- Cell differentiation is the process of cells developing into different organs and tissues

even though they contain the same genetic material.

- As this occurs, different cells produce more and more proteins specific to their cell
type.
- All cells have a number of housekeeping proteins in common, these are found in the
structures which are common to most cells. Eg, structural proteins in the
membranes
- each cell type produces specific proteins that relate to the function of the cell means
that different genes must be expressed in different types of cell.
- Each gene has at least two different forms, known as alleles.

Multiple alleles:
- some features are determined by multiple alleles. This means there era more than
two possible variants.
- No matter how many possible alleles there are, any one diploid individual will only
inherit two of them. clear example of multiple alleles is the human ABO blood group
system
- Both A and B era dominant to O, so the O blood group is recessive, but A and B are
codominant. This means both alleles are expressed and produce a protein.

This is an Autosome.
- We assumed that genes are inherited randomly, each gene
coding for an aspect of the phenotype, is inherited
independently of all other genes. BIG EXCEPTION to this is
sex link age, where certain where certain characteristics are
inherited on the sex chromosomes

How does gene linkage work?

- Monohybrid crosses involve only one gene locus, but most traits in living organisms
are determined by several or many interacting genes.
- Interacting genes are called polygenic. Examples include: eye colors, weight,
intelligence. determined by several different genes at different loci and, in many
cases, interactions with the environment add further variety.
- Monohybrid crosses only simplify a much more complex reality.
- Looking at how 2 different genes are inherited completely independently in a
process called digenic (dihybrid) inheritance.
- Explanations for when the ratios are unexpected:
Small sample size
Experimental error
Random process, unexpected occurs
Genes can be located on the same chromosomes (they are linked)
 dihybrid inheritance:

- Ratios of 9:3:3:1 are most cases.

- Crossing 2 heterozygotes in a
dihybrid cross always result in a
typical 9:3:3:1 ratio parental
phenotypes (the same as the
parents) and recombinant
phenotypes (different
combinations of the phenotypes
which result from the inheriting
the different alleles
independently)

Another example of a dihybrid inheritance:

- If this was crossed in a monohybrid
inheritance then the possible outcome
would be 3:1 and this is because the
genes of broad abdomen and long
wings are closely linked, they are on
the same chromosome at different
locations (locus).

Genes for different characteristics found on the same chromosome are linked they are
inherited to a greater or lesser degree. as if they were a single gene.
- when genes are closely the linked- for e.g., when they’re located close to each other
on the chromosome, then when gametes are formed recombination events (which
separate them) rarely occur during me meiosis.
- When genes are more loosely linked- for e.g. when they’re located further apart in
the chromosome and the number of the recombinant events in meiosis will be
higher. therefore, the tightness of the gene linkage of a pair of jeans is related to
how close together the jeans are located on the chromosome
 - The likelihood of crossing over during meiosis is influenced by the proximity of genes
on a chromosome. Genes located closely together are less likely to undergo crossing
over, resulting in gametes that maintain the parental genetic combinations. In
contrast, genes positioned further apart are more prone to crossing over, leading to
a mix of parental and recombinant gametes. This variability in gametes is then
reflected in the genetic makeup of the offspring.

Interaction between Genes and the environment

An organism’s environment also has an impact on its appearance.
- twin studies are one way to understand the impact environment has on mammals of
the same genes.
- Genetically identical twins are human clones.

Discontinuous variation and continuous variation

- Discontinuous variation is shown by features that are either present or not, such as
blood groups or sex (male or female).
- characteristics that show continuous variation include weight and height in an
animal species, or het number of leaves on a plant. determined by multiple genes
(they are polygenic). Also affected by the environment.
- Height shows continuous variation because of the variety of factors that influence it.
When studying continuous variation in a population, we need to take large samples
because chance can affect the results.

Checkpoint: 214 pdf

1a) the melanin production at that area could be boosted by the cool pack and the
environment conditions, hence the color of the dark hair grown back.
1b) the Siamese cat’s genotype suggests that they should have black fur all over their body,
hence the black fur grown on the patch, however the mutation in their genes reduces the
melanin which produces black color fur on the parts of the body where the temperatures
are high.

2) identical twins reared apart are cloned human beings with different environmental
factors influencing them which shows the demonstrates the extent to which the
environment plays a huge impact on our appearance.

3) table a shows 5000 pairs of twins which are aged between 8 and 11, brought up together.
The 500 pairs increase validity to an extent. in addition, the ages of 8-11 show the main age
of environmental influence without taking puberty into account, which could alter the
results shown in table A. the table A results are very reliable.

4) polygenic characteristics show continuous variation because of the interacting genes

involved, each interacting gene could be dependent on a factor that could be varied
throughout the life of the organism. Characteristics affected by the environment also show
continuous variation because of the nurture part of the life of an organism, the changes
brought on that organism can play a major impact on the appearance of the organism, such
as exposure to sunlight, can play a role o. the height difference of an organism that has tall
parents. If that organism is not much exposed to sunlight to boost vitamin D in their body,
the organism might not be tall even despite having tall parents.

Controlling Gene expressions

- Expressions of a gene involves two key stages: transcription and translation
- Exerting controls in these processes can control the gene expression
- Transcriptions factors are proteins, they bind to DNA in nucleus and affect the
process of transcribing the genetic material.
- the specific regions on the DNA, that allow these proteins to bind to DNA. Are called
promoter sequences.
- Some of these proteins just bind to the DNA promoter sequences and this stimulates
the start of transcription of that area of DNA.
- Some transcription factors bind to regions known as the enhancer sequences,
regulate activity of DNA by changing chromatin structure, making it less/more open
for RNA polymerase. (open chromatin structure = active gene expression; closed
chromatin structures = gene inactivity.)
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