Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

3D seismic geomorphology of a large Plio-Pleistocene delta e ‘Bright spots’

and contourites in the Southern North Sea
Jennifer Y. Stuart a, *, Mads Huuse b
a
University of Leeds, School of Earth and Environment, West Yorkshire, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
b
University of Manchester, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, Manchester, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Regional 2D seismic interpretation has been integrated with high-resolution 3D interpretation in Dutch
Received 24 September 2011 offshore blocks AeF in the Southern North Sea. 17 horizons (MMU, S1eS4, S4.1, S4.2, S5, S5.1, S6eS13)
Received in revised form and 14 seismic units were interpreted, expanding upon studies by Kuhlmann and Wong (2008). The
22 May 2012
study presents detailed and extensive TWT-structure and thickness maps of key depositional units
Accepted 5 June 2012
Available online 28 June 2012
allowing paleogeographic reconstructions. Detailed analysis of incisional (scour marks and hypothesised
iceberg scours) and constructional features (contourites, identified initially by ‘bright spots’ on seismic
data) linked to bottom currents was undertaken. Paleo-paleographic reconstructions of water depth
Keywords:
Seismic geomorphology
emphasise the role of hypothesised tidally generated contour currents in the late stage deltaic infill of an
Southern North Sea epicontinental basin (North Sea).
Netherlands Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Delta
Contourite
Incision
Bright spot
Iceberg scour
Stratigraphy

1. Introduction 2005). The succession reached
1500 m thickness due to

The Southern North Sea (SNS) has been widely explored by the
petroleum industry, providing extensive 2D and 3D seismic
coverage. This has made possible a detailed seismic sedimento-
logical and stratigraphic study of the area in order to identify and
interpret localised sediment and fluid features. The study site is
located in Dutch offshore blocks AeF (Fig. 1).
Long-term Cenozoic evolution of the SNS was governed by
regional subsidence of the North Sea Basin (Ziegler, 1990) and
denudation of the Fennoscandian shield (Nielsen et al. 2010). The
Baltic River system (Bijlsma, 1981; Overeem et al. 2001) developed
in response to mid Miocene (15 Ma) tectonic and climatic changes
and a general filling up of accommodation space in northern part of
the eastern North Sea Basin (Jordt et al., 1995; Michelsen et al., 1995;
Huuse et al., 2001). Deposition by the delta during the Middle and
Late Miocene was in onshore parts of NW Europe and the German
North Sea Basin (Bijlsma, 1981). The Plio-Pleistocene delta succes-
sion prograded from the north and east, with a general fining trend
of sediments throughout the succession to the west (Schroot et al.
increased sediment input throughout the Neogene (Ziegler, 1990).
Subsequent progradation from the southern Rhine delta (Funnell,
1996) is seen in the most recent deposits of the study area.
Short-term control on sedimentation came from changing
climatic conditions (Kuhlmann and Wong, 2008). A warm climate
was recorded prior to the Pleistocene (2.58 Ma). Followed by alter-
nations between warm and cool conditions and first onset of glaci-
ation in the Gelasian (2.58 Mae1.9 Ma). Glaciated conditions with
associated features, such as tunnel valleys (w450 ka), which incise
the deposits of the Calabrian (Huuse and Lykke-Andersen, 2000).
This study aims to identify high amplitude and fluid-based
anomalies (‘bright spots’) and to interpret these in terms of fluid
and lithological content through well log and seismic facies anal-
ysis. Lithology of the deposits will be related to key palaeo-
depositional and palaeo-environmental controls. Where ‘bright
spots’, erosional and depositional anomalies are identified, the
study aims to ascertain the origin of such features.
2. Methodology and database

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ44 (0)7754895645. A regional dataset was provided by Volantis Exploration, the
E-mail address: eejs@leeds.ac.uk (J.Y. Stuart). extent of which is marked on Figure 1. The regional dataset

0264-8172/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.06.003
144 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157

