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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE Page No.

Cover Page i

Certificate ii

Acknowledgement iii

Table of Content iv

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

List of symbols and abbreviations viii

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Sub section 1

1.2 Sub section 1

2.0 COMPANY PROFILE 2

2.1 Sub section 2

2.2 Sub section 2

3.0 DEPARTMENT PROFILE 3

 3.1 Sub section 3

3.2 Sub section 3

4.0 PROJECT WORK 4

4.1 Sub section 4

4.2 Sub section 4

5.0 CASE STUDY 5

5.1 Sub section 5

5.2 Sub section 5

6.0 CONCLUSION 6

REFERENCES 7
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page No.

Table 1 List of total mines in India as per the report of Ministry of 1

mines, GOI.

Table 2.1 Name of the table 2

Table 3.1 Name of the table 3

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 1.1 Name of the figure 1

Figure 1.1 Name of the figure 2

Figure 1.1 Name of the figure 3

ABSTRACT
 UNDERGROUND METAL MINING
1. Introduction

1.1. Brief about underground metal mines in India

Mining is a historic practice in the region, and it modernized alongside the rest of the globe when
India won freedom in 1947. The mining sector grew further as a result of the 1991 economic
reforms and the 1993 National Mining Policy. India's minerals include both metallic and
nonmetallic minerals. Metallic minerals include ferrous and nonferrous minerals, whereas
nonmetallic minerals include mineral fuels and valuable stones, among other things. According
to D.R. Khullar, mining in India is dependent on over 3,100 mines, of which over 550 are fuel
mines, 560 are metal mines, and 1970 are nonmetal extraction mines. According to S.N. Padhi,
there are "approximately 600 coal mines, 35 oil projects, and 6,000 metalliferous mines of
various sizes employing over one million people on a daily average." Open-cast and
underground mining activities are carried out, as well as drilling/pumping for the extraction of
liquid or gaseous fuels. The country produces and works with around 100 minerals, which are a
key source of foreign exchange while also meeting domestic needs. India also exports iron ore,
titanium, manganese, bauxite, and granite while importing cobalt, mercury, graphite, and other
minerals. Unless owned by other departments of the Government of India, the country's mineral
resources are surveyed by the Ministry of Mines, which also supervises how these resources are
utilized. The ministry oversees all elements of industrial mining in the country. The ministry also
has responsibility over the Geological Survey of India and the Indian Bureau of Mines. Natural
gas, petroleum, and atomic minerals are excluded from the Indian Ministry of Mines' different
activities.
Indian mining industry is characterized by many small operational mines. The number of mines
which reported mineral production (excluding minor minerals, fuel minerals and atomic
minerals) in India was 1319 in 2021-22 as against 1375 in the previous year. Out of 1319
reporting mines, 263 were in Madhya Pradesh followed by Gujarat (147), Karnataka (132),
Odisha (128), Chhattisgarh (114), Andhra Pradesh (108), Rajasthan (90), Tamil Nadu (88),
Maharashtra (73), Jharkhand (45), and Telangana (39). These 11 States together accounted for
93% of total number of mines in the country in the year 2021 -22.
Table 1. List of total mines in India as per the report of Ministry of mines, GOI.
SECTOR 2019-20 2020-21 2021-22
Metallic Minerals 602 608 545
Non-Metallic Minerals 783 767 774
All Minerals 1385 1375 1319
India is the largest producer of mica in the world some of the largest underground metal mines in
India: Rampura Agucha Mine, Rajasthan: This mine is the largest underground zinc-lead mine in
the world. It is operated by Hindustan Zinc Limited. Sindesar Khurd Mine, Rajasthan: This mine
is the largest underground copper mine in India. It is operated by Hindustan Copper Limited.
Zawar Mine, Rajasthan: This mine is the largest underground chromite mine in India. It is
operated by Hindustan Zinc Limited. Adriyala Shaft Project, Telangana: This mine is the largest
underground iron ore mine in India. It is operated by Singareni Collieries Company Limited.

1.2 Importance of blasting for the production Of Ore

Underground mining relies heavily on blasting. It is used to break up the rock to extract it from
the mine. Blasting is also used to make underground passageways such as tunnels and chambers.
Blasting in mining is a chemical and physical process that involves the use of explosives.
Mineral-bearing materials are broken down. Coal, ore, and mineral stone are examples of these
materials. Blasting breaks up materials, splits up rock blocks, and destroys existing buildings.
Underground mines are used to harvest metal-bearing orebodies. Underground mine excavation
labour is typically separated into two basic types. These are the development and production
processes. Tunnelling, shaft sinking, cross cutting, raising, and other techniques are used to make
ore deposits easily accessible and transportable after excavation. The blasting technique is the
same as previously discussed.
The production work is separated into two categories: short-hole blasting and long-hole blasting.
(a) short-hole blasting
(b) long-hole blasting
The following summarises the role of blasting in underground mining:
1. Rock fragmentation: Blasting fragments the rock into tiny pieces, making it easier to extract
from the mine. A range of explosives, including dynamite, ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO),
and emulsion explosives, can be used to accomplish this. Underground mines are used to harvest
metal-bearing orebodies.
2. Blasting can be used to create subsurface apertures such as tunnels and chambers. This is
accomplished by positioning the explosive charges precisely and detonating them in a controlled
manner.
3. Improves safety: By creating larger openings and reducing the amount of physical labour
necessary, blasting can help to improve safety in underground mines. This can help to lower the
likelihood of accidents and injury.
4.Increases productivity: Blasting can help to increase production in underground mines by
making ore and waste rock removal easier. This could result in higher income for the mine
operator. Marinin, M. A., & Dolzhikov, V. V. (2017).
2.0 Underground Metal Mining Methods
The ore body's properties, particularly its thickness, and dip, and the quality of the surrounding
rock will determine the mining technique to be utilized. Different techniques can be employed in
various mine areas, as demonstrated by this plan from the Black Swan nickel mine. As mining
operations continue and additional information about the orebody configuration is obtained
through underground drilling, this type of planning is carried out regularly. The purpose of this
work is not permitting a thorough examination of the fundamental characteristics of different
underground mining techniques. Hustrulid and bullock (2001), with Hamrin (2001) providing an
introduction and summary, provide thorough details of contemporary underground mining
techniques in the work. Here, the working method, the conditions of the rock mass required to
support the method, and the significant orebody characteristics defining the method’s application
domain are the only factors that are being considered. The common mining techniques used in
industrial settings are described. Top slicing and cascade stopping are two more mining
techniques that may easily be included in this classification, largely of historical or regional
significance. The progression of rock behavior, from total support to induced failure and granular
flow, and spatial energy change from near-filed storage to far-filed dissipation, is compatible
with the earlier ideas.

