LESSON 4

96
6.0 Imperfections

In the real world, columns cannot be made

perfectly straight.

Load may not be applied exactly axially.

So what effect an imperfection may have?

97
6.1 Rigid-rod/spring systems

Example

Equilibrium equation: P ( L sin q + e cosq ) = kq

For very small q : P ( Lq + e ) = kq

k
When e = 0: P=
L

Pe
When e ¹ 0: q=
k - PL

98
 k
Let Pc =
L
For P < Pc , let M = kq - P( Lq + e) .

dM
= k - PL > k - Pc L = 0 . It is stable.
dq

For P > Pc, no solution exists

for an equilibrium configuration

kq k
because P = <
Lq + e L

99
 Pe Pe L Pe L P Pc P
q= can also be written as q = = or = -
k - PL k L - P Pc - P q eL eL

This leads to the Southwell’s Method of estimating buckling loads experimentally.

Sir Richard Southwell, FRS, Head of the Department

of Engineering Science, Oxford University from 1929
to 1942.

Sir Richard Southwell was honoured in 1948 because

of his contributions to the British WWII effort.
He was a developer of “relaxation” methods, which
were used to solve systems of hundreds of equations
prior to computers.

100
 The Southwell’s Method for experimentally determining Pc
P Pc P
= -
q e L e L
This equation can be written as
𝑃
P Pc P Most buckling problems
= -
D
𝜃 a a have this relationship
where a = e / L is known.

If we carry out an experiment, for a given 𝜃, we can measure P.

Then we plot P/a vs. P/ 𝜃. 𝑃
𝜃
And we will be able to determine Pc.

* Southwell R V, On the Analysis of Experimental Observations in

Problems of Elastic Stability, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Series A, /a
135, pp. 601–616, April 1932. /a

101
6.1 Buckling of a strut with initial curvature

y0 = d 0 sin (p x L )

𝑑! 𝑦 − 𝑦"
𝑀 = −𝑃𝑦 = 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥 !
d2y P d 2 y0
2
+ y= 2
dx EI dx

P d2y p 2d 0 æ p x ö
Noting a =
2
, and y0 = d 0 sin (p x L ) : 2
+ a y = - 2 sin ç ÷
2

EI dx L è L ø

103
 d2y p 2d 0 æ p x ö
2
+ a y = - 2 sin ç ÷
2

dx L è L ø

Solution: yc = A sin a x + B cos a x

æpx ö
yp = C sin ç ÷
è L ø
d0
C=
1 - a 2 L2 p 2

d0 æpx ö
y = A sin a x + B cosa x + sin ç ÷
1 - a 2 L2 p 2 è L ø

104
 d0 æpx ö
y = A sin a x + B cosa x + sin ç ÷
1 - a 2 L2 p 2 è L ø
The boundary conditions are:
(a) y = 0 at x = 0 gives B = 0

(b) y = 0 at x = L gives Asin a L = 0 .

We take the solution A = 0 rather than sin a L = 0 because we wish to explore
the behaviour at loads less than the buckling load.
d0 æpx ö
The solution for the deformed shape is y = sin ç ÷
1 - a 2 L2 p 2 è L ø

a 2 2 d0 æpx ö
Since L =
P , we have y = sin ç ÷.
p 2
PE 1 - P / PE è L ø

105
 d0 æpx ö
y= sin ç ÷
1 - P / PE è L ø

P/PE 1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 y 80

1
The initial deflection is amplified by the factor , and y à ¥ when P à PE.
1 - P / PE

106
 d0 æpx ö
y= sin ç ÷
1 - P / PE è L ø

The maximum deflection, ymax , at x = L / 2 , is:

d0
ymax =
1 - P / PE
Pd 0
Regardless of its sign: M max = Pymax =
1 - P / PE
P M max zmax P Pd 0 zmax
The maximum compressive stress: s max = + = +
A I A (1 - P PE ) I

zmax is the maximum distance of the strut cross section For example:

from the neutral axis.

107
In design we should consider s max = s y . Hence,

P M max zmax P Pd 0 zmax

s max = + = + =sy
A I A (1 - P PE ) I
or
Azmaxd 0 ö
( P - PE ) ( P - As y ) = PE P æç ÷
è I ø
or
1/2
s y + s E (1 + h ) éæ s y + s E (1 + h ) ö ù
2

sC = - êç ÷ - s ys E ú
2 êè
ë 2 ø úû

P P Ad 0 zmax
where s C = , s E = E and h = .
A A I
This known as the Perry-Robertson formula.

108
Recall: Chapter 4.0
p 2 EI
Yielding P =syA Buckling P=
L2

The transition between the two failure mechanisms occurs:

p 2 EI E I
syA = , Þ L2 = p 2
L2 sy A

E I
or L =p ´ rg where rg = (radius of gyration)
sy A
109
P
=
A

110
Types of imperfections:
(a) Initial lack of straightness

(b) Accidental eccentricities of loading

(c) Residual stress

(d) Variation of material properties over the cross-section.

P / (s y A)

( L / rg )
111
 d1

d0
Recall ymax = .
1 - P / PE
If one measured the increase in maximum deflection from its initial position d1,
d1 = ymax - d 0 with

d0 d0P
Hence, d1 = - d0 = .
1 - P PE PE - P

It has the form of the Southwell expression.

This is sometimes used experimentally to back calculate initial imperfection of tested strut.

112
Aside: Eccentrically loaded strut

𝑑! 𝑦
𝑀 = −𝑃(𝑒 + 𝑦) = 𝐸𝐼 !
𝑑𝑥
d2y 2 P
2
+ a 2
y = -a 2
e where a =
dx EI
113
 d2y P
2
+ a 2
y = -a 2
e where a2 =
dx EI
Solution: y = Asin a x + B cosa x - e

The boundary conditions:

(a) y = 0 at x = 0
(b) y = 0 at x = L
e(1 - cos a L) aL
Hence, A= = e tan B=e
sin a L 2
aL
y = e(tan sin αx + cosa x - 1)
2

114
 aL
y = e(tan sin αx + cosa x - 1)
2
L aL
Obviously, ymax = y( ) = e(sec - 1)
2 2
which leads to the maximum compressive stress:
P M max z P P(e + ymax ) zmax P Pe sec(a L / 2) zmax
s max = + = + = +
A I A I A I

When the column start yielding, s max = s y

P Pe sec(a L / 2) zmax
Hence, sy = +
A I
p 2 EI a 2 L2 P
This equation can be simplified further noting PE = and = .
L2 p 2
PE
Its curve is very similar to that of Perry-Robertson formula but it is always slightly
below.

115
116
8.0 Why don’t beams buckle in tension?

𝑑! 𝑦 d2y
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝐸𝐼 ! ð - a 2
y=0 ð y = Asinh a x + B cosh a x
𝑑𝑥 dx 2

The boundary conditions are

(a) Left hand end y = 0 at x = 0 again gives B = 0 .
(b) Right hand end y = 0 at x = L gives Asinh a L = 0 .
If a ¹ 0 , the only solution is A = 0 .
The only valid solution is therefore y = 0 .

118
END OF LESSON 4

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