Figure 1. Location of the study area in the northern Dutch offshore sector, Southern North Sea (SNS). Central North Sea (CNS) is also indicated. Regional 2D study area is shaded light
grey, 3D surveys are indicated by dark grey shading and outline. Survey A15, previously studied by Kuhlmann & Wong (2008), is indicated in white, Pleistocene palaeo-shoreline,
direction of delta progradation and Baltic River and Rhine Delta inputs (Funnell, 1996) are shown. Inset: Detailed map of Dutch offshore AeF blocks comprising the study area. 2D
lines used to correlate the regional 2D seismo-stratigraphic framework with the 3D stratigraphy are shown in blue, and key calibration wells indicating hydrocarbon content.
Offshore sectors for Belgium (B), Germany (D) Denmark (NK) Norway (NO) are outlined. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of this article.)

consisted of 2D and 3D surveys, with 12 key horizons interpreted
throughout. This interpretation framework was used to create
isochron thickness maps charting the progression of the delta
sequence through the study area.
A more detailed study, focussing on lithology and fluid-effect
‘bright spots’ was then carried out. Three key 2D surveys (AB-16,
AB-23 and AB-25) were used to tie the regional stratigraphy (using
the seismo-stratigraphic framework of Kuhlmann and Wong, 2008)
to three 3D surveys (A15, Z3NAM1993A and Z3NAM1998C).
Seismo-stratigraphy has been assigned to A15 in numerous
previous studies of the area (Kuhlmann and Wong, 2008). Locations
of surveys used in this more detailed study (Table 1) are shown in
Figure 1. AB-16 provides an east-west trending profile view of the
Plio-Pleistocene prograding package and bisects 3D survey A15
(used by Kuhlmann & Wong in their (2008) study), while AB-23 and
AB-25 provide northesouth trending strike views. Detailed 3D
interpretation was carried out using Shlumberger’s Petrel 2009.2
software package, using the surveys A15, Z3NAM1993A and
Z3NAM1998C. The remaining 2D surveys were used to identify
shallow gas accumulations.
The seismo-stratigraphy was interpreted in accordance with the
method set out by Mitchum et al. (1977), whereby seismic
sequences are identified as packages of concordant reflections,
separated by discontinuity surfaces (stratal terminations) of
reflection terminations. Terminations were identified as erosional
truncation, toplap, downlap and onlap. Key horizons were inter-
preted within the framework of Kuhlmann & Wong’s (2008)
previous study in the area. Interpreted well-logs from eight wells
 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157
Table 1
Details of 2D and 3D seismic surveys used for interpretation Vertical resolution calculated as wavelength/4.
Survey Area/Length (km) No. inlines No. crosslines
A15 25  25 1910 2067
Z3NAM1993A 46  29 1151 1851
Z3NAM1998C 38  39 1503 1558
AB-16 58 e e
AB-23 44 e e
AB-25 47 e e
(location shown in Fig. 1, inset) were used to confirm lithology and,
where possible, the presence of gas. An approximate TWT-depth
conversion was confirmed using isopach vs isochron cross-plots
for survey A15 provided by Volantis Exploration giving a conver-
sion of approximately 1 ms ¼ 1 m (velocity c. 2 km/s).
Seismic interpretation techniques employed include: isochron
thickness mapping in order to map the progress of the delta front;
isoslicing for detailed views between key surfaces; the use of RMS
amplitude volumes to identify fluids; and amplitude extraction on
key surfaces to aid in lithology interpretation.
Palaeo-coastlines and water depths are linked to Funnell (1996)
and Huuse (2002) respectively. Palaeoenvironmental intervals
were inferred from those defined in previous studies in the area
(Kuhlmann et al., 2006; Kuhlmann and Wong, 2008). Survey A15
(Fig. 1), the focus of this study, was previously used by Kuhlmann
and Wong (2008) to establish a regional stratigraphic and palae-
oenvironmental framework for the area. This study extends on the
previous work of Kuhlmann & Wong, providing more detailed
architecture of fine-scaled details than has previously been
provided for the area, thus leading to an improved seismo-
stratigraphic interpretation of the Plio-Pleistocene deposits.
3. Results
3.1. Stratigraphy
The regional stratigraphy established by Kuhlmann and Wong
(2008) and Sørensen et al. (1997) consists of thirteen key hori-
zons (S1eS13). These horizons are here identified and interpreted
as seismic sequence boundaries (Fig. 2). The Mid-Miocene Uncon-
formity was also identified. In addition to the previously estab-
lished stratigraphy, three additional horizons were identified: S4.1
and S4.2 form part of an intensely incised package between S4.1
and S5 (S4.2 being the most extensively incised) and are not
interpreted as sequence boundaries. The S5.1-S6 interval onlaps
onto S5.1,with clinoform break points in a more distal position to
the previous interval, identifying it as the low-stand systems tract.
S5.1 is therefore interpreted as a sequence boundary and allows the
S5eS6 sequence to be split into two. Eastewest trending line AB-16
(Fig. 2a) shows a profile of the prograding units; this line bisects the
3D survey A15 and was used to tie the high-resolution 3D inter-
pretation to the regional 2D interpretation. Northesouth trending
lines AB-23 (Fig. 2b, also bisecting A15) are orientated along the
strike of the units. A slight dip of S4eS13 from north to south
indicates the main direction of Pleistocene progradation was from
east-northeast. Figure 3 shows time-structure maps of regionally
picked horizons within the S1eS13 succession.
Sediments deposited between S2 and S10 are identified as
prograding wedges of the Baltic River delta system. These pro-
grading deposits have been mapped across the North Sea area
(Cameron et al. 1993; Funnell, 1996; Huuse et al. 2001; Kuhlmann
and Wong, 2008; Møller et al. 2009; Sørensen et al. 1997).
Figure 4 links the horizons identified in this study to the seismic
units and chronology of Kuhlmann and Wong (2008).
145
Inline spacing (m) Crossline spacing (m) Vertical sampling (ms) Vertical resolution (m)
12.50 12.50 2 10
25.00 25.00 4 11
25.00 25.00 4 11
25.00 e 4 11
25.00 e 4 11
25.00 e 4 11
3.2. Pleistocene delta progradation
The thickest part of each prograding unit of a delta is the
clinoform-containing delta front (Fig. 5). Isochron thickness maps
were constructed from the regional data in order to chart the
Pleistocene progradation of the delta, i.e. from S4 onwards (Fig. 6).
Delta front is annotated at each stage of progression. The delta can
be seen to be prograding from east to west throughout the Pleis-
tocene, with delta front style varying between elongate-planar
(Fig. 6a, c), developing small lobes (Fig. 6b), to a more arcuate
delta front (Fig. 6d, e, f).
3.3. High amplitude ‘bright spots’ and incised features
High amplitude reflections at S4.2 (Fig. 2a) identified an interval
where incision by post-depositional processes partially removed
the surface S4.2 (Fig. 7). At S10, ‘bright spots’ (Fig. 8) highlight
depositional features. In both cases, these features have elongate
geometries.
4. Interpretation
4.1. Palaeoenvironmental and depositional interpretation
The seismic-stratigraphic units identified in the study area
(Fig. 2a) are tied to the regional chronology of Kuhlmann and Wong
(2008) through the gamma-ray curve of well A15-03 (Fig. 4), which
is in turn tied to the seismic units of Sørensen et al. (1997) and
Overeem et al. (2001). This allows the seismic units to be inter-
preted in terms of the five palaeoenvironmental intervals of
Kuhlmann (2004), drawing evidence from the 3D geomorphology
of structures within each interval. Palaeoenvironment is therefore
interpreted principally in 3D survey A15 for comparison between
this study and Kuhlmann and Wong (2008).
4.1.1. Palaeoenvironmental interval 1: MMU-S4
The interval of MMU-S4 encompasses Mid-MioceneeUpper
Pliocene sediments. The base of the interval is the Mid-Miocene
Unconformity; a high amplitude reflection (Fig. 2a), with a struc-
tural dip to the north-east, representing a transgressive surface
(Huuse and Claussen, 2001), the geomorphology of which is
influenced by the underlying Polygonally-Faulted-System. This is
attributed to dewatering of clay-rich sediments in a lowermost
slope to basin floor setting (Cartwright, 1994). The MMU is overlain
by highly condensed Upper Miocene sediments with low ampli-
tude, uniform reflections, seen as prograding sediments in the
German North Sea (Sørensen et al., 1997; Köthe, 2007, 2008).
The palaeoenvironment is interpreted as temperate, open
marine (Kuhlmann, 2004) with a water depth of a few hundred
metres (Huuse, 2002; Rasmussen, 2005). The homogenous char-
acter of the seismic reflections is typical of temperate, distal clastic
sediments (Kuhlmann and Wong, 2008). The seismic units in the
study area represent the most distal sediments of the interval (with
146 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157

Figure 2. a. 2D seismic line AB-16 displaying east-west trending profile of the main regional seismic units (S1-S13) in line with the stratigraphy of Kuhlmann and Wong (2008). The
lowermost interpreted unit is the Mid-Miocene Unconformity (MMU). Additional horizons identified are S4.1 and S4.2 (key horizons within the S4-S5 sequence) and S5.1. Surfaces
displaying anomalous high amplitude features are denoted in white. Circled area highlights a package between S4 and S5 that has undergone intense incision. The profile shows
a large, east-west prograding delta succession from the Pliocene-Pleistocene. Adapted from Kuhlmann and Wong (2008). b. 2D line AB-23 showing northesouth trending strike
view of the Plio-Pleistocene delta succession. Also noted are a large (w500 m deep) Pleistocene valley and, circled, a Lower Pleistocene gas accumulation. The lowermost interpreted
horizon is the MMU.

sequence boundaries rapidly down-lapping onto the MMU
(Fig. 2a)). Sediment supply is from the north-east (Fig. 3a).
4.1.2. Palaeoenvironmental interval 2: S4-S5
This lowermost interval of the Pleistocene prograding succes-
sion is early Gelasian in age. During this interval, sediment supply
(and hence direction of delta progradation) can be seen to change
in supply direction from the north-east (Fig. 3a) to the east (Fig. 3b).
This is in line with the findings of Kuhlmann and Wong (2008).
Within the A15 survey, this interval is in a lower slope to bottom-of-
slope position (Fig. 2a). The seismic character of the interval
changes from low amplitude (S4eS4.1) to alternating between low
amplitude, continuous reflections, and high amplitude reflections
(S4.1eS5). The gamma ray log response to this interval fluctuates
between high GR (gAPI) corresponding to the low amplitude
reflections, and low GR response corresponding to the high
amplitude reflections (Fig. 4). Well A15-03 passes through the
interval: GR curve response and core log descriptions of the interval
confirm the high amplitude strata as relatively tight, silty sandstone
with a gas show; the low amplitude strata as silty mudstone.
According to Kuhlmann and Wong (2008), the S4eS5 interval
was deposited in a ‘transitional’ palaeoenvironment of alternating
cold periods, with associated low seismic amplitude, fine-grained
clastic deposition, and warm periods. During this time the higher
amplitude, coarser silty sandstones were deposited. Sediment
accumulation rates are assumed to be higher in the cooler periods
due to enhanced erosion and precipitation under glacial conditions
(Kuhlmann and Wong, 2008; Overeem et al. 2001). No glacial
features were found in the dataset at this interval.
The low amplitude reflections are laterally continuous and
homogenous, whereas the high amplitude reflections (sand units)
are discontinuous and pinch out rapidly to the east at the bottom of
the slope. S4.2, a silty-sand unit, deposited during a relatively warm
period, shows erosional truncation of reflections in section view
 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157
Figure 3. Time-structure maps of regionally picked horizons in the Dutch SNS. TWT elevation of structures is given in e sec. Approximate position of the delta front/clinoform break
is in dark pink. Direction of progradation/sediment supply is indicated by the orange arrows. Data courtesy of Volantis Exploration. (For interpretation of the references to colour in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
(Fig. 7). A structure map with amplitude extraction reveals elongate
incisions (
4 km  500 m  20 m) into the S4.2 sands, aligned with
the delta front (Fig. 9). Incision, to a lesser degree, is also seen on S5.
Palaeogeographic maps for the Southern North Sea (Huuse,
2002) estimate an ‘outer shelf’ water depth for the area of
100 me300 m depth. Measurement of clinoform height from
approximate clinoform break point to the position of the incised
deposits at the slope bottom confirms a water depth of approxi-
mately 100 m.
4.1.3. Palaeoenvironmental interval 3: S5-S7, restricted marine
Progradation in this interval is directly from the east (Fig. 6c).
Kuhlmann and Wong (2008) describe the S5eS5.1 unit as a warm,
transgressive interval, with the overlying S5.1eS6 unit as cold and
regressive. Analysis of the regional data reveals that the clinoform
break point of S5.1 has migrated basinwards of the S5 break point,
ruling out transgression. In fact, the erosional truncation of top
reflections in the S5eS5.1 unit identifies it as a forced-regressive
(falling stage) systems tract (Fig. 2a), in keeping with a restricted
marine setting. ‘Bright spots’ in this interval are attributed to thin
bed tuning effects of reflections at the toe of clinoforms.
The interpretation of the S5.1eS6 interval as a low-stand systems
tract is in line with that of Sørensen et al. (1997) and a maximum
flooding surface (MFS) is placed at the top of the S5.1eS6 unit. A
further forced-regressive systems tract is assigned to the S6eS7 unit
where erosional truncation is seen at the top of clinoform reflections.
4.1.4. Palaeoenvironmental interval 4: S7eS12, shallow marine,
arctic
The seismic facies for the S7eS9 interval is progradational and
aggradational. S9eS12 is aggradational. The palaeoenvironment is
interpreted as shallow marine, arctic ‘icehouse’ conditions (Huuse
147
and Claussen, 2001; Kuhlmann, 2004, Kuhlmann et al. 2006). In
accordance with this, clinoform height indicates a water depth of
<200 m throughout the study area (Fig. 3deg).
Evidence of floating glaciation in the interval is given by a succes-
sion of striations seen in seismic time slices and horizon attribute
maps between 780 ms (S8 unit) and 430 ms (S13). The scours
range in length from 0.5 km to 15 km, and are interpreted as buried
scours made by iceberg keels on the palaeo-sea-floor (Kuhlmann and
Wong, 2008), with scour depths of
10 m. However, due to the scale of
the incision depths (close to seismic resolution of the survey), the
scours are more clearly imaged on seismic amplitude time slices.
Figure 10a shows these iceberg scours with an apparent NeS align-
ment at 650 ms (within the S9eS10 interval). The instantaneous
seismic amplitude of horizon S10 clearly displays the iceberg scours in
a position near to the top of the slope (Fig. 10b).
In a middle to bottom-of-slope position on the S10 structure
(survey Z3NAM1998C), further evidence of along-slope currents
can be seen in a ‘bright spot’ caused by lithology and gas: an
accumulation of possible contourite deposits (Fig. 11). Well 39/16-
01 penetrates the crest of one of the high amplitude features and
confirmed the lithology as sand and the presence of gas.
4.1.5. Palaeoenvironmental interval 5: S12eS13, nearshore-paralic,
glacial
In the study area the S11eS12 interval is more aggradational in
seismic character so is interpreted as paralic. However, the presence
of iceberg scours implies a marine setting. The interval is therefore
interpreted as shallow marine, at least during sea-level high-stands.
The S12eS13 unit is also purely aggradational in character, and is
interpreted as fluvial to paralic (Kuhlmann et al., 2006).
Between 300 ms and 100 ms elevation, incised valley
structures were identified by Kuhlmann and Wong (2008) (Figs. 2
148 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157

Figure 4. Summary of key observations of the study: Chronostratigraphic ages, gamma log curve (correlated to horizons), seismic units, palaeoenvironmental intervals and features
representative of each interval. Figure after Kuhlmann and Wong (2008), updated to show key horizons of this study, together with erosional/depositional features associated with
each interval.

and 4). These are interpreted as Pleistocene (Quaternary) glacial
valleys present in much of the North sea at this time (Huuse and
Lykke-Andersen, 2000).
5. Discussion
5.1. S4.2: bottom current incision
Elongate, delta front-aligned incisions are seen cutting into the
S4.2 sands (Figs. 9 and 12), and to a lesser extent, the S5 sands
(Fig. 13). These are interpreted as formed by current incision
(Kuhlmann and Wong, 2008). The incisions into S4.2 are flat-
bottomed (Figs. 9 and 14): the bases of the incisions have a dip
angle of 0e1, the same angle as the surrounding mud-rich clino-
forms. Incisions are typically round-based; the flat base of the
incisions in S4.2 may imply an underlying more resistive lithology,
i.e. the current was able to incise the (high seismic amplitude) sand,
but not the underlying (low seismic amplitude) cohesive mud. As
the incisions in S5 are less well-developed, they do not penetrate
through the sand, hence have more rounded bases (Fig. 13).
The seismic expression of the S5 incisions resembles the ‘ridge-
trough’ features described by Cartwright (1995) in the UK Central

Figure 5. Schematic diagram illustrating thickness of prograding units within the delta succession. Delta top and clinoform break are marked. The thickest (purple) section of each
unit is the clinoform-containing delta front. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157 149

Figure 6. Isochron TWT-thickness maps demonstrating the East to West progradation of the SNS delta. The thickest part of each isochron contains clinoform foreset delta deposits.
Position of the clinoform break is marked in dark pink. Contour current study areas are marked in red, with local 3D survey isochrons. Direction of progradation/sediment supply is
indicated by the orange arrows. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Figure 7. 3D survey A15 seismic amplitude section on in line 3270 showing erosional truncation of S4.2 reflection, and resulting flat-based incisions.
150 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157

Figure 8. In line 1779 of 3D survey Z3NAM1998C. ‘Bright spots’ at the S10 horizon show mounded depositional features interpreted as contourites, exhibiting up-slope migration, as
younger deposits (up-slope) onlap onto older deposits. Truncation of the internal reflections of individual mounds indicates a minor incision/scour component; however the
principal process is deposition. Troughs between the mounds are considered to be non-depositional rather than erosional, formed by moat-like confined flow.

Figure 9. Amplitude extraction on the S4.2 structure reveals
12 km width, high amplitude sand body, with elongate, slope-parallel incisions. Well A15-03 (location shown)
confirms lithology. Surface dips at an angle of 0 e1 to the west.
 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157 151

Figure 10. a. At 650 ms (approximately S9), scours are densely concentrated to the south-west, and appear to show a preferential alignment NeS. Scours were originally identified
at this TWT position by Kuhlmann and Wong (2008). b. Amplitude extraction on the S10 structure map. Iceberg scours are highlighted in yellow, artefacts due to acquisition of data
are shown in red. The scours show an overall southenorth trend, indicating the influence of southenorth current. The position of the A15-03 well is shown, testing gas at the
interval of the Pleistocene ‘bright spot’ (central, bright blue). The ‘bright spot’ to the far north of the image is attributed to the A12 gas field. Inset: Rose diagram showing iceberg
scour alignment azimuth. The azimuth of 153 scours was measured, giving a mode azimuth range of 0 e10 , confirming the southenorth bias. (For interpretation of the references
to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

North Sea (erosional truncation of reflections, followed by onlap of
infill reflections), albeit on a smaller scale. The UK sector incisions
measure
20 km  1e3 km  100e300 m, compared to the Dutch
SNS incisions measuring
4 km  500 m  20 m. Cartwright (1995)
concluded that the incisions were formed by a down-slope process.
However, the findings of this study are that they are formed by an
along-slope process. Evidence can be found in the following:
 Alignment of the incisions. Incisions caused by a down-slope
process are typically aligned down-slope, perpendicular to
the delta front, such as the ‘incised canyons described by
Møller et al. (2009). The along-slope (parallel to delta front)
alignment of the S4.2/S5 incisions (Figs. 6a and 9) implies an
along-slope current.
 Geomorphology of the incisions. Figure 14 shows a dip angle
attribute map of an S4.2 incision structure. The eastern wall of
every incision is convex, whilst the western wall is concave
(undercut). This indicates a slightly higher current velocity
acting on the western wall, implying a slight arc in the current
flow. It is therefore concluded that the current is along-slope,
closely following the geometry of the broadly arcuate delta
front (Figs. 3a, b, 6a). Slope-parallel currents flowing in a lower
slope position are interpreted as bottom currents (Stow et al.,
2002). Andresen et al. (2008) investigated broadly similar
152 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157

Figure 11. Amplitude extraction on the S10 structure. Iceberg scours are seen in an upper slope position (A15), whereas low amplitude (mud) sediment waves and high amplitude
(sand) deposits are aligned parallel to the delta front, implying an along-slope depositional process.

features in the upper Miocene and Pliocene of the Danish
Central North Sea and concluded they were current scoured
pockmarks. Kilhams et al. (2011) investigated features in the UK
Central North Sea (CNS) apparently incised by along-slope
processes. This study concludes such features are likely
formed by bottom current action in association with fluid
expulsion processes, although the latter could not be demon-
strated conclusively.
Having established the alignment of the current responsible for
the incisions, it is possible to interpret the direction of flow from
the following:
 Geometry of the incisions. The incisions are generally wider at
their southern end, narrowing towards the north (Figs. 12 and 14).
Narrowing of erosional scours in the direction of flow is a common
feature of flute marks (Collinson et al., 2006). Following the same

Figure 12. Time-structure map of S4.2 reveals a depositional high which results in a basinwards projection of the delta front. Current velocity is interpreted as having increased
approaching the lobe, resulting in the almost complete removal of S4.2. Artificial ‘pull-up’ is caused by overlying Pleistocene channels.
 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157 153

Figure 13. Seismic expression of the incisions on S4.2 and S5. S4.2 incisions are limited by the underlying, less erodible, cohesive mudstone, forming flat-based incisions. The S5
incisions do not fully penetrate the sand so are round-based. The geometry of the S5 structures (erosional truncated mounds, onlap-infilled troughs) resembles the ‘ridge-trough’
features of Cartwright (1995).

assumed mode of scour, the incising current is therefore inter-
preted to be from the south, in contradiction to Kuhlmann and
Wong (2008) who have interpreted incision as from the north.
 A depositional ‘high’ at the far north-east of the S4.2 structure
in survey A15 may have influenced current velocity at this
point as the delta slope is projected in a more basinwards
position (Fig. 12). Bottom current velocity accelerates in
response to basinward projections such as delta lobes (Viana
et al. 1998). This increase in current velocity would enhance
its erosive power. A southwards current would decrease
velocity south of the basinwards projection, depositing sand.
As the S4.2 silty sands have been almost completely eroded
from the southern flank of the lobe, the likely current flow
direction is therefore to the north (anti-clockwise).
Given the geographical location, and the water depth of <300 m,
the bottom current is interpreted as tidally powered, rather than by
thermohaline circulation. Figure 15aec presents a schematic model
for the location and mode of incision on the S4.2 structure.
5.2. S10: bottom current deposition (contourites)
The northesouth aligned potential contourites identified on the
middle to lower slope the S10 structure (Fig. 11) show up-slope

Figure 14. Dip-angle attribute map of an individual incision on the S4.2 structure, revealing a concave (undercut) western side of the incision. This implies a slight increase in
current velocity to the west. This supports the interpretation of following the shape of the broadly arcing delta front. All incisions show the same dip-angle pattern: concave on the
west, convex on the east, side angles varying between 4 and 20 , incision base angles following the angle of the surrounding slope (0 e1 ).
154 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157

Figure 15. a. Schematic model of bottom current incision acting on S4.2, bottom current direction indicated by the blue arrow. Incisions are aligned southenorth, with intense
erosion adjacent to lobes. b. detailed view of an individual incision, showing undercut, concave wall where the current has a slightly increased velocity. c. incision can also be seen to
a lesser extent on S5. Incisions that do not completely cut through the sand (S5) are round-based. Incisions effectively truncated by underlying mud (S4.2) are flat-based. d.
Schematic model showing the relative positions of the mounded contourite sheet (middle to lower slope) and iceberg scours (upper slope). Bottom current direction is indicated by
the blue arrow. e. Schematic representation of the internal structure of up-slope migrating mounds.

migration (Fig. 8), whereby (more recent) up-slope deposits onlap expression of the contourites indicates a preceding, minor scour
onto the older, down-slope deposits. Such up-slope migration is event (truncating some earlier reflections). Scour features identi-
typical of elongate mounded contourites (Carter, 2007). The seismic fied on Figure 11 have a similar geometry (wide at the southern
 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157 155

Figure 16. a. Palaeogeography at the time of the bottom current incision (S4.2). Water depths are adapted from Huuse (2002), position of the Baltic river is adapted from Funnell
(1996). b. Palaeogeography at the time of the contourite deposition (S10). Water depths are adapted from Huuse (2002), position of the Baltic river is adapted from Funnell (1996).

end, narrowing toward the north) to that of the incisions in the
S4.2. sands, indicating a similar process. Troughs have formed
between the depositional mounds. These can be interpreted as
non-depositional troughs, formed by moat-like confined flow
around the mounds (Stow et al., 2002). The shift from slight incision
to deposition indicates fluctuating current velocity (Shanmugam
et al. 1993).
Contourites are generally considered to be deposited by bottom
currents at depths greater than 300 m (Stow et al. 2002). The water
depth at the time of deposition of the S10 deposits (estimated from
clinoform height) is <300 m, therefore the deposits are classified as
shallow water mounded contourites. Figure 15dee is a schematic
model of the relative position of the S10 features (contourite drift,
middle to lower slope, and iceberg scours, upper slope), and
schematic representation of the internal structure of the up-slope
migrating mounds. Observing that at S4.2, the bottom current
was responsible for erosion, whereas at S10 the current favoured
deposition, and inferring that incision is more likely at higher
velocities; it is concluded that the bottom current acting at S10
(1.96 Ma) was flowing at a lower velocity than at S4.2 (2.42 Ma),
although the exact velocities and grain size/density effects are
poorly constrained.
Further evidence for a bottom current operating during the
deposition of the S9-S10 interval can be found in the orientation of
iceberg scour marks seen in a mid-slope position (Fig. 10c). Unlike
at other horizons where the scours appear randomly oriented, the
scours on S10 have a clear northesouth preferential alignment, i.e.
parallel to the slope. This implies a stronger current influence at
156 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157
this time (1.96 Ma), perhaps suggesting that a tidal-circulation
current was operating along-slope rather than density-laden
currents down-slope. High amplitudes on the structure are due to
the presence of gas (the position of the A15-03 well), and sand
(discontinuous, to the south and west of the image). A rose diagram
(Fig. 10c) of iceberg scour alignment was constructed, considering
only scours >1 km length. Scours were shown to be alligned on
a northesouth axis. Assuming that the bottom current operational
at this time flowed in the same direction as that responsible for the
scours at S4.2 (anti-clockwise), the scours are shown to be aligned
south-to-north, with an azimuthal range of 0e10 . The icebergs are
interpreted to have migrated along-slope through along-shore
drift. Such uni-directional scours may be linked with along-shore
drift due to either wind or currents, which would most probably
be tidal in this enclosed basin. However, no kinks have been
observed to indicate changes in current direction, which could
suggest relatively weak currents, perhaps similar to the tidal gyre
operating in the North Sea today.
The scour features and contourite deposits indicate that an
anticlockwise-flowing bottom current was operational in the SNS
(at least sporadically) between the time of deposition of S4.2 and
S10. Placing these findings in context the features described by
Cartwright (1995), Andresen et al. (2008), Knutz (2010) and Kilhams
et al. (2011) implies an anticlockwise-flowing bottom current
potentially operational in both the SNS and CNS during the Late
Miocene to Pliocene, and in the SNS during the Early Pleistocene.
5.3. Palaeogeography
5.3.1. Palaeogeography at 2.42 Ma (bottom current incision)
Figure 16a shows the palaeogeography at the time of the bottom
current incision of S4.2. Water depth has been interpreted from
clinoform height, together with the palaeogeographic maps