2.1 Influencing parameters for the selection of underground mining methods

There are many orebody properties that influence mining methods. Some of the most important
parameters are-
A- Size and shape: The size and shape of the orebody will influence the type of mining method
that can be used. For example, large and massive orebodies are more suited to block caving,
while smaller and more irregular orebodies are more suited to cut-and-fill stoping.
B- Grade: The grade of the orebody will influence the economics of the mining operation. For
example, high-grade orebodies are more profitable to mine than low-grade orebodies. A large
and massive orebody is more suited to block caving than a small and irregular orebody. This is
because block caving requires a large, continuous orebody that can be extracted in a single
operation. A high-grade orebody is more suited to underground mining than a low-grade
orebody. This is because the higher-grade orebody makes the mining operation more profitable,
even if the cost of mining is higher. A deep orebody is more suited to longwall mining than a
shallow orebody. This is because longwall mining is a more efficient method of mining deep
orebodies. Brady, P., and Brown, E. T. (2005)
C- Depth: The depth of the orebody will influence the cost of mining. For example, deeper
orebodies are more expensive to mine due to the need for specialized equipment and
infrastructure.
D- Rock mass properties: The rock mass properties, such as the strength, stiffness, and
permeability, will influence the stability of the orebody and the type of mining method that can
be used. For example, weak and fractured rock masses are more likely to collapse, so they
require more support, which can make them more expensive to mine.
E- Economic factors: The economic factors, such as the cost of mining, the cost of processing,
and the selling price of the ore, will influence the type of mining method that is selected. For
example, if the cost of mining is high, then a mining method that is more efficient, such as
longwall mining, may be selected.

In addition to these factors, there are several other orebody properties that can influence mining
methods, such as the presence of water, the presence of faults, and the presence of other
minerals. The specific orebody properties that are most important will vary depending on the
specific mining operation.

2.2 Underground Mining Methods

2.2.1 UNSUPPORTED METHOD

Unsupported mining techniques are those that require taking materials out of the Earth's crust
without having sufficient structural support or safety precautions in place. These techniques are
typically regarded as risky and can significantly endanger both miners and the surrounding area.
Mineral deposits that are broadly rectangular (plus flat or steeply sloping) and typically
associated with strong ore and surrounding rock are extracted using unsupported methods of
mining. These techniques are referred to as unsupported since no artificial pillars are used to help
sustain the openings. However, extensive roof fastening and localized support techniques are
frequently employed. Bamber, A. D., & Molinda, G. M. (2008)
There are different mining methods under this category.
2.2.1.1 ROOM AND PILLAR:
Pillars are always kept supporting the overburden when the room and pillar mining method is
used to remove the mineral resources (Das, 1986; Martin & Maybee, 2000). The stability of
pillars or a pillar and roof support system is still difficult to assess because it depends on a
variety of factors, including in situ stress and geological conditions (Li et al., 2018a, 2018b;
Zhao et al., 2018a, 2018b; Zhou et al., 2018a, 2018b), and pillar failure with roof collapse
continues to occur (Be'rest et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2018a). Therefore, it is crucial to research how
coal seams interact because this can result in pillar failure and uneven roof movement. The
mechanical behaviors of a single pillar have been the subject of research in previous decades
(Das, 1986; Poulsen et al., 2014; Zhu & Tu, 2017). The goal of room and pillar technique
modelling is to create the best methods for choosing deposits while preserving a high safety
factor and obtaining the lowest possible operational losses (Skrzypkowski, 2020a, 2020b).
Hustrulid (1976; Van der Merwe (2003)) developed a number of empirical formulas to estimate
pillar strength, while Jawed et al. (2013), Poulsen (2010), Li et al. (2016), and Zhang (2016) used
the tributary area or pressure arch technique to compute the average pillar stress. Hustrulid, W.
A. (1982).

Figure 2.1 Room and Pillar Method

2.2.1.2 STOPE AND PILLAR:

Similar techniques are employed in non-coal mines where thicker, more irregular ore bodies
occur. In stope-and-pillar mining, the high-grade ore is collected by placing pillars at random
intervals in the low-grade ore (a stope is a production aperture in a metal mine). Nearly all of the
underground mining of horizontal deposits and a significant fraction of the underground tonnage
in the United States are done using these two techniques. The unsupported group also includes
two more steeply dipping deposit techniques. An underground mining technique known as stope
and pillar mining involves constructing a sequence of open regions, or stopes, that are divided by
pillars of unmined ore. The pillars support the mine's roof and aid in preventing cave-ins. A
variety of ore deposits, including those with irregular shapes or those contain low-grade ore, can
be extracted using the adaptable technique of stope and pillar mining. In addition, it is a rather
safe way of mining because the pillars offer some protection from roof falls. Hartman, H. L. and
Mutmansky, J. M. (2002).
Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of stope and pillar mining:
Advantages:
 Versatile method that can be used to extract a variety of ore bodies
 Relatively safe method of mining
 Cost-effective
Disadvantages:
 Slow method of mining
 Can be difficult to extract low-grade ore
 Can be harmful to the environment

Fig 2.2 Stope and Pillar Method

2.2.1.3 SHRINKAGE STOPPING:

Shrinkage stopping is a mining technique used for ore formations with self-supporting walls and
steeply sloping, thinner dimensions. In order to serve as the "working floor" and maintain the
walls, it is an overhand mining technique that depends on broken ore being left in the stope. Only
30 to 35% of the ore blasted is extracted during the mining cycle, which is similar to the swell
factor of in-situ ore to broken ore. The ore is extracted once mining has reached the uppermost
horizon. Although the resulting voids don't always need to be filled, construction waste rock is
frequently used to do so. The uneven muck pull makes level intervals rarely go beyond 40
meters. At each level, recoverable pillars are left.

Stability factors
The effectiveness of mining shrinkage methods depends on having strong wall rock and strong
ore (back). There are no hard and fast rules to equate the rock quality versus span for shrinkage
stoping. Because a span of over 3 meters will normally require ground support and also because
muck size increases proportionately with the span, this method becomes more difficult at larger
spans regardless of the rock quality. The rock quality should be at least RMR = 70. Marchand,
R., Godin, P., & Doucet, C. (2001)

Fig 2.3 Shrinkage Stopping Method

Sub level stoping:

Shrinkage stopping is one of the oldest techniques, as said, however it has been found to have
some difficulties while stopping. carrying out the drilling and blasting operations while hunched
over the broken muck beneath the exposed roof or back and only removing a third of the blasted
muck from the stope at a time. One of the main obstacles among them is planned time.
Consequently, to extract the strong orebodies with competent wall rocks that are steeply sloped,
even if They are so dense that a technique known as "sublevel stopping" was implemented. That
is the orebody is vertically separated into levels in the technique shown in Figure 16.10(a) and
between two levels, the stopes are fashioned into practical sizes. Between them, a rib pillar was
left. arates two neighboring stops. Maintaining a crown pillar at the stope's peak safeguards the
lower level serves as a haulage level to collect the ore from the level above, stopes. The stope is
separated into several horizons vertically by appropriately placed. Tatiya, R. R. (2005).
 Fig 2.4 Sub Level Stoping

2.2.2 CAVING METHODS

A controlled collapse of ore or rock is used in the mining process known as caving to create a
void from which precious minerals can be extracted. It is mostly utilized for extracting vast,
homogeneous ore deposits from depths where conventional mining techniques cannot reach. The
cave method, which can be used with various techniques like block caving, panel caving, and
sublevel caving, depends on gravity's inherent force to cause the cave-in. An underground
mining technique called caving allows the ore mass to crumble from its own weight. To do this,
a network of tunnels and chambers is built beneath the ore body, and the support is then
gradually removed from these chambers. The ore body crumbles as the support is removed, and
the fractured ore falls into the chambers. After that, the ore is removed from the chambers and
brought to the surface. Thomas, G.P.. (2019, December 12)

2.2.2.1 LONGWALL MINING:

Surface uplift is a well-known phenomenon, although its occurrence during hard coal longwall
mining has never been explained or documented in the literature. In the Czech portion of the
Upper Silesian Coal Basin (USCB), uplift measuring higher than 20 dm was seen during hard
coal longwall mining under specified mining and geomechanically circumstances (Fig. 1).
Greater mining depths have different natural conditions than shallower depths. The likelihood of
a strutting arch rising above the excavation increases when the overburden of the mined seams
contains competent layers and the major influence range increases with mining depth.1 In these
circumstances, the competent layers are able to greatly spread the stress without the overburden
strata failing.
These overburden stresses can create changes in the rock mass that result in uplifting of the
ground surface since they are concentrated near the excavation's borders. To explain this
phenomenon, this study examines geomechanically, mining, and environmental factors. Because
the 3D model from the depth of the mined coal seam to the surface would be quite large and
require a significant degree of simplification, no 3D numerical modelling was employed in this
investigation. Despite this, the approach taken in this work is anticipated to advance surface
uplift research and help develop a hypothesis describing the occurrence. Wang P, Zhao J,(2017).
 Fi
g 2.5 Longwall Method

2.2.2.2 SUB LEVEL CAVING:

If an open pit mine converts some of its production from surface to underground, SLC mining
could begin from the open pit. In contrast, SLC mining may start from underground when the ore
body is covered by a significant amount of overburden waste rock. In all scenarios, the hanging
wall will progressively collapse as mining output rises. Similarly, if the ore deposit is located
below the overburden waste rocks, the waste rocks will cave in and collapse. When ore loading
occurs at one or more drifts, a large volume of shattered rocks known as waste rocks move in a
certain range of volume (Fig. 1). Sublevel caving is a downward mining technique, as shown in
Fig. 1. All production drifts, like Drift A, will remain in the footwall once mining production at a
higher level, like Level I, is finished. Likewise, draw points, like draw point A, will still be open
and contain materials that can be taken, mostly waste rocks. It goes without saying that if there
are any ores (especially small ore particles) that are lost in the shattered waste rocks from
previous production and that are close to a draw point like the one in Drift B, those ores may be
partially mined out from the draw point like that in Drift B. The two rings at the two draw points
of Drifts A and B are the last production rings in the two drifts, which is why they are referred to
as the "last ring" in this article. When the tiny ore particles were discovered there and their iron
concentration was about 30%, the lost ores in the Malm Berget mine were extracted out of
numerous last rings. Fig. 2 displays two images acquired on February 23, 2012, from the draw
points of two final rings. The extraction ratios from the two last rings, one at drift AL 932-0478
and the other at drift AL 962-0491, had reached 1606% and 753%, respectively, when the
pictures were taken. These two rings resemble the final rings of Drift A and Drift B, respectively,
in Fig. 1. According to Table 2, the lost ore mining at Drift, Alabama, 932-0478 (R28) lasted for
1085 days. Take note that digging for missing minerals did not take place every day. When a
waste rock blocks the draw point at the last ring in the Kiruna and Malm Berget mines, the
boulder will be blasted when the iron content of the material being mined is less than 30%.
Zhang, Z. X. (2023).

Figure 2.6 Sub Level Caving Method

2.2.2.3 BLOCK CAVING:

The system is characterized by the caving action that occurs when support is removed from a
significant region (which has been formed first) under a column of ore (a block), causing it to
cave in and break the ore. The block's bond to the solid is weakened at the same time by a
sequence of workings that are cut along its vertical plane limits. The undercut ore caves in due to
gravity and the weight of the surrounding rocks, gradually filling the undercutting gap.
Therefore, unlike sublevel caving, the ore itself must also be weak, fractured, and capable in
addition to the walls (h/w as well as f/w) and the capping rocks. The caved ore is discharged by
ore passages, which are known by the structures such as funnels, finger rises, bells, etc.
connecting either directly to troughs that are connected to the extraction drives/crosscuts, or to
grizzly levels for screening through them (in some layouts). Muck can be transferred from the
stope for later disposal using LHD mucking or direct discharge into mine cars through chutes.
The term "block caving" refers to the process of mining and caving big blocks of ore since the
orebody is separated into them.
The size of various apertures included in a stope layout must be properly determined in order to
enable proper caving of walls and cap rocks and smooth flow of the caved ore via the collecting
x-cuts/drives. The size of the funnels, finger rises, and troughs, as well as the distance between
them, stand out as important parameters among them. Tatiya, R. R. (2005)

Fig 2.7 Block Caving Method

2.2.3 SUPPORTED METHODS

Supported methods are those that need a lot of artificial help to stay stable in the mine's
exploitation apertures. In contrast, unsupported methods rely on the apertures' inherent support
being provided by the rock mass.
Supported methods are those that need a lot of artificial help to stay stable in the mine's
exploitation apertures. As the most effective ground control in an underground mine, we prefer
to use pillars of the original rock mass since they may offer nearly rigid support. Some buildings,
however, are too frail to use pillars as support. The host rock is frequently not very sturdy. As a
result of the lack of pillars as a primary method of support, any attempts to remove the ore will
probably end in the opening's structural failure. Failure is likely to happen over the time that the
opening would be required, even if it doesn't happen right away. Thomas, G.P.. (2022, October
05).

2.2.3.1 CUT & FILL STOPING

As the name implies, the orebody is divided into slices in this process, and a fill of some kind
replaces the void thus formed. As a result, a stope is worked upward from the level/horizon
above the sill pillar. Initially, two 2.5-3 m pieces are taken.
The first is then replaced by some infill material, which serves as a foothold for the worker and
equipment to mine out the following slice. This method is repeated until the stoping action
reaches the full stope height. The unit operations are carried out in a cyclical order during this
operation, namely drilling, blasting, mucking, transportation, and filling within the stope.
Because still stopping has limited applications at the moment due to scarcity and rising costs of
timber, as well as other constraints of the method in terms of production rate, productivity, and
safety. However, cut and fill stopping can be used not just for thin and steep orebodies with
thinner walls (which are suited for stull stopping), but also for wider and even weaker orebodies
than those suitable for stull stopping. In fact, this approach can be used when none of the open
stopping methods can be used to mine the deposit, or when open stopping fails; the substitute is
cut and fills stopping.
This also indicates that the approach is applicable for flat to steep deposits; nevertheless, when
used to mine out flat deposits, the method is referred to as long-wall mining with backfill. This
method is nearly always used when mining deep-seated resources is prone to rock explosions.
This allows for greater flexibility in terms of selective mining, degree of mechanization, and
stope dimension selection.
Conditions and main elements of the system: Following are the suitable conditions, in general,
for the application of cut & fill stop
● Ore strength: moderate to strong. ● Rock strength: weak. ● Deposits shape: any, regular to
irregular. ● Deposit’s dip: usually steep but can be applied for flat dips also then it will be
similar to longwall mining. ● Size and thickness: fairly large extent, thin to thick (2–30 m). ●
Ore grade: high but uniformity can be variable. ● Depth: practiced up to 2.5 km
Applications: In the past as well as at present this method has got wide applications to mine out
variety of deposits. It has proved useful particularly to mine veins of nonferrous, rare metals and
gold due to flexibility in its application. It has applications in mining pillars and remnants.
Barren rock can be left in the worked-out space. Tatiya, R. R. (2005).

Fig 2.8 Cut and Fill Method

2.2.3.2 STULL STOPING METHODS

Stull is a prop that is placed between the two walls, h/w and f/w, of an angled deposit to be used
as stull. Timbers longer than 4 m are frequently unavailable. Taking all of these features into
account, a method known as stull stopping has been developed, that is, a stopping method suited
for steeply sloped thin orebodies with weak walls that require support in the form of stulls during
stopping. Because the employment of 'Stull's' is vital in this procedure, the moniker 'Stull
stopping' was coined. The open and supported stopping systems can be used on mining deposits
of any shape, size, or thickness. However, the supported technique, without fill and stulls, is
utilized to mine deposits up to 4 m thick and seldom more. This is due to the fact that, aside from
the previously noted lack of longer timbers, timbering (i.e., erecting stulls) in steeply dipping
orebodies without fill is a complex procedure (a), (b), (c), (d), and (f)). It becomes nearly
difficult as the thickness increases, especially in the case of weak wall rocks.
Conditions: The technique is distinguished by the regular use of timbering in the stopes as well
as other apertures produced in the barren rock for the stope. IN general, the following conditions
are appropriate for the use of stull stopping:

● Ore strength: fairly strong to strong (more competent than cut & fill). ● Rock strength:
moderate to weak. ● Deposits shape: approximately tabular; it can be irregular also. ● Deposit’s
dip: usually steep but can be applied for flat dips also then it will be like longwall mining, or
breast stoping. ● Size and thickness: small, thin not more than 4 m. ● Ore grade: uniform and
high. ● Depth: practiced up to 1 km.
Applications: In the past practiced at many mines but at present limited applications. Ores
include that of copper, lead, zinc, silver, uranium and many others. Main elements of the
system/working parameters: ● Dividing deposit in levels with level interval up to 30 m all along
strike extension. ● Size of main level and stope entries 2.5–4 m. ● Height of opening 2–3 m
(Based on equipment height). ● Length of stope 40–50 m (longitudinal). ● Minimum width of
pillar in between stopes 10 m. ● Height of stope level interval, ranges up to 30 m. Tatiya, R. R.
(2005).

Fig 2.9 Stull Stoping Method

2.2.3.3 SQUARE SET STOPING

Square-set timbering was invented in Comstock Lode, Virginia City, Nevada in the 1860s.
Square set stopping is a traditional type of stopping that uses interlocking planks set into position
to form a grid that is pressed snugly against the rock. New timber sets are added to fill the void
as mining advances, generally upwards. Ore is dropped freely down the sets or fed into chutes
before being deposited onto ore cars or mucked out.
Once the stope has achieved its engineered height, it may be left open or backfilled for support,
depending on rock characteristics and other technical reasons. Historically, pouring waste rock
into a completed stope and slurrying in a mixture of mill sand and water was a standard method
of hydraulic fill.
The water drains away, leaving the sand to anchor the fill. Other hydraulic fill methods that use
cement and mill sand, such as paste fill, are more modern means of stopping and are unlikely to
be used in conjunction with the ancient method of square set timbering.
Square-set stoping mining is a method of underground mining in which ore is extracted in a
series of rectangular blocks, or "sets," that are supported by a framework of timbers. This method
is commonly used in weak orebodies, as it provides a high degree of support. Collins, J. H.
(1874)
Advantages of square-set stoping mining:
1. It is a relatively safe method of mining, as the sets provide a high degree of support.
2. It is a flexible method, as it can be adapted to a variety of orebody shapes and ground
conditions.
3. It is a relatively efficient method, as the ore can be extracted in a continuous manner.
Disadvantages of square-set stoping mining:
1. It can be a slow method of mining, as the sets must be installed before the ore can be
extracted.
2. It can be a costly method of mining, as the timbers are expensive.
3. It can be a hazardous method of mining, as the sets can collapse if they are not properly
designed and constructed.
 Fig 2.10 Square Set Stoping Method

3 DRILLING AND BLASTING IN UNDERGROUND METAL MINES

3.1 INRODUCTION
To get the anticipated exploratory benefits, drilling and blasting are crucial in underground
mining. The qualities of the rock formation as determined by geological investigations must be
taken into account while creating a proper plan. The primary blasting level should have the least
amount of overburden possible, hence the drilling pattern should be selected accordingly. If the
drilling patterns are properly put up, the amount of secondary blasting required to remove
overburden should be modest. Last but not least, worker safety and health should not be
sacrificed for the economic benefit of drilling and blasting activities. Implementing industry best
practices is crucial to ensuring that drilling and blasting-related dust and gas do not endanger the
health of mine workers. {Atlas Copco Mining and Rock Excavation Technique Canada. (2017)}.

