4 | Inorganic Chemistry 50

UNIT 4: ACIDS AND BASES

4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes:

a. Give the observable properties of acids and bases;
b. Calculate the strengths of acids and bases, and
c. Explain the use of indicators.

4.1 Introduction
For thousands of years people have known that vinegar, lemon juice, and many other
foods taste sour. However, it was not until a few hundred years ago that it was discovered
why these things taste sour – because they are all acids. The term acid, in fact, comes from
the Latin term acere, which means "sour". While there are many slightly different definitions
of acids and bases, in this lesson we will introduce the fundamentals of acid/base chemistry.

4.2 Acids and Bases

4.2.1 The Nature of Acids and Bases
In the seventeenth century, the Irish writer and amateur chemist Robert Boyle first
labeled substances as either acids or bases (he called bases alkalies), according to the following
characteristics:

Acids taste sour, are corrosive to metals, change litmus (a dye extracted from lichens)
red, and become less acidic when mixed with bases.

Bases feel slippery, change litmus blue, and become less basic when mixed with acids.

While Boyle and others tried to explain why acids and bases behave the way they do, the
first reasonable definition of acids and bases would not be proposed until 200 years later.

In the late 1800s, the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius proposed that water
can dissolve many compounds by separating them into their individual ions. Arrhenius
suggested that acids are compounds that contain hydrogen and can dissolve in water to
release hydrogen ions into solution. For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissolves in water
as follows:

HCl H2O→ H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Arrhenius defined bases as substances that dissolve in water to release hydroxide

ions (OH-) into solution. For example, a typical base according to the Arrhenius definition is
sodium hydroxide (NaOH):

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NaOH H2O→ Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases explains a number of things.

Arrhenius's theory explains why all acids have similar properties to each other (and,
conversely, why all bases are similar): because all acids release H+ into solution (and all bases
release OH-). The Arrhenius definition also explains Boyle's observation that acids and bases
counteract each other. This idea, that a base can make an acid weaker, and vice versa, is
called neutralization.

Neutralization

As you can see from the equations, acids release H+ into solution and bases release
OH-. If we were to mix an acid and base together, the H+ ion would combine with the OH- ion
to make the molecule H2O, or plain water:

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O

The neutralization reaction of an acid with a base will always produce water and a salt, as
shown below:

Acid Base Water Salt

HCl + NaOH → H2O + NaCl

HBr + KOH → H2O + KBr

Though Arrhenius helped explain the fundamentals of acid/base chemistry,

unfortunately his theories have limits. For example, the Arrhenius definition does not explain
why some substances, such as common baking soda (NaHCO3), can act like a base even
though they do not contain hydroxide ions.

In 1923, the Danish scientist Johannes Brønsted and the Englishman Thomas Lowry
published independent yet similar papers that refined Arrhenius' theory. In Brønsted's
words, "... acids and bases are substances that are capable of splitting off or taking up
hydrogen ions, respectively." The Brønsted-Lowry definition broadened the Arrhenius
concept of acids and bases.

The Brønsted-Lowry definition of acids is very similar to the Arrhenius definition:

Any substance that can donate a hydrogen ion is an acid. (Under the Brønsted definition,

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acids are often referred to as proton donors because an H+ ion, hydrogen minus its electron,
is simply a proton).

The Brønsted definition of bases is, however, quite different from the Arrhenius
definition. The Brønsted base is defined as any substance that can accept a hydrogen ion. In
essence, a base is the opposite of an acid. NaOH and KOH, as we saw above, would still be
considered bases because they can accept an H+ from an acid to form water. However, the
Brønsted-Lowry definition also explains why substances that do not contain OH - can act like
bases. Baking soda (NaHCO3), for example, acts like a base by accepting a hydrogen ion
from an acid as illustrated below:

Acid Base Salt

HCl + NaHCO3 → H2CO3 + NaCl

In this example, the carbonic acid formed (H2CO3) undergoes rapid decomposition to water
and gaseous carbon dioxide, and so the solution bubbles as CO2 gas is released.

pH

Under the Brønsted-Lowry definition, both acids and bases are related to the concentration of
hydrogen ions present. Acids increase the concentration of hydrogen ions, while bases
decrease the concentration of hydrogen ions (by accepting them). The acidity or basicity of
something, therefore, can be measured by its hydrogen ion concentration.

