O operation is completed, the process's page table will be updated with a
new frame number, and the invalid bit will be changed. Now, it is a valid page reference.
6. If any page fault is found, restart these steps from starting.

7. What are the principles of the following replacement

algorithms?

a) FIFO. b) LRU.
--> Page Replacement Algorithms:

1. First In First Out (FIFO): This is the simplest page replacement algorithm. In this
algorithm, the operating system keeps track of all pages in the memory in a queue, the
oldest page is in the front of the queue. When a page needs to be replaced page in the
front of the queue is selected for removal.
Example 1: Consider page reference string 1, 3, 0, 3, 5, 6, 3 with 3 page frames.Find the
number of page faults.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 1, 3, 0 came they are allocated to the empty slots —
> 3 Page Faults.
when 3 comes, it is already in memory so —> 0 Page Faults. Then 5 comes, it is not
available in memory so it replaces the oldest page slot i.e 1. —>1 Page Fault. 6 comes, it
is also not available in memory so it replaces the oldest page slot i.e 3 —>1 Page
Fault. Finally, when 3 come it is not available so it replaces 0 1 page fault.
Belady’s anomaly proves that it is possible to have more page faults when increasing the
number of page frames while using the First in First Out (FIFO) page replacement
algorithm. For example, if we consider reference strings 3, 2, 1, 0, 3, 2, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 4,
and 3 slots, we get 9 total page faults, but if we increase slots to 4, we get 10-page faults.

2. Optimal Page replacement: In this algorithm, pages are replaced which would not be
used for the longest duration of time in the future.
Example-2: Consider the page references 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3 with 4 page
frame. Find number of page fault.

Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots —> 4 Page
faults
0 is already there so —> 0 Page fault. when 3 came it will take the place of 7 because it is
not used for the longest duration of time in the future.—>1 Page fault. 0 is already there
so —> 0 Page fault. 4 will takes place of 1 —> 1 Page Fault.
Now for the further page reference string —> 0 Page fault because they are already
available in the memory.
Optimal page replacement is perfect, but not possible in practice as the operating system
cannot know future requests. The use of Optimal Page replacement is to set up a
benchmark so that other replacement algorithms can be analyzed against it.

3. Least Recently Used: In this algorithm, page will be replaced which is least recently
used.
Example-3: Consider the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3 with 4
page frames. Find number of page faults.
Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the empty slots —> 4 Page
faults
0 is already their so —> 0 Page fault. when 3 came it will take the place of 7 because it is
least recently used —>1 Page fault
0 is already in memory so —> 0 Page fault.
4 will takes place of 1 —> 1 Page Fault
Now for the further page reference string —> 0 Page fault because they are already
available in the memory.
1. Most Recently Used (MRU): In this algorithm, page will be replaced which has
been used recently. Belady’s anomaly can occur in this algorithm.

8.Consider the following page reference using three frames that are initially
empty. Find the page faults using FIFO algorithm, where the page reference
sequence: 7,0,1, 2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1?
9. Consider the following page reference using three frames that are initially
empty. Find the page faults using LRU algorithm, where the page reference
sequence: 7,0,1, 2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1?
10. Define (1) Cooperating process:

There are various processes in a computer system, which can be either independent or
cooperating processes that operate in the operating system. It is considered
independent when any other processes operating on the system may not impact a
process. Process-independent processes don't share any data with other processes. On
the other way, a collaborating process may be affected by any other process executing
on the system. A cooperating process shares data with another.

(2) Independent process:The process that does not affect or is affected by the
other process while its execution then the process is called Independent Process.
Example The process that does not share any shared variable, database, files,
etc.

(3) Race condition: When more than one process is executing the same code
or accessing the same memory or any shared variable in that condition there
is a possibility that the output or the value of the shared variable is wrong so
for that all the processes doing the race to say that my output is correct this
condition known as a race condition. Several processes access and process
the manipulations over the same data concurrently, then the outcome
depends on the particular order in which the access takes place. A race
condition is a situation that may occur inside a critical section. This happens
when the result of multiple thread execution in the critical section differs
according to the order in which the threads execute. Race conditions in
critical sections can be avoided if the critical section is treated as an atomic
instruction. Also, proper thread synchronization using locks or atomic
variables can prevent race conditions
 (4) Critical section: A critical section is a code segment that can be accessed by
only one process at a time. The critical section contains shared variables that
need to be synchronized to maintain the consistency of data variables. So the
critical section problem means designing a way for cooperative processes to
access shared resources without creating data inconsistencies.

In the entry section, the process requests for entry in the Critical Section.
Any solution to the critical section problem must satisfy three requirements:

(5) Semaphore: A semaphore is a signaling mechanism and a thread that is

waiting on a semaphore can be signaled by another thread. This is different
than a mutex as the mutex can be signaled only by the thread that is called the
wait function.
A semaphore uses two atomic operations, wait and signal for process
synchronization.
A Semaphore is an integer variable, which can be accessed only through two
operations wait() and signal().
There are two types of semaphores: Binary Semaphores and Counting
Semaphores.

11. What are the requirements of solution the critical-section problem?

--> In the entry section, the process requests for entry in the Critical Section.
Any solution to the critical section problem must satisfy three requirements:
• Mutual Exclusion: If a process is executing in its critical section, then no
other process is allowed to execute in the critical section.
• Progress: If no process is executing in the critical section and other
processes are waiting outside the critical section, then only those processes
that are not executing in their remainder section can participate in deciding
which will enter in the critical section next, and the selection can not be
postponed indefinitely.
• Bounded Waiting: A bound must exist on the number of times that other
processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has
made a request to enter its critical section and before that request is
granted.