3.2 DEVELOPMENT BLASTING

To optimize blast design parameters and reduce ground vibration to the barest minimum,
experimental blasts of various blast designs were made. A modification was made to the delay
time between each hole in light of the degree of vibration that was observed in the settlement. At
first, the five center holes were detonated one at a time, with delay intervals of 15 ms, 20 ms, and
25 ms between each hole. High sampling rates were used to record the vibration signatures,
which were then analyzed. It was discovered that a delay interval of 25 ms produced ground
vibration at a lesser intensity. The following holes had a 50 ms wait between them, with jump
delays of 200 ms and 100 ms at two sectional cuts. However, the blast's overall pull was between
70 and 80 percent. The average depth of the blastholes was 3.5 meters. Fig. 3 displays the
discussed design. Experimental blasts were carried out using two center holes, with a delay of 25
ms between the remaining two holes for the initial cut and the remaining delays being the same
as those in Fig. 3 to increase the draw each blast round. An average pull of 80–90% was obtained
with the improved blast configuration. Excellent results were obtained from the optimized blast
design, which was used for the majority of the cross-cut blasts. Additionally, the design was
somewhat altered to account for decline and main faces blasts, particularly with regard to the
weight and spacing of the blast holes in the drill design. The typical pulls obtained with this
upgraded design ranged between 90 and 85%. Fig. 4 displays the optimized blast design that was
previously addressed. Figure 4 shows the Kayad mine's optimized blast design for the
development face following design modifications at various stages that reduced ground
vibrations to their lowest level. Lower levels of vibration were produced as a result of the 25 ms
delay.
After conducting explosions with delays of 20 ms, 25 ms, 30 ms, and 50 ms between the first
five cut holes, the 25 ms delay period was found to be optimal. The provision of jump delays
followed. Excellent results were obtained using a delay interval of 200 to 300 ms between two
consecutive cut detonations. Figure 5 shows a typical blast wave signature obtained from a
development face explosion. Tables 3 and 4 provide information on blasthole parameters and
charge pattern, respectively. Electronic delay detonators were initially widely utilized to reduce
blast-related noise and vibration. But as the mine dug deeper, the NONEL initiating mechanism
was employed since it was more affordable. Analysis has been done on the effects of two
different types of initiation systems, namely shock tube (NONEL) and electronic delay initiation
systems, on the creation of blast-induced vibration. The surface vibration data in the village
caused by the detonation of 500 blasts using electronic delay detonators and the surface vibration
data caused by the detonation of 500 blasts using the Nonel initiating system have both been
analyzed. Figure 6 shows the recorded explosion vibration data for both the electronic delay
detonators and the NONEL start system displayed against their scaled distances. It is clear that
the vibration levels produced by the electronic starting system were lower than those of the
NONEL initiating method, ranging from 9.47 to 12.5%. {Roy, M.P., Singh, P.K., Sarim, m., &
Shekhawat, L.S. (2016)}.

3.2.1 BURN CUT OR PARALLEL CUT:

Burn cut mining is an underground mining process that creates a controlled crack in the rock
face. This fracture allows the explosive charges to be spread and detonated more effectively,
resulting in a more efficient and controlled detonation. A burn cut is often formed by drilling a
succession of big, parallel holes through the rock face's center. These holes are not filled with
explosives, but rather with water or air. The water or air in the burn cut expands when the bomb
is triggered, causing a shockwave that fractures the rock face.
Burn cut mining can be used in a variety of underground mining applications, including drifting,
tunneling, and stope development. It is particularly useful in hard rock mining, where the rock is
more difficult to fracture.

Fig 3.1 Burn Cut or Parallel Cut

Ashish K Vishwakarmaa , Vivek Kumar Himanshua , Suraj Kumara and M.P. Roya (February
2020)

Here are some of the benefits of using burn cut mining:

1. Increased efficiency: Burn cut mining can help to improve blasting efficiency by
allowing explosive charges to be spread and blasted more effectively. This can reduce the
number of explosives needed as well as the amount of vibration and noise caused by the
detonation.
2. Improved safety: By lowering the risk of rock falls and other mishaps, burn cut mining
can help to improve safety. This is due to the fact that the burn cut helps to generate a
controlled fracture in the rock face, which can prevent massive slabs of rock from
breaking away. Ashish K Vishwakarmaa , Vivek Kumar Himanshua , Suraj Kumara and
M.P. Roya

3.2.2 WEDGE CUT:

Wedge cut mining is a form of underground mining blasting pattern used to remove a wedge-
shaped chunk of rock off the face. This pattern is commonly employed in hard rock mining since
the rock is more difficult to fracture. Drilling a sequence of pairs of holes that meet or finish
close together at the back of the cut produces a wedge cut. The holes are drilled at about a 60-
degree angle to the face line. The width of the drift governs the depth of the cut since it dictates
the maximum length of drill steel that may be employed.
The wedge cut pattern is intended to fracture the rock face in a controlled manner. The holes in
the wedge cut enlarge when the bomb is detonated, causing a shockwave that fractures the rock.
The wedge-shaped rock part is then removed off the face, revealing a clean and flat surface.
Wedge cut mining has several advantages over other types of blasting. It is a generally safe and
efficient method of rock removal that may be utilised in a range of strata. Furthermore, the
wedge cut design can aid in reducing the amount of dust and other pollutants produced by the
explosion.
Here are some of the benefits of using wedge cut mining:
1. Increased efficiency: Wedge cut mining can help to improve blasting efficiency by
allowing explosive charges to be spread and blasted more effectively. This can reduce the
number of explosives needed as well as the amount of vibration and noise caused by the
detonation.
2. Wedge cut mining can assist increase safety by lowering the chance of rock falls and
other mishaps. This is due to the wedge cut assisting in the creation of a controlled
fracture in the rock face, which can help to prevent big slabs of rock from breaking away.
Zhang, X., Li, J., Zhang, P., & Zhang, X. (2019).
Fig 3.2 Wedge Cut
3.2.3 PYRAMID CUT OR DIAMOND CUT:

A pyramid cut pattern is a sort of mining blasting design. It is a variant of the wedge cut in which
the blastholes for the initial cavity may have a line of symmetry along both the horizontal and
vertical axes. This allows for a higher concentration of explosives to be employed, making it
ideal for breaking hard terrain. The pyramid cut pattern normally consists of four holes, but in
extremely hard terrain, the number of holes may be extended to six. The holes are drilled at an
angle so that they meet at the back of the cut. This generates a free face or relieving cut, making
the rest of the rock easier to break. The pyramid cut is characterized by drill holes that are
inclined in a pyramid shape. This sort of cut is frequently used in raises and shaft sinking, but it
is not advised for horizontal tunnels where a machine setup for a precise direction of the four
holes is difficult to get.
The diamond cut is a style of cut in which the drill holes are angled in the shape of a diamond.
This cut is commonly utilized in horizontal tunnels. The length of the drill holes determines the
depth of the cut. The drill hole spacing is controlled by the type of rock and the intended size of
the cut. High explosives, such as dynamite or ANFO, are commonly employed in pyramid or
diamond cut mining. A blasting cap or detonator is used to start the explosion. The pyramid cut
pattern is a simple and effective blasting pattern, although it has several drawbacks. One problem
is that drilling the holes at the precise angles so that they connect at the back of the cut can be
tricky. Another disadvantage of the pyramid cut design is that it can generate a lot of debris,
making it difficult to work in the mine. Thrush, Paul W. (ed.), 1968.
Here are some benefits;
 It can break hard ground more easily.
 It can create a free face or relieving cut, which makes it easier to break the rest of the
rock.
 It can be used in a variety of ground conditions.
 It is relatively simple and easy to implement.
 Fig 3.3 Pyramid Cut or Diamond Cut

3.2.4 DRAG AND FAN CUT:

These are unique drill patterns that are appropriate for small sectional drifts that do not produce a
lot of material (and hence do not require as much blasting clearance). In this pattern, coordinated
fans of drill holes are utilised to make the first cut for succeeding blasts to be blasted into, with
one end of the fan's holes at the steepest angle. These cuts are very beneficial because they do
not require the massive, reamed holes that other blasts do to generate the initial cut, but they lack
the capacity to drive deeper cuts. Drag cuts are vertically oriented with the sharpest inclined
holes at the bottom, whereas fan cuts are horizontally aligned.
Advantages of drag and fan cut mining:
1. It is a relatively efficient method of blasting.
2. It is a safe method of blasting.
3. It can be used to create a variety of cuts, including large initial cuts, smaller cuts, and even the
entire rock face.
Disadvantages of drag and fan cut mining:
1. It can be a relatively expensive method of blasting.
2. It can be a disruptive method of blasting.
3. It can be a dangerous method of blasting if not done properly.
Overall, drag and fan cut mining is a versatile and efficient method of blasting that can be used
in a variety of mining and quarrying operations. It is important to note that the safety of this
method of blasting depends on the skill and experience of the blaster. {Kurnia, N. A., Lee, S. H.,
& Yong, J. M. (2019)}

Fig 3.4 Drag and Fan Cut

3.3 UNDER THE DEVELOPMENT:

3.3.1 RAISE DRIVING ALIMAK:
Raise development: A raise is a vertical or inclined excavation that connects several levels in a
mine. Raise development is the process of making these connections. The Alimak Raise Climber
is often used to transport miners, equipment, and materials to efficiently and safely construct
raises.
Shaft Ventilation: Adequate ventilation is essential in underground mining to provide a safe
working environment and to eliminate harmful gases. The Alimak Raise Climber can be used to
build ventilation shafts, allowing ventilation fans and ductwork to be installed to deliver fresh air
and remove pollutants.
Raises are excavations with small size and an inclination of more than 45°. Raise driving is a
common mining activity, with lengths ranging from 10 to 100 meters. Raises are used to connect
drifts on different levels, to close ventilation circuits, to transport ore and spoils, to start sublevel
stopping, and so on. Raise driving is also commonly used in civil engineering. Particularly in
hydraulic plants and subsurface storage facilities.
Until recently, driving rises was one of the most challenging operations in rock breakup by
drilling and blasting, until the long-hole approach was introduced.
Raise driving is divided into two major categories based on the drilling method utilised, either
upward or downward: Drilling in an upward direction. Hand-operated with a Jora lift or the
Alimak platform. Drilling in a downward direction. Long-holes with crater cuts, "VCR cuts
(Vertical Crater Retreat), and the entire face procedure.

Fig 3.5 Raise Driving Alimak

Here are some of the advantages of Alimak raise mining:

1. Safe: The Alimak raise climber provides a safe working platform for miners, and the two-
post canopy system helps to protect them from falling objects.
2. Efficient: Alimak raise mining is a very efficient method of raising, and it can be used to
develop raises quickly and easily.
 3. Cost-effective: Alimak raise mining is a cost-effective method of raising, and it can save
mines money in the long run. (Lang, L.C. 1981).
3.3.2 RAISE BORER:
A raise borer is an underground mining machine that excavates a circular hole between two mine
floors without the use of explosives. The raise borer is installed on an evenly laid platform
(usually a concrete pad) on the top level of the two floors to be connected. To the required level,
a small-diameter hole (pilot hole) is bored; the diameter of this hole is normally 230mm -
445mm (9" - 17.5"), large enough to allow the drill string. When the drill has reached the target
level, the bit is withdrawn, and a reamer head with the appropriate diameter of the excavation is
attached to the drill string and raised back towards the machine. He drills cuttings from the
reamer head fall to the floor of the lower level. The finished raise has smooth walls and may not
require rock bolting or other forms of ground support.[1] One impressive use of raise boring is
the 7.1 m diameter shafts for Sasol's Middelbult and Bosjesspruit Mines in South Africa
{Puhakka, Tulla (1997)}.
Benefits of raise borer machines:
1. They are a safe and effective method of excavating raises.
2. They can be used on a wide range of rock types.
3. They move quickly and can excavate enormous holes.
Disadvantages of raise borer machines:
1. They might be costly to buy and operate.
2. They are not appropriate for all kinds of rock.
3. They can be challenging to carry and set up.
 Fig 3.6 Raise Borer Machine

3.3 PRODUCTION BLASTING:

3.3.1 STOPE BLASTING:
Stope blasting is a typical underground mining process for fragmenting and extracting ore from a
stope, which is an underground excavation where ore is retrieved. Controlled blasting procedures
are used to break up the rock bulk and create smaller fragments that can be readily handled and
transported.
Stope blasting usually entails the following steps:
Drilling: Using specialized drilling equipment, holes are drilled into the rock face or bench. The
diameter, spacing, and depth of the holes are dictated by the geology of the deposit and the
desired fragmentation.
Explosive materials, such as dynamite or emulsion, are placed into the drilled holes during the
charging process. To achieve the necessary fragmentation while minimizing any potential safety
issues, the amount of explosives employed is precisely calibrated.
Blast Design: The blast design is critical for attaining the necessary fragmentation while causing
the least amount of damage to the surrounding rock mass. The explosion design takes into
account factors such as hole diameter, hole spacing, burden (the distance between holes in a row)
and stemming (material placed on top of the explosives to limit the blast energy).After the
charging is finished, the blast is started using electric detonators or other suitable initiation
methods. To achieve optimum fragmentation and to minimize vibrations, the explosion
procedure is carefully controlled.
Mucking and fragmentation: The explosion energy fractures the rock into smaller shards.
Following the blast, loaders, trucks, or other material handling equipment are used to remove the
broken rock (muck) from the stope.
Stope blasting is a dangerous operation, and it is important to take precautions to ensure the
safety of the miners. These precautions include:
1. Using the correct type of explosives: The type of explosives used in stope blasting must be
carefully chosen to ensure that they are strong enough to break up the ore without causing
excessive damage to the surrounding rock.
2. Properly loading the holes: The holes must be loaded with the correct amount of explosives
to ensure that the blast is effective but not too powerful.
3. Using delay detonators: Delay detonators are used to stagger the explosions, which helps to
reduce the shock wave and vibration.
4. Monitoring the blast: The blast must be monitored to ensure that it is proceeding safely. Li,
G., Deng, G. Z., & Ma, J. (2022).
 Fig 3.7 Stope Blasting
3.3.2 LONG HOLE BLASTING:
Long hole stopping is a productive method for extracting subsurface metalliferous deposits since
it entails large-diameter drilling and longer-length blasting, resulting in the complete extraction
of a level in a single lift (Hartman 1987). This method's productivity and safety are linked.
Expected productivity can be attained by sequencing stopping and backfilling correctly
(Himanshu and Kushwaha 2016). However, such large-scale blasting poses a challenge for blast
designers since blast induced ground vibration can cause significant cracking and damage to
structures (Singh et al. 2010). Ground vibration amplitude (peak particle velocity; PPV),
duration, and frequency are the main causes of damage. Aside from that, the frequency content
and relative amplitude of horizontal and vertical components can have an impact on the reaction
of structures in the vicinity (Singh et al. 2008, Singh et al. 2015). Many sensitive structures, such
as water reservoirs, tailing ponds, and offices, are found in industrial structures. It is critical to
optimize blast design parameters in the blast zone of these surface structures to protect them
from blast-induced damage. Various controllable and uncontrollable parameters influence blast-
induced ground vibration. Controllable parameters include blast design parameters and
explosive properties, whereas uncontrolled parameters include rock characteristics and
geological circumstances (Jemino et al. 1995). This research optimized controllable parameters
and gave recommendations for designing blasting parameters at an underground lead and zinc
mine to protect surface structures such as a water reservoir, mill process plant, control room, and
so on. (Vivek Kumar Himanshu June 2018)
Long hole blasting is a type of blasting that is used to create large, vertical or inclined holes in a
rock face. The holes are then loaded with explosives and blasted. The blast creates a large, initial
cut that can then be used to create smaller cuts or to remove the entire rock face. Longhole
blasting is a relatively efficient and safe method of blasting. It is often used in mining and
quarrying operations.
Here are some additional details about long hole blasting in mining:
The holes for long hole blasting are typically drilled using a long hole drill rig.
1. The length of the holes can vary depending on the application, but they are typically several
meters long.
2. The spacing of the holes is also determined by the application, but it is typically several meters
apart.
3. The explosives used in long hole blasting are typically high explosives, such as dynamite or
ANFO.
4. The blast is initiated using a blasting cap or detonator
Longhole blasting has the following advantages:
1. It is a relatively efficient blasting process.
2. It is a risk-free blasting approach.
3. It is capable of producing a wide range of cuts, including huge initial cuts, lesser slices, and
even the entire rock face.
Longhole blasting has the following disadvantages
1. It might be an expensive form of blasting.
2. It is a potentially disruptive method of blasting.
3. If not done correctly, it can be a deadly method of blasting.
Longhole blasting is a versatile and efficient blasting method that may be utilised in a wide range
of mining and quarrying activities. It is vital to remember that the safety of this kind of blasting
is dependent on the blaster's competence and expertise. (N. A. Kurnia, S. H. Lee, and J. M. Yong
2019)
 Fig 3.8 Long Hole Blasting