In 1909, the Danish biochemist Sören Sörensen invented the pH scale for measuring
acidity. The pH scale is described by the formula:

pH = -log [H+]

Note: Concentration is commonly abbreviated by using square brackets, thus [H +] =

hydrogen ion concentration. When measuring pH, [H+] is in units of moles of H+ per liter
of solution.

For example, a solution with [H+] = 1 x 10-7 moles/liter has a pH equal to 7 (a simpler way to
think about pH is that it equals the exponent on the H+ concentration, ignoring the minus
sign). The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Substances with a pH between 0 and less than 7
are acids (pH and [H+] are inversely related - lower pH means higher [H+]). Substances with
a pH greater than 7 and up to 14 are bases (higher pH means lower [H+]). Right in the middle,

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at pH = 7, are neutral substances, for example, pure water. The relationship between [H +]
and pH is shown in the table below alongside some common examples of acids and bases in
everyday life.

Table 1. pH Value of Some Substances

H+ pH Example
Acids 1X100 0 HCl
1X10-1 1 Stomach acid
1X10-2 2 Lemon juice
1X10-3 3 Vinegar
1X10-4 4 Soda
1X10-5 5 Rainwater
1X10-6 6 Milk
Neutral 1X10-7 7 Pure water
Bases 1X10-8 8 Egg whites
1X10-9 9 Baking soda
1X10-10 10 Tums antacid
1X10-11 11 Ammonia
1X10-12 12 Mineral lime-Ca(OH)2
1X10-13 13 Drano
1X10-14 14 NaOH

Problem Example 1:

A solution of 25.0 mL of hydrochloric acid was titrated with 3.50 M sodium hydroxide. If
it took 38.2 ml of the sodium hydroxide to neutralize the acid, what was the molar
concentration of the acid?

Solution :
First, we must write a balanced equation for the reaction that takes place:

NaOH + HCl H2O + NaCl

Form this we can calculate the number of moles of HCl that are equivalent to 38.2 ml of 3.50
M NaOH, as follows:

38.2 ml NaOH solution X 3.50 mol NaOH/1000 ml NaOH solution X 1 mol HCl/1 mol
NaOH= 0.134 mol HCl

Then from the number of moles of HCl and the number of milliliters of HCl solution, we can
calculate the molar concentration (moles HCl per liter of solution) as:

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0.134 mol HCl/25.0 mol solution X 1000 ml solution/1 L solution=5.36 mol HCl/1 L
solution=5.36 M

This could be solved using:

M= millimole (mmol)/milliliter (ml)

38.2 ml NaOH solution/25.0 mL HCl solution x 3.50 mmol NaOH/1 mL NaOH solution x 1
mmol HCl/1 mmol NaOH = 5.36 M HCl

4.2.2 Strength of Acids and Bases

Strong Acids

In water, strong acids completely dissociate into free protons and their conjugate base.

 Strong acids can catalyze chemical reactions.

 Strong acids are defined by their pKa. The acid must be stronger in aqueous solution
than a hydronium ion, so its pKa must be lower than that of a hydronium ion.
Therefore, strong acids have a pKa of <-174.
 Strong acids can be organic or inorganic.
 Strong acids must be handled carefully because they can cause severe chemical burns.
 Strong acids are essential for catalyzing some reactions, including the synthesis and
hydrolysis of carbonyl compounds.