12. Explain logical and physical conversion?

--> Logical Address is generated by CPU while a program is running. The
logical address is virtual address as it does not exist physically, therefore, it is
also known as Virtual Address. This address is used as a reference to access
the physical memory location by CPU. The term Logical Address Space is used
for the set of all logical addresses generated by a program’s perspective.
The hardware device called Memory-Management Unit is used for mapping
logical address to its corresponding physical address.

Physical Address identifies a physical location of required data in a memory.

The user never directly deals with the physical address but can access by its
corresponding logical address. The user program generates the logical address
and thinks that the program is running in this logical address but the program
needs physical memory for its execution, therefore, the logical address must be
mapped to the physical address by MMU before they are used. The term
Physical Address Space is used for all physical addresses corresponding to the
logical addresses in a Logical address space.

13. Write a short note of Synchronization?

--> Process Synchronization is the coordination of execution of multiple
processes in a multi-process system to ensure that they access shared
resources in a controlled and predictable manner. It aims to resolve the problem
of race conditions and other synchronization issues in a concurrent system.
The main objective of process synchronization is to ensure that multiple
processes access shared resources without interfering with each other, and to
prevent the possibility of inconsistent data due to concurrent access. To
achieve this, various synchronization techniques such as semaphores,
monitors, and critical sections are used.
In a multi-process system, synchronization is necessary to ensure data
consistency and integrity, and to avoid the risk of deadlocks and other
synchronization problems. Process synchronization is an important aspect of
modern operating systems, and it plays a crucial role in ensuring the correct
and efficient functioning of multi-process systems.

14. Explain CPU Scheduling Algorithm?

--> CPU Scheduling is a process of determining which process will own CPU
for execution while another process is on hold. The main task of CPU
scheduling is to make sure that whenever the CPU remains idle, the OS at
least select one of the processes available in the ready queue for execution.
The selection process will be carried out by the CPU scheduler. It selects one
of the processes in memory that are ready for execution.

Types of CPU Scheduling

Here are two kinds of Scheduling methods:

Preemptive Scheduling
In Preemptive Scheduling, the tasks are mostly assigned with their priorities.
Sometimes it is important to run a task with a higher priority before another
lower priority task, even if the lower priority task is still running. The lower
priority task holds for some time and resumes when the higher priority task
finishes its execution.
Non-Preemptive Scheduling
In this type of scheduling method, the CPU has been allocated to a specific
process. The process that keeps the CPU busy will release the CPU either by
switching context or terminating. It is the only method that can be used for
various hardware platforms. That’s because it doesn’t need special hardware
(for example, a timer) like preemptive scheduling.

When scheduling is Preemptive or Non-Preemptive?

To determine if scheduling is preemptive or non-preemptive, consider these
four parameters:

1. A process switches from the running to the waiting state.

2. Specific process switches from the running state to the ready state.
3. Specific process switches from the waiting state to the ready state.
4. Process finished its execution and terminated.

Only conditions 1 and 4 apply, the scheduling is called non- preemptive.

All other scheduling are preemptive.

Important CPU scheduling Terminologies

• Burst Time/Execution Time: It is a time required by the process to
complete execution. It is also called running time.
• Arrival Time: when a process enters in a ready state
• Finish Time: when process complete and exit from a system
• Multiprogramming: A number of programs which can be present in
memory at the same time.
• Jobs: It is a type of program without any kind of user interaction.

15. What is deadlock? Explain how deadlock can be avoided?

--> Deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are blocked because each
process is holding a resource and waiting for another resource acquired by
some other process.
Consider an example when two trains are coming toward each other on the
same track and there is only one track, none of the trains can move once they
are in front of each other. A similar situation occurs in operating systems when
there are two or more processes that hold some resources and wait for
resources held by other(s). For example, in the below diagram, Process 1 is
holding Resource 1 and waiting for resource 2 which is acquired by process 2,
and process 2 is waiting for resource 1.

Deadlock Prevention
We can prevent Deadlock by eliminating any of the above four conditions.

Eliminate Mutual Exclusion

It is not possible to dis-satisfy the mutual exclusion because some resources,
such as the tape drive and printer, are inherently non-shareable.
Eliminate Hold and wait
1. Allocate all required resources to the process before the start of its
execution, this way hold and wait condition is eliminated but it will lead to low
device utilization. for example, if a process requires printer at a later time
and we have allocated printer before the start of its execution printer will
remain blocked till it has completed its execution.

2. The process will make a new request for resources after releasing the
current set of resources. This solution may lead to starvation.
Eliminate No Preemption
Preempt resources from the process when resources required by other high
priority processes.

Eliminate Circular Wait

Each resource will be assigned with a numerical number. A process can
request the resources increasing/decreasing. order of numbering.
For Example, if P1 process is allocated R5 resources, now next time if P1 ask
for R4, R3 lesser than R5 such request will not be granted, only request for
resources more than R5 will be granted.

Deadlock Avoidance
Deadlock avoidance can be done with Banker’s Algorithm.
Banker’s Algorithm
Bankers’s Algorithm is resource allocation and deadlock avoidance algorithm
which test all the request made by processes for resources, it checks for the
safe state, if after granting request system remains in the safe state it allows the
request and if there is no safe state it doesn’t allow the request made by the
process.
Inputs to Banker’s Algorithm:

1. Max need of resources by each process.

2. Currently, allocated resources by each process.
3. Max free available resources in the system.
The request will only be granted under the below condition:
1. If the request made by the process is less than equal to max need to that
process.
2. If the request made by the process is less than equal to the freely available
resource in the system.
Example:
Total resources in system:
A B C D
6 5 7 6

Available system resources are:

A B C D
3 1 1 2

Processes (currently allocated resources):

A B C D
P1 1 2 2 1
P2 1 0 3 3
P3 1 2 1 0

Processes (maximum resources):

A B C D
P1 3 3 2 2
P2 1 2 3 4
P3 1 3 5 0

Need = maximum resources - currently allocated resources.