4. IMPACT OF BLASTING IN UNDERGROUND METAL MINE

4.1 INTRODUCTION:
In the past, the primary goal of any active surface or underground mine was to extract the most
amount of rock possible. While this undivided emphasis generates more metal, it frequently has a
negative impact on other critical operational parameters. This is mainly because blasting
procedures do not consider all the critical variables that affect mine excavation. When the actual
volume of rock debris exceeds the theoretical volume of the blast design, the maintenance and
worker safety expenses of tunnel installation skyrocket, particularly in underground
exploitations. This excess material, known as overbreak, not only requires more cleanup, but due
to the diminished integrity of the remaining rock, will necessitate more fortification time to
maintain a safe and efficient work environment. While mitigation procedures like supplementary
support structures and rebuilding and reinforcing the contour profile with wet and dry shotcrete
reduce accidents and improve efficiency, they considerably raise material and lost time costs.
Many components of the drilling pattern, detonation sequence, and blasting vibration effect have
been researched to this goal. J. Yang [1] investigated how modifying the type of explosive to the
type of rock and its specific characteristics affected the integrity, particularly of the heading, in
an underground mine using a two-dimensional (2D) numeric analysis of the in situ dynamic
stress distribution of an explosive charge. Because rock is not homogeneous, the analysis not
only revealed that varied pre-existing characteristics of the rock affected overbreak after
explosion, but it also happened in a thin area in the crown part of the aperture. This gave crucial
insight into how charge type and placing, as well as tailoring the drilling pattern to the unique
rock qualities identified at the point of excavation, can all aid in blasting effect control.
Pomasoncco-Najarro, 2022.

4.2 OVERBREAK:
Overbreak is a severe hazard that would almost certainly have a negative impact on any
underground excavation. Excavation in mining and civil projects requires a defined excavation
dimension, and any excess is referred to as overbreak. Overbreak has the following effects on the
economy, productivity, and safety: decrease in workforce productivity; less control in support
erection; periodic follow-up supports conditions and maintenance; delay in service extension and
excavation progress; less control in overall planning and ground inspection; and difficulties in
waste management (McKown, 1986; Navarro et al., 2018; Singh & Xavier, 2005; Van Eldert,
2017. Furthermore, Singh and Xavier (2005) asserted that the rock excavated beyond the
specified excavations is a natural support that would likely hold the load in the form of a back,
wall, and pillar. According to Korean Highway Corporation (1995), the overbreak adds 15-18%
of total tunnel construction cost. Overbreak has become an inescapable problem for a variety of
causes, including insufficient drill design, blast design, design execution, explosive properties,
rock mass, and stress redistribution (Ibarra et al., 1996; Mahtab et al., 1997; Singh & Xavier,
2005). The rock pile drew special attention because of its volatile character. When the tunnel was
driven through a poor to fair rock mass, overbreak and ground control issues were common.
Furthermore, the horizontal orientation of the discontinuity plane to the tunnel axis is regarded as
an unfavorable condition for overbreak (Chakraborty et al., 1994). Singh (1998) investigated the
impact of blast hole deviation on all rock mass features, including layer frequency, layer
orientation, the alternative layer of hard and soft layer, aperture and condition of joints, and
intact rock strength, all of which played a role in drill hole deviation. As a result, he suggested
creating a model that compares hole deviation under various rock mass circumstances as a
function of overbreak. However, deviation in the perimeter holes appears to be highly essential
since it modifies the drill design, such as weight and spacing, and it can damage later operations.
Rock mass rating (RMR) and Rock mass quality (Q-system) are widely used rock mass
categorization indexes that incorporate all geological characteristics that influence overbreak. G.
Ganesan and A.K. Mishra (2021).
 Hyongdoo jang, E topal (sept. 2013)
Fig 4.1 Overbreak
4.2.1 Line drilling: - This method entails drilling a single row side-by-side and interfering holes,
resulting in a discontinuity between the material to be removed and that which is meant to stay in
Situ. This technique is seen in the illustration. The artificial discontinuity dampens the vibrations
produced during the production blast, resulting in a final excavation profile with favorable
geomechanically properties. Drilling diameters of 38 to 76 mm are commonly used. Except in
very homogenous rocks, line drilling is primarily suitable in homogeneous rock masses with
weak fractures; its application is also often limited due to several contraindications, such as the
difficulty in estimating the certainty of the impact. Companies all across the world employ line
drilling for rock excavation. You utilize drilling equipment to drill a sequence of closely spaced
holes. The holes are about 10 cm apart and are drilled all the way around the circumference to
cut through the rock. At this point, the rock will finally break away. It enables you to excavate
the region while maintaining precise control over the size of the rock bits. Cardu, M., Saltarin,
S., Todaro, C., & Deangeli, C. (2021).

Fig 4.2 Line Drilling

Line drilling is a versatile technique that can be used in a variety of applications, including:
1. Cutting through rock to create access for mining ore
2. Removing rock to create space for tunnels or other underground structures
3. Constructing dams and other hydraulic structures
4. Installing utility lines
Here are some more details about line drilling:
1. A line drill pattern's hole spacing is normally 10-20 cm.
2. The drill holes' diameters can range from 38 to 76 mm.
3. The depth of the drill holes might range between 1 and 5 meters.
4. Line drilling is capable of cutting through rock with compressive strengths of up to 200 MPa.
5. Line drilling typically has a penetration rate of 1-2 m/h.

4.2.2 BUFFER HOLE BLASTING:

Buffer blasting is a middle-ground solution that balances production and safety. A successful
operation has only a few conditions. However, buffer blasting is rarely used as the primary
controlled blasting technique and is usually used in conjunction with another controlled blasting
approach, such as presplitting. Depicts this idea. H, B, and S represent the diameter, burden, and
spacing of the production hole, respectively. The diameter and spacing of pre-split holes are
given by h and s, respectively. The most crucial condition for a successful buffer blast operation
is that the last row of holes contain no more than half of the explosives utilized in the other
production holes. It is also critical that these explosives are evenly placed throughout the
borehole to aid in the fragmentation of the rock mass. This will result in less overbreak into the
final excavation line without considerably affecting the time necessary to complete the operation
or the economics of the blast operation.
The following is a synopsis of the advantages of using buffer holes in mining:
1. It lessens the amount of damage done to the surrounding rock mass.
2. Increases the rock mass's stability
3. Reduces the possibility of accidents
4. Increases the efficiency of the mining process by improving rock fragmentation.
In mining, a buffer hole is a lightly laden hole drilled in the last row of production holes. It is
utilized to limit the amount of damage caused by the blast to the surrounding rock mass. Buffer
holes are most employed in underground mining, where damage to the underlying rock might
cause instability and safety risks. Eades, R. Q., & Perry, K. (2019).
 Fig 4.3 Buffer Hole Blasting

4.2.3 PRE-SPLITTING BLASTING:

Pre-splitting blasting, which is limited by geological constraints and technical needs, is
extensively employed in engineering to decrease blasting vibration damage to neighboring
buildings and ensure that the rock mass is not severely harmed. Pre-splitting blasting is done to
reduce the propagation of stress waves, blasting vibration, ensuring the slope's integrity, and not
harming the rock mass. Pre-splitting blasting involves detonating the pre-splitting hole before the
main blasting hole and forming a pre-splitting crack between the blasting region and the back
protection slope to prevent stress wave propagation, reduce blasting vibration, and safeguard the
slope's integrity. The effect of pre-splitting blasting is primarily determined by the hole network
parameters, charge structure, blocking material, and other elements in pre-splitting blasting
engineering. Unreasonable hole network specifications may result in excessive rock mass
destruction or failure to create pre-cracking, which will not only fail to accomplish the desired
impact but will also waste human and material resources, as well as pose safety issues. To
address this issue, domestic and international experts have performed extensive research on
blasting parameters.
Pre-splitting blasting offers several advantages, including:
1. It gives you a smooth, clean face that makes it easier to work with.
2. It reduces overbreak, or the quantity of rock that is blasted beyond the prescribed bounds.
3. Accidents are reduced since there is less loose rock to fall on.
4. It can aid in the reduction of ground vibrations and noise pollution.
The pre-splitting technique entails drilling a series of holes along the rock face that are less
explosively laden than the production holes. The holes are then detonated sequentially, causing a
succession of cracks in the rock face. These fractures spread across the rock face, resulting in a
clean, smooth surface. Wang, Z., Wu, G., & Zhou, L. (2022).

Fig 4.4 Pre-Splitting Blasting

4.3 GROUND VIBRATION ON OVERLYING SURFACE STABILITY:

Ground vibration is mechanical energy that travels through the ground. A multitude of factors,
including blasting, earthquakes, and heavy machinery, can trigger it. When ground vibration is
transmitted via the overlaying surface, the surface can move. This shift can be little or major,
temporary or permanent.
The impacts of ground vibration on overlaying surface stability are determined by several
factors, including:
1. The type of covering surface will have an impact on how it responds to ground vibration.
Loose soils, for example, are more vulnerable to ground vibration than solid rock.
2. The vibration's intensity: The more powerful the vibration, the more probable it is to damage
the underlying surface.
3. The vibration's frequency is: The vibration's frequency is the number of times it repeats each
second. Vibrations with frequencies near to the overlying surface's inherent frequencies are more
likely to cause damage.
4. The duration of the vibration is: The greater the duration of the vibration, the more probable it
is to cause harm.
Using explosives to crush rock creates air- and ground-borne vibrations, which can be harmful to
neighboring structures. The quarrying industry, which produces stone or aggregate from surface
excavations, the mining industry, which produces ore from open-pit mines, and the construction
industry, which produces road cuts, pipelines, and foundation excavations, have all received a
variety of complaints related to blasting vibrations. Blasting activities linked with underground
mining and excavation work are rather resistant to these issues; but, if large-scale nuclear devices
are employed for mining reasons, underground blasting operations will become a big issue. The
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) is currently investigating this issue. Some of the complaints
received are real allegations of harm caused by blasting vibrations. Other complaints, however,
are invalid, and the stated damage is the consequence of natural settling of the building, faulty
construction, and so on. In general, complaints have been numerous enough to pose a significant
challenge for blasting operators, emphasizing the necessity for technological data to Analyse
vibration difficulties related with blasting. To defend their individual interests, both the operators
and the public require effective safeguards founded on real facts. Industry needs a solid
foundation upon which to organize and carry out blasting operations. to reduce or eliminate real
damage claims and get rid of complaints that are just plain annoying. The public would gain
from the absence of any damaging circumstances. Nicholls, H R, Johnson, C F, & Duvall, W I
Fig 4.5 Ground Vibration on Overlying Surface Stability
5. CONCLUSION:
In underground metal mining techniques, drilling and blasting are essential steps. These methods
are crucial for removing valuable minerals from the deepest layers of the earth's crust. To make it
easier to retrieve ore reserves, the procedure entails drilling holes into the rock mass and then
using explosives to break it apart. The regulation of ground vibrations is a major factor in drilling
and blasting. The explosive force created during blasting can cause vibrations in the surrounding
rock and soil. These vibrations may have an impact on the integrity of subsurface buildings,
neighboring surface infrastructure, and worker safety and well-being. Mining companies use a
variety of strategies to lessen the effects of ground vibrations. This entails selecting explosive
materials with care, maximizing the blast design parameters, and putting in place monitoring
systems to gauge and manage vibration levels. Mining operations work to reduce the effect of
ground vibrations on the surrounding environment by following legal requirements and
implementing best practices. Additionally, modern equipment and technology are being used in
underground metal mining techniques to increase production, efficiency, and safety. The
prevalence of automation and remote-controlled equipment has decreased the exposure of
workers to dangerous situations. Furthermore, cutting-edge mining techniques like block caving
and sublevel caving enable the extraction of deep ore deposits with the least possible impact on
the environment. Overall, underground metal mining is a complex and dynamic sector that
necessitates a balance between production and safety. The mining industry tries to optimize
drilling and blasting processes, effectively regulate ground vibrations, and promote sustainable
mining practises through continual research, technical improvements, and responsible mining
practices.
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