Important Terms

 carbonyl: a divalent functional group (-CO-), characteristic of aldehydes, ketones,

carboxylic acids, amides, carboxylic acid anhydrides, carbonyl halides, esters, and
others.
 ester: a compound usually formed by condensing an alcohol and an acid and
eliminating of water. it contains the functional group carbon-oxygen double bond
joined via carbon to another oxygen atom
 hydrolysis: a chemical process of decomposition; involves splitting a bond and adding
the hydrogen cation and water’s hydroxide anion

Definition of Strong Acids

The strength of an acid refers to the ease with which the acid loses a proton. A strong
acid ionizes completely in an aqueous solution by losing one proton, where HA is a
protonated acid, H+ is the free acidic proton, and A– is the conjugate base. Strong acids yield

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weak conjugate bases. For sulfuric acid, which is diprotic, the “strong acid” designation
refers only to the dissociation of the first proton:

More precisely, the acid must be stronger in aqueous solution than a hydronium ion (H +), so
strong acids have a pKa < -1.74. An example is hydrochloric acid (HCl), whose pKa is -6.3.
This generally means that in aqueous solution at standard temperature and pressure, the
concentration of hydronium ions is equal to the concentration of strong acid introduced to
the solution.

Weak Acids

Key Points

 The dissociation of weak acids, which are the most popular type of acid, can be
calculated mathematically and applied in experimental work.
 If the concentration and Ka of a weak acid are known, the pH of the entire solution can
be calculated. The exact method of calculation varies according to what assumptions
and simplifications can be made.
 Weak acids and weak bases are essential for preparing buffer solutions, which have
important experimental uses.

Key Terms

 conjugate acid: the species created when a base accepts a proton

 conjugate base: the species created after donating a proton.
 weak acid: one that dissociates incompletely, donating only some of its hydrogen ions
into solution

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Figure 1. Ionization of acids and bases in water: A strong acid ionizes

completely in an aqueous solution by losing one proton (H+).

Due to the complete dissociation of strong acids in aqueous solution, the concentration of
hydronium ions in the water is equal to the total concentration (ionized and un-ionized) of
the acid introduced to solution:

[H+] = [A−] = [HA]total and pH = −log[H+].

Strong acids, like strong bases, can cause chemical burns when exposed to living tissue.

Examples of Strong Acids

Some common strong acids (acids with pKa < -1) include:

 Hydroiodic acid (HI): pKa = -9.3

 Hydrobromic acid (HBr): pKa = -8.7
 Perchloric acid (HClO4): pKa ≈ -8
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl): pKa = -6.3
 Sulfuric acid (H2SO4): pKa1 ≈ -3 (first dissociation only)
 p-Toluenesulfonic acid: pKa = -2.8
 Nitric acid (HNO3): pKa ≈ -1.4
 Chloric acid (HClO3): pKa ≈ 1.0

Figure 2. p-Toluenesolfonic acid: p-Toluenesulfonic acid is an example of

an organic soluble strong acid, with a pKa of -2.8.

Strong Acid Catalysis

Strong acids can accelerate the rate of certain reactions. For instance, strong acids can
accelerate the synthesis and hydrolysis of carbonyl compounds. With carbonyl compounds

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such as esters, synthesis and hydrolysis go through a tetrahedral transition state, where the
central carbon has an oxygen, an alcohol group, and the original alkyl group. Strong acids
protonate the carbonyl, which makes the oxygen positively charged so that it can easily
receive the double-bond electrons when the alcohol attacks the carbonyl carbon; this enables
ester synthesis and hydrolysis.

Weak Acids

A weak acid only partially dissociates in solution.

4.2.3 The pH Scale

pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from 0 - 14, with 7 being
neutral. pHs of less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a
base. pH is really a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the
water.

Most people are familiar with the words acid and acidic—whether it’s because of acid rain
or acidic foods like lemon juice. However, fewer people are aware of acid’s
opposite: base (also called alkaline). Basic substances include things like baking soda, soap,
and bleach. Distilled water is a neutral substance. The pH scale, which measures from 0 to
14, provides an indication of just how acidic or basic a substance is.

Most parts of our body (excluding things like stomach acid) measure around 7.2 and
7.6 on the pH scale (a 7 is neutral on the scale). If foreign strong substances dramatically
change this pH, our bodies can no longer function properly.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. The pH of a solution is a measure of its acidity or
alkalinity (base). You have probably used litmus paper, paper that has been treated with a
natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a pH indicator, to test how much acid or base
(alkalinity) exists in a solution. You might have even used some to make sure the water in an
outdoor swimming pool is properly treated.