Processes (need resources):
A B C D
P1 2 1 0 1
P2 0 2 0 1
P3 0 1 4 0
Note: Deadlock prevention is more strict than Deadlock Avoidance.

16. Describe types of Multiprocessor?

--> n operating systems, to improve the performance of more than one CPU can be
used within one computer system called Multiprocessor operating system.
Multiple CPUs are interconnected so that a job can be divided among them for faster
execution. When a job finishes, results from all CPUs are collected and compiled to give
the final output. Jobs needed to share main memory and they may also share other
system resources among themselves. Multiple CPUs can also be used to run multiple
jobs simultaneously.

For Example: UNIX Operating system is one of the most widely used multiprocessing
systems.

Types of multiprocessing systems

o Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system
o Asymmetric multiprocessing operating system

Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system:

In a Symmetrical multiprocessing system, each processor executes the same copy of the
operating system, takes its own decisions, and cooperates with other processes to
smooth the entire functioning of the system. The CPU scheduling policies are very
simple. Any new job submitted by a user can be assigned to any processor that is least
burdened. It also results in a system in which all processors are equally burdened at any
time.

The symmetric multiprocessing operating system is also known as a "shared every-

thing" system, because the processors share memory and the Input output bus or data
path. In this system processors do not usually exceed more than 16.

Characteristics of Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system:

o In this system, any processor can run any job or process.

o In this, any processor initiates an Input and Output operation.

Advantages of Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system:

o These systems are fault-tolerant. Failure of a few processors does not bring the entire
system to a halt.
Disadvantages of Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system:

o It is very difficult to balance the workload among processors rationally.

o Specialized synchronization schemes are necessary for managing multiple processors.

Asymmetric multiprocessing operating system

In an asymmetric multiprocessing system, there is a master slave relationship between
the processors.

Further, one processor may act as a master processor or supervisor processor while
others are treated as shown below.

In the above figure, the asymmetric processing system shows that CPU n1 acts as a
supervisor whose function controls other following processors.

In this type of system, each processor is assigned a specific task, and there is a
designated master processor that controls the activities of other processors.

For example, we have a math co-processor that can handle mathematical jobs better
than the main CPU. Similarly, we have an MMX processor that is built to handle
multimedia-related jobs. Similarly, we have a graphics processor to handle the graphics-
related job better than the main processor. When a user submits a new job, the OS has
to decide which processor can perform it better, and then that processor is assigned
that newly arrived job. This processor acts as the master and controls the system. All
other processors look for masters for instructions or have predefined tasks. It is the
responsibility of the master to allocate work to other processors.

Advantages of Asymmetric multiprocessing operating system:

o In this type of system execution of Input and Output operation or an application

program may be faster in some situations because many processors may be available for
a single job.

Disadvantages of Asymmetric multiprocessing operating system:

 o In this type of multiprocessing operating system the processors are unequally burdened.
One processor may be having a long job queue, while another one may be sitting idle.
o In this system, if the process handling a specific work fails, the entire system will go
down.

17. Explain Mapping techniques of Cache Memory?

--> Cache Memory:
The clock speed of the CPU is much faster than the main memory, So, the CPU
requires fast memory. Such a fast and small memory is referred to as a ‘cache memory‘.
The Cache Memory is the intermediate Memory between the CPU and the main
memory.

Mapping:
The basic characteristics of cache memory are its fast access time. So, it is very little or
no time must be wasted when searching for words in the cache. The transformation of
data from main memory to cache memory is referred to as a ‘Mapping‘ process. There
are 3 types of mapping procedures are there for cache memory:
1. Associative Mapping
2. Direct Mapping
3. Set-Associative Mapping

Associative Mapping:
The associative memory stores both the address and the content (data) of the memory
word. This permits any location in the cache to store any word from the main memory.

Direct Mapping:
In this mapping procedure, the CPU address of 15 bits is divided into two fields. One is
the index field of 9 bits and the second is a tag equal to 6 bits. The number of bits in the
index field is equal to the number of address bits required to access the cache memory.

Set-Associative Mapping:
The third type of cache organization is called set-associative mapping. In this mapping,
each word of the cache can store two or more words of memory under the same index
address. Each data word is stored together with its tag and the number of tag data
items in one word of cache is said to form a set.

Cache Design:
The design of the cache depends on 5 factors. These are:
i. Cache Size: The small caches can have a significant impact on performance. If the
size increases the performance will decrease.
ii. Block Size: The block size is the unit of data exchanged between the cache and main
memory. As the block size increases, ‘more unuseful data is brought into the cache.
The hit ratio will begin to decrease.
iii. Mapping Function: The transformation of data from main memory to cache memory
is referred to as a mapping process. The mapping function determines which location the
block will occupy.
iv. Replacement Algorithm: This factor determines which block is replace. If the cache is
full. We would like to replace a block that is least likely to be needed again shortly.
v. Write Policy: The write policy dictates when the memory write operation takes place.

18. What is Mobile Operating System? Explain types of Mobile Operating

System?
--> A mobile operating system (OS) is software that allows smartphones, tablet PCs
(personal computers) and other devices to run applications and programs. A mobile OS
typically starts up when a device powers on, presenting a screen with icons or tiles that present
information and provide application access.

Types of Popular Mobile Operating System

1. Android OS
The Android OS is the most common operating system among the
mobile operating system. Furthermore, Google is the developer of
Android. Moreover, it is an open source and free operating system. This
OS is based on the Linux kernel. The name for every new version of
update is based on ‘desserts’ for example Cupcake, Donut, Eclair, Oreo,
Kitkat, etc.

2. Bada
Samsung is the launcher of this operating system. It came into market
in 2010. Moreover, it includes features like 3-D graphics, application
installation, multipoint touch etc.

3. Blackberry OS
The developer of this operating system is Reasearch In Motion (RIM).
It was specifically designed for blackberry devices. Furthermore, it is
useful for corporate users.

4. Apple iOS
After android, it is one of the most popular OS. It is designed to run on
Apple devices such as iPhones, iPad tablets, etc. Moreover, like the
android devices have the playstore for apps download. Likewise, apple
iOS contains the app store. Also, it has very strong security features.

5. Windows Mobile Operating System

The developer of this OS is Microsoft. It is basically designed for
pocket PCs and smartphones. Moreover, it has the features of computer
based Windows OS and additional features for mobile phones.
6. Symbian OS
Symbian Ltd. is the developer of this OS. Moreover, Nokia was the
first to use this OS on its mobile phones. Furthermore, it provides high
level integration with communication. This OS is based on java
language.

7. Harmony OS
It is a latest OS moreover, Huawei is its developer. It is specifically
designed for use in IoT devices.

8. Palm OS
Its other name is Garnet OS. Furthermore, Palm Ltd. is its developer
which developed this OS for use in Personal Digital Assisstants
(PADs).

9. WebOS
Palm Ltd is its developer. Moreover, it is based on Linux kernel
and HP uses it in its mobile devices and touchpads.

19. Explain RTOS and Types of RTOS?

--> What do you mean by Real-Time Operating System?

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a special-purpose operating system used in

computers that has strict time constraints for any job to be performed. It is employed
mostly in those systems in which the results of the computations are used to influence a
process while it is executing. Whenever an event external to the computer occurs, it is
communicated to the computer with the help of some sensor used to monitor the
event. The sensor produces the signal that is interpreted by the operating system as an
interrupt. On receiving an interrupt, the operating system invokes a specific process or a
set of processes to serve the interrupt.
This process is completely uninterrupted unless a higher priority interrupt occurs during
its execution. Therefore, there must be a strict hierarchy of priority among the interrupts.
The interrupt with the highest priority must be allowed to initiate the process , while
lower priority interrupts should be kept in a buffer that will be handled later. Interrupt
management is important in such an operating system.
Hard Real-Time operating system:

In Hard RTOS, all critical tasks must be completed within the specified time duration, i.e.,
within the given deadline. Not meeting the deadline would result in critical failures such
as damage to equipment or even loss of human life.

For Example,

Let's take an example of airbags provided by carmakers along with a handle in the
driver's seat. When the driver applies brakes at a particular instance, the airbags grow
and prevent the driver's head from hitting the handle. Had there been some delay even
of milliseconds, then it would have resulted in an accident.

Similarly, consider an on-stock trading software. If someone wants to sell a particular

share, the system must ensure that command is performed within a given critical time.
Otherwise, if the market falls abruptly, it may cause a huge loss to the trader.

Soft Real-Time operating system:

Soft RTOS accepts a few delays via the means of the Operating system. In this kind of
RTOS, there may be a closing date assigned for a particular job, but a delay for a small
amount of time is acceptable. So, cut off dates are treated softly via means of this kind
of RTOS.

For Example,

This type of system is used in Online Transaction systems and Livestock price quotation
Systems.

Firm Real-Time operating system:

In Firm RTOS additionally want to observe the deadlines. However, lacking a closing
date might not have a massive effect, however may want to purposely undesired effects,
like a massive discount within the fine of a product.

For Example, this system is used in various forms of Multimedia applications.

20. Explain application of RTOS in details?

Applications of Real Time Operating System Real-time systems are used in:

Airlines reservation system.

Air traffic control system.

Systems that provide immediate updating.

Used in any system that provides up to date and minute information on stock
prices.

Defense application systems like RADAR.

Networked Multimedia Systems.

Command Control Systems.

Internet Telephony.

Anti-lock Brake Systems.

Heart Pacemaker.

21. Explain components of RTOS?

Components of RTOS The Scheduler: This component of RTOS tells that in which order, the
tasks can be executed which is generally based on the priority. Symmetric Multiprocessing
(SMP): It is a number of multiple different tasks that can be handled by the RTOS so that
parallel processing can be done. Function Library: It is an important element of RTOS that acts
as an interface that helps you to connect kernel and application code. This application allows
you to send the requests to the Kernel using a function library so that the application can give
the desired results

22.What is a Shell Scripting?

Shell script is a list of commands in a computer program that is run by the Unix shell which is a
command line interpreter. A shell script usually has comments that describe the steps. The different
operations performed by shell scripts are program execution, file manipulation and text printing. A
wrapper is also a kind of shell script that creates the program environment, runs the program etc.

Types of Shells

There are two major types of shells in Unix.

Bourne Shell :This is the default shell for version 7 Unix. The character $ is the default prompt for the
bourne shell. The different subcategories in this shell are Korn shell, Bourne Again shell, POSIX shell etc.
C Shell :This is a Unix shell and a command processor that is run in a text window. The character % is the
default prompt for the C shell. File commands can also be read easily by the C shell, which is known as a
script.

Capabilities of Shell Script:

The different capabilities of the shell script are –

Batch jobs :

Several commands that would be entered manually in a command line interface can be executed
automatically using a shell script. This can be done without the user needing to trigger each command
separately.

Programming

There are many features in modern shell scripts that are only found in sophisticated programming
languages such as arrays, variables, comments etc. Many complicated applications can be written in
shell scripts using these features. But there is a problem i.e. shell script languages don’t support classes,
threading etc.

Generalisation:

It is much more flexible to use loops, variables etc for multiple tasks in shell script. An example of this is
a Unix shell script known as bash, which converts jpg images to png images.

Shortcuts:

There is a shortcut provided by a shell script for a system command where command options,
environment settings or post processing apply. This still allows the shortcut script to act as a Unix
command.

Advantages of Shell Script :Some of the advantages of shell script are –

1. The commands and syntax of the shell script are the same as that entered at the command line.
Because of this, there is no need to switch to a completely different syntax.

2.It is much faster to write a code in shell script than in other programming languages. This also means
that the program is easier to create and files required can be selected easily.

3.Shell script can also be used to provide linkage for already existing programs.

4. Shell scripting can be used by users that are not experts to modify and tailor the behaviour of their
programs according to their requirements.

Disadvantages of Shell Script Some of the disadvantages of shell script are

–1.There may be errors in shell scripting that prove to be quite costly.

2.The programs in shell script are quite slow while executing and a new process is required for every
shell command executed.

3.Different platforms in shell scripting may also have compatibility problems.

23. Explain Linux Commands?

-->
VPS

Feb 01, 2023

Artūras B.
16min Read

40 Essential Linux
Commands That Every User
Should Know
Linux is a family of open-source Unix operating systems based on the
Linux Kernel. They include Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, openSUSE, and Red
Hat. Using Linux to manage a Virtual Private Server (VPS) is common
practice.
When operating Linux, you need to use a shell – a program that gives you
access to the operating system’s services. Most Linux distributions use a
graphical user interface (GUI), making them beginner-friendly.
However, we recommend utilizing the command-line interface (CLI)
because it’s quicker and offers more control. Tasks that require multiple
steps on the GUI can be done in a matter of seconds by entering
commands into the CLI.
So if you want to use Linux, learning the common utilities or commands will
go a long way. This article will discuss the 40 basic commands to help you
use your Linux distro effectively.
 o What Is a Linux Command?
o The 40 Most Commonly Used Linux Commands
o Bonus Tips and Tricks
o Download a Free Linux Commands Cheat Sheet
o Linux Commands FAQ
o What Is the Basic Command of Linux?
o How Many Commands Does Linux Have?

What Is a Linux Command?

A Linux command is a program or utility that runs on the CLI – a console
that interacts with the system via texts and processes. It’s similar to the
Command Prompt application in Windows.
Linux commands are executed on Terminal by pressing Enter at the end of
the line. You can run commands to perform various tasks, from package
installation to user management and file manipulation.
Here’s what a Linux command’s general syntax looks like:
CommandName [option(s)] [parameter(s)]
A command may contain an option or a parameter. In some cases, it can
still run without them. These are the three most common parts of a
command:
 • CommandName is the rule that you want to perform.
• Option or flag modifies a command’s operation. To invoke it, use
hyphens (–) or double hyphens (—).
• Parameter or argument specifies any necessary information for the
command.
Keep in mind that all Linux commands are case-sensitive.

The 40 Most Commonly Used Linux

Commands
Before proceeding to the list of basic commands, you need to open
Terminal first. If you are still unsure, check out our CLI tutorial.
Although the steps may differ depending on your Linux distribution, the
Terminal application is usually found in the Utilities section.
Here is the list of basic Linux commands:
1. sudo command
Short for superuser do, sudo is one of the most popular basic Linux
commands that lets you perform tasks that require administrative or root
permissions.
When using sudo, the system will prompt users to authenticate themselves
with a password. Then, the Linux system will log a timestamp as a tracker.
By default, every root user can run sudo commands for 15
minutes/session.
If you try to run sudo in the command line without authenticating yourself,
the system will log the activity as a security event.
Here’s the general syntax:
sudo (command)
You can also add an option, such as:

• -k or –reset-timestamp invalidates the timestamp file.

• -g or –group=group runs commands as a specified group name or
ID.
• -h or –host=host runs commands on the host.

2. pwd command
Use the pwd command to find the path of your current working directory.
Simply entering pwd will return the full current path – a path of all the
directories that starts with a forward slash (/). For
example, /home/username.
The pwd command uses the following syntax:
pwd [option]
It has two acceptable options:

• -L or –logical prints environment variable content, including symbolic

links.
 • -P or –physical prints the actual path of the current directory.

3. cd command
To navigate through the Linux files and directories, use the cd command.
Depending on your current working directory, it requires either the full path
or the directory name.
Running this command without an option will take you to the home folder.
Keep in mind that only users with sudo privileges can execute it.
Let’s say you’re in /home/username/Documents and want to go
to Photos, a subdirectory of Documents. To do so, enter the following
command:
cd Photos.
If you want to switch to a completely new directory, for
example, /home/username/Movies, you have to enter cd followed by the
directory’s absolute path:
cd /home/username/Movies
Here are some shortcuts to help you navigate:

• cd ~[username] goes to another user’s home directory.

• cd .. moves one directory up.
• cd- moves to your previous directory.

4. ls command
The ls command lists files and directories within a system. Running it
without a flag or parameter will show the current working directory’s
content.
To see other directories’ content, type ls followed by the desired path. For
example, to view files in the Documents folder, enter:
ls /home/username/Documents
Here are some options you can use with the ls command:
 • ls -R lists all the files in the subdirectories.
• ls -a shows hidden files in addition to the visible ones.
• ls -lh shows the file sizes in easily readable formats, such as MB,
GB, and TB.

5. cat command
Concatenate, or cat, is one of the most frequently used Linux commands.
It lists, combines, and writes file content to the standard output. To run the
cat command, type cat followed by the file name and its extension. For
instance:
cat filename.txt.
Here are other ways to use the cat command:

• cat > filename.txt creates a new file.

• cat filename1.txt filename2.txt >
filename3.txt merges filename1.txt and filename2.txt and stores
the output in filename3.txt.
• tac filename.txt displays content in reverse order.

6. cp command
Use the cp command to copy files or directories and their content. Take a
look at the following use cases.
To copy one file from the current directory to another, enter cp followed by
the file name and the destination directory. For example:
cp filename.txt /home/username/Documents
To copy files to a directory, enter the file names followed by the destination
directory:
cp filename1.txt filename2.txt filename3.txt
/home/username/Documents
To copy the content of a file to a new file in the same directory,
enter cp followed by the source file and the destination file:
cp filename1.txt filename2.txt
To copy an entire directory, pass the -R flag before typing the source
directory, followed by the destination directory:
cp -R /home/username/Documents
/home/username/Documents_backup

7. mv command
The primary use of the mv command is to move and rename files and
directories. Additionally, it doesn’t produce an output upon execution.
Simply type mv followed by the filename and the destination directory. For
example, you want to move filename.txt to
the /home/username/Documents directory:
mv filename.txt /home/username/Documents.
You can also use the mv command to rename a file:
mv old_filename.txt new_filename.txt

8. mkdir command
Use the mkdir command to create one or multiple directories at once and
set permissions for each of them. The user executing this command must
have the privilege to make a new folder in the parent directory, or they may
receive a permission denied error.
Here’s the basic syntax:
mkdir [option] directory_name
For example, you want to create a directory called Music:
mkdir Music
To make a new directory called Songs inside Music, use this command:
mkdir Music/Songs
The mkdir command accepts many options, such as:
 • -p or –parents create a directory between two existing folders. For
example, mkdir -p Music/2020/Songs will make the new “2020”
directory.
• -m sets the file permissions. For instance, to create a directory with
full read, write, and execute permissions for all users, enter mkdir -
m777 directory_name.
• -v prints a message for each created directory.

9. rmdir command
To permanently delete an empty directory, use the rmdir command.
Remember that the user running this command should
have sudo privileges in the parent directory.
For example, you want to remove an empty subdirectory
named personal1 and its main folder mydir:
rmdir -p mydir/personal1

10. rm command
The rm command is used to delete files within a directory. Make sure that
the user performing this command has write permissions.
Remember the directory’s location as this will remove the file(s) and you
can’t undo it.
Here’s the general syntax:
rm filename
To remove multiple files, enter the following command:
rm filename1 filename2 filename3
Here are some acceptable options you can add:

• -i prompts system confirmation before deleting a file.

• -f allows the system to remove without a confirmation.
• -r deletes files and directories recursively.
11. touch command
The touch command allows you to create an empty file or generate and
modify a timestamp in the Linux command line.
For example, enter the following command to create an HTML file
named Web in the Documents directory:
touch /home/username/Documents/Web.html

12. locate command

The locate command can find a file in the database system.
Moreover, adding the -i argument will turn off case sensitivity, so you can
search for a file even if you don’t remember its exact name.
To look for content that contains two or more words, use an asterisk (*).
For example:
locate -i school*not
The command will search for files that contain the words school and note,
whether they use uppercase or lowercase letters.

13. find command

Use the find command to search for files within a specific directory and
perform subsequent operations. Here’s the general syntax:
find [option] [path] [expression]
For example, you want to look for a file called notes.txt within
the home directory and its subfolders:
find /home -name notes.txt
Here are other variations when using find:

• find -name filename.txt to find files in the current directory.

• find ./ -type d -name directoryname to look for directories.
14. grep command
Another basic Linux command on the list is grep or global regular
expression print. It lets you find a word by searching through all the texts in
a specific file.
Once the grep command finds a match, it prints all lines that contain the
specific pattern. This command helps filter through large log files.
For example, you want to search for the word blue in the notepad.txt file:
grep blue notepad.txt
The command’s output will display lines that contain blue.

15. df command
Use the df command to report the system’s disk space usage, shown in
percentage and kilobyte (KB). Here’s the general syntax:
df [options] [file]
For example, enter the following command if you want to see the current
directory’s system disk space usage in a human-readable format:
df -h
These are some acceptable options to use:

• df -m displays information on the file system usage in MBs.

• df -k displays file system usage in KBs.
• df -T shows the file system type in a new column.

16. du command
If you want to check how much space a file or a directory takes up, use
the du command. You can run this command to identify which part of the
system uses the storage excessively.
Remember, you must specify the directory path when using
the du command. For example, to check /home/user/Documents enter:
du /home/user/Documents
Adding a flag to the du command will modify the operation, such as:

• -s offers the total size of a specified folder.

• -m provides folder and file information in MB
• k displays information in KB.
• -h informs the last modification date of the displayed folders and
files.

17. head command

The head command allows you to view the first ten lines of a text. Adding
an option lets you change the number of lines shown.
The head command is also used to output piped data to the CLI.
Here’s the general syntax:
head [option] [file]
For instance, you want to view the first ten lines of note.txt, located in the
current directory:
head note.txt
Below are some options you can add:

• -n or –lines prints the first customized number of lines. For example,

enter head -n 5 filename.txt to show the first five lines
of filename.txt.
• -c or –bytes prints the first customized number of bytes of each file.
• -q or –quiet will not print headers specifying the file name.

18. tail command

The tail command displays the last ten lines of a file. It allows users to
check whether a file has new data or to read error messages.
Here’s the general format:
tail [option] [file]
For example, you want to show the last ten lines of the colors.txt file:
tail -n colors.txt

19. diff command

Short for difference, the diff command compares two contents of a file line
by line. After analyzing them, it will display the parts that do not match.
Programmers often use the diff command to alter a program instead of
rewriting the entire source code.
Here’s the general format:
diff [option] file1 file2
For example, you want to compare two text files –
note.txt and note_update.txt:
diff note.txt note_update.txt
Here are some acceptable options to add:

• -c displays the difference between two files in a context form.

• -u displays the output without redundant information.
• -i makes the diff command case insensitive.

20. tar command

The tar command archives multiple files into a TAR file – a common Linux
format similar to ZIP, with optional compression.
Here’s the basic syntax:
tar [options] [archive_file] [file or directory to be archived]
For instance, you want to create a new TAR archive
named newarchive.tar in the /home/user/Documents directory:
tar -cvf newarchive.tar /home/user/Documents
The tar command accepts many options, such as:

• -x extracts a file.
• -t lists the content of a file.
 • -u archives and adds to an existing archive file.
Check out the more practical examples to know more about the other
functions.

21. chmod command

chmod is a common command that modifies a file or directory’s read,
write, and execute permissions. In Linux, each file is associated with three
user classes – owner, group member, and others.
Here’s the basic syntax:
chmod [option] [permission] [file_name]
For example, the owner is currently the only one with full permissions to
change note.txt. To allow group members and others to read, write, and
execute the file, change it to the -rwxrwxrwx permission type, whose
numeric value is 777:
chmod 777 note.txt
This command supports many options, including:

• -c or –changes displays information when a change is made.

• -f or –silent suppresses the error messages.
• -v or –verbose displays a diagnostic for each processed file.

24. Explain in Details Kernel and types of Kernel?

• The Kernel is the heart of your operating system. Kernel handles all operations on behalf
of operating system.
• A Kernel is an intermediary between applications and hardware. This means that applications
can run without knowing or caring about the underlying hardware details. It manages low-
level tasks such as disk management, task management, and memory management.
Whenever you start a system, Kernel is the first program that is loaded after the bootloader,
and it remains in the memory until the operating system is shut-down.
•
• The core component keeps your system running, managing all your software and hardware.
Without it, your computer would be a useless pile of metal and plastic.
 • A kernel must be fast and responsive. It needs to handle all the requests and responses
quickly and efficiently. To do this, the Kernel uses a lot of kernel-level memory. This
memory is isolated from the main memory of your computer. This means that the Kernel can
use it to store data and code without affecting other applications.

Types of the Kernel

The five main types of kernels are:

• Monolithic Kernel
• Microkernel
• Hybrid Kernel
• Nano Kernel
• Exo Kernel

• Monolithic Kernel: Monolithic kernels are the simplest and most common type of Kernel. They
include the core functionality of the operating system and support all devices connected to it. In
this, the user and kernel services are implemented in the same memory space. Due to this, the size
of the kernel increases, which in turn increases the size of the operating system. The main benefit
is that the process execution is faster as there is no separate memory space for the user and Kernel.
• Microkernel: Microkernels are a newer development and, as such, are not as common as
monolithic kernels. They include only the essential services and devices required for the system to
function. This results in a smaller kernel that is faster and uses less memory. Here, the user and
kernel services are implemented in two different spaces. It has separate User Space and Kernel
Space. This reduces the size of the Kernel and results in reducing the size of the operating system.
• Hybrid Kernel: Hybrid kernels combine monolithic and microkernels. They include more
services than microkernels but less than monolithic kernels. This allows them to offer some of the
benefits of both kernels. It borrows speed from the monolithic kernels and modularity from
microkernels.
• Nano Kernel: Nano kernels are the smallest type of Kernel, consisting of only a few thousand
lines of code. It means that the code executing in the privileged mode of the hardware is minimal.
They are used primarily in embedded systems or devices with limited resources.
• Exo Kernel: This Kernel has separate resource protection and management. It is suitable for use
when performing application-specific customization. Exo kernels are designed for use in mobile
 devices. They are a variation of microkernels that include additional features specifically for
mobile devices, such as power management and support for multiple processors.

25. Explain loops in Linux Shell Scripting with example?

-->Looping Statements in Shell Scripting: There are total 3 looping
statements which can be used in bash programming

1. while statement
2. for statement
3. until statement
To alter the flow of loop statements, two commands are used they are,

1. break
2. continue
Their descriptions and syntax are as follows:

• while statement
Here command is evaluated and based on the result loop will executed, if
command raise to false then loop will be terminated
Syntax

•
• for statement
The for loop operate on lists of items. It repeats a set of commands for every
item in a list.
Here var is the name of a variable and word1 to wordN are sequences of
characters separated by spaces (words). Each time the for loop executes,
the value of the variable var is set to the next word in the list of words, word1
to wordN.
Syntax

•
• until statement
The until loop is executed as many as times the condition/command
evaluates to false. The loop terminates when the condition/command
becomes true.
 Syntax

•
Example Programs
Example 1:
Implementing for loop with break statement

• php

#Start of for loop

for a in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

do

# if a is equal to 5 break the loop

if [ $a == 5 ]

then

break

fi

# Print the value

echo "Iteration no $a"

done

Output

$bash -f main.sh
Iteration no 1
Iteration no 2
Iteration no 3
 Iteration no 4
Example 2:
Implementing for loop with continue statement

• php

for a in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

do

# if a = 5 then continue the loop and

# don't move to line 8

if [ $a == 5 ]

then

continue

fi

echo "Iteration no $a"

done

Output

$bash -f main.sh
Iteration no 1
Iteration no 2
Iteration no 3
Iteration no 4
Iteration no 6
Iteration no 7
Iteration no 8
 Iteration no 9
Iteration no 10
Example 3:
Implementing while loop

• php

a=0

# -lt is less than operator

#Iterate the loop until a less than 10

while [ $a -lt 10 ]

do

# Print the values

echo $a

# increment the value

a=`expr $a + 1`

done

Output:

$bash -f main.sh
0
1
2
 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Example 4:
Implementing until loop

• php

a=0

26. Write a Shell script for reverse order number?

this post, we will write a shell script to reverse a number which is given as the input. INPUT: line 1:
number OUTPUT: Print a single number which is the reverse of the given number The following is the
shell script to reverse a number which is given as the input:

echo enter n

read n

num=0

while [ $n -gt 0 ]

do
num=$(expr $num \* 10)

k=$(expr $n % 10)

num=$(expr $num + $k)

n=$(expr $n / 10)

done echo number is $num

OUTPUT: $ enter n $ 456 $ number is 654

27. Explain any two features of windows operating system

control panel?
Below are mentioned some of the most crucial and notable features of the
Windows operating system:
• Control Panel
• Cortana
• File Explorer
• Internet Browser
• Disk Cleanup
• Speed
• Hardware Requirements
• Search and Organization
• Compatibility
• Taskbar
• Safety
• Interface
Control Panel
A Control panel is a feature of the Windows operating system that contains many tools
that help in configuring and managing the computer's resources. For e.g., the control
panel provides the settings for audio, video, mouse, keyboard, network connections,
date and time, installed applications, etc. which the user can change as per his/her
need.
Cortana
It is used to display the files and folders which are on the computer. It is also known
as Windows Explorer. It gives the user the ability to browse data on the hard drive,
SSD, and other inserted removable disks. It allows the user to manage the content
according to their preference, such as a user can delete or rename a file and search
and transfer data.
File Explorer
It is used to display the files and folders which are on the computer. It is also known as
Windows Explorer. It gives users the ability to browse data on the hard drive, SSD, and
other inserted removable disks. It allows the user to manage the content according to
their preference such as a user can delete or rename a file, and search and transfer
data.
Internet Browser
One of the major use of computers is to access the web/internet. Therefore, an internet
browser is very necessary to search for anything, view pages, do online shopping, play
games, etc. There is a pre-installed internet browser available in the Windows operating
system. From Windows 10 onwards, the Edge internet browser is the default browser,
while earlier internet explorer used to be the default browser.
Disk Cleanup
One of the major tasks of an operating system is to perform cleanup operations. Disk
Cleanup is a feature of the Windows operating system that is used to free up disk
space by deleting unnecessary files or temporary files no longer required. It helps
increase the system's performance and boosts storage space to download programs
and documents. We can open disk cleanup by using the following steps:
• Open the file explorer using Window + E
• Right-click on any of the disk drives and click on the properties option from the drop-down
menu.
• Click on the Disk Cleanup option.
Speed
Aside from the incompatibilities and other concerns that many users had with Vista, one
of the most obvious was performance — it simply felt too slow in comparison to XP,
even on high-end hardware. Windows 7 feels more quick and sprightly, and Microsoft
spent a lot of time and effort perfecting the Start Menu reaction. Microsoft has also
identified the need for enhanced desktop responsiveness, which creates the
appearance that the machine is responding to the user and that the user is in charge –
something that Vista frequently lacked.
Hardware Requirements
Vista has a reputation for making even the most powerful hardware appear mundane.
Windows 7, on the other hand, will function smoothly on older systems, making the
switch from Windows XP easier. Microsoft is promoting Windows 7 for netbooks as well.
This could be a modern alternative for Windows XP, which has resurfaced as the
preferred operating system for netbooks, displacing Linux. The disadvantage is that
Windows 7 Starter Edition, as it will be known, will only allow three applications to run at
once.
Search and Organization
One of the nicest features of Windows 7 is the upgraded search function, which now
competes with Mac OS X's Spotlight in terms of speed and ease of use. Typing 'mouse',
for example, will bring up the mouse option in the control panel, while typing a word will
display it and divide it into files, directories, and apps nicely. The concept of Libraries is
also introduced, which expands on the 'My Documents' concept. The various Libraries,
such as Documents and Pictures, will monitor multiple locations that you can add
yourself, allowing you to maintain everything in one location.
Compatibility
Simply put, compatibility with Windows 7 will be significantly superior to that of Vista.
Many programs used by people and businesses on Windows XP did not work right
away and required upgrades, but with Windows 7, practically all Vista-compatible
applications should still work.
Taskbar
At first sight, the taskbar appears to have remained largely unchanged since Vista. That
is not the case, and it is far more potent. Microsoft is now putting its aero technology to
its full potential. Taskbar icons are now larger by default, and objects are grouped
together rather than labeled with clunky text. A stack will appear on the taskbar if you
have many Word documents or Windows Explorer windows open. When you move your
cursor over the program, each Window will appear as a thumbnail. When you hover
your mouse over each thumbnail, it will become visible, while all other open windows
will vanish save for their outlines. Each document or window can be closed immediately
from the thumbnail, or it can be brought to the front by clicking on it. A small arrow to the
right of programs like Word in the Start menu now extends to show a list of recent
documents, which may be pinned to keep one on the list permanently. The above points
make the taskbar a significant feature of the windows operating system
Safety
Two new authentication methods tailored for touchscreens, the addition of antivirus
capabilities to Windows Defender Smart Screen filtering, and support for the "Secure
Boot" functionality on UEFI systems to protect against malware infecting the boot
process are among the new security features in Windows. Parents may monitor and
regulate their children's actions on a device using activity reports and safety restrictions,
thanks to Family Safety's parental controls. The new "Refresh" and "Reset"
functionalities in Windows 8 also allow for integrated system recovery, including system
recovery from a USB device. The first security patches for Windows 8 will be delivered
on November 13, 2012, and would include three changes that Microsoft judged
"important."
Interface
The user interface of Windows has undergone substantial improvements, many of
which are focused on improving the experience on tablet PCs and other touchscreen
devices. The new user interface is based on Microsoft's Metro design language, and it
features a Start screen similar to that of Windows Phone for opening apps. The Start
screen shows a customizable grid of tiles that link to a variety of apps and desktop
programs, some of which can display continually updated information and content via
"live tiles." Apps can be snapped to the side of a screen as a type of multitasking. A new
simplified and touch-optimized settings program called "PC Preferences" is utilized
alongside the classic Control Panel for basic configuration and user settings.