This pH test measures the amount of hydrogen ions that exists in a given solution.
High concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH (acidic substances), whereas low levels
of hydrogen ions result in a high pH (basic substances). The overall concentration of
hydrogen ions is inversely related to its pH and can be measured on the pH scale (Figure 1).
Therefore, the more hydrogen ions present, the lower the pH; conversely, the fewer hydrogen
ions, the higher the pH. A change of one unit on the pH scale represents a change in the
concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor of 10, a change in two units represents a change
in the concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor of 100. Thus, small changes in pH represent
large changes in the concentrations of hydrogen ions. Pure water is neutral. It is neither acidic
nor basic, and has a pH of 7.0. Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is acidic, and

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anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0) is alkaline. The blood in your veins is slightly alkaline
(pH = 7.4). The environment in your stomach is highly acidic (pH = 1 to 2). Orange juice is
mildly acidic (pH = approximately 3.5), whereas baking soda is basic (pH = 9.0).

Acids are substances that provide hydrogen ions (H +) and lower pH, whereas bases
provide hydroxide ions (OH–) and raise pH. The stronger the acid, the more readily it donates
H+. For example, hydrochloric acid and lemon juice are very acidic and readily give up
H+ when added to water. Conversely, bases are those substances that readily donate OH –.
The OH– ions combine with H+ to produce water, which raises a substance’s pH. Sodium
hydroxide and many household cleaners are very alkaline and give up OH – rapidly when
placed in water, thereby raising the pH.

Figure 3. The pH Scale

Acid-Base Properties of Salts

A weak acid is one that does not dissociate completely in solution; this means that a weak
acid does not donate all of its hydrogen ions (H +) in a solution. Weak acids have very small
values for Ka (and therefore higher values for pKa ) compared to strong acids, which have
very large Ka values (and slightly negative pKa values).

The majority of acids are weak. On average, only about 1 percent of a weak acid solution
dissociates in water in a 0.1 mol/L solution. Therefore, the concentration of H+ ions in a weak
acid solution is always less than the concentration of the undissociated species, HA.

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Examples of weak acids include acetic acid (CH3COOH), which is found in vinegar, and
oxalic acid (H2C2O4), which is found in some vegetables.

ASSESSMENT
1. Define or explain each of the following:
a. Arrhenius acid
b. Arrhenius base
c. Bronsted-Lowry acid
d. Bronsted-Lowry base
e. Lewis acid
f. Lewis base
g. Weak acid
h. Strong acid
i. Indicator
2. Acid-base concepts
Classify each of the following as (i) Arrhenius acid, (ii) Arrhenius base, (iii)
Bronsted-Lowry acid, (iv) Bronsted-Lowry base, (v) Lewis acid, (vi) Lewis
base. The answer could be none of these, or one, or two.
a. SO2
b. HNO3
c. NH4+
d. KOH
e. HClO4
f. H3O+
g. NaOH
h. PO43-

3. Classify each of the following as a weak acid, or base, or strong acid, or base.
(The answer could be none of these, or one or more).
a. HCl
b. KOH
c. NH3
d. HSO4-
e. HNO3
f. HClO
g. Be(OH)2
h. Zn (OH)2

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4. Neutralization Reaction. Calculate the molar concentration of the acid if

35.0ml of HCl are neutralized by 42.5 ml of 0.250 M NaOH. (10 points).
5. What are the uses of indicators in acid-base reactions? Explain. (10 points).
4.3 REFERENCES

Antero, E., Alumaga, M. & Estanilla, L. (2004). Conceptual and Functional Chemistry:
Modular Approach. Manila: Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
America, New York, NY 10020.
Brown, T. (2000). Chemistry: The Central Science, 8thEd. , New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc.

Monserate, J., Salazar, J. & Cardenas, C. (2009). Chemistry. The science where matter
matters!, Malabon: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

Smith, Gorrzynski (2013). General, Organic & Biological Chemistry: McGraw-Hill

International edition., McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1221.

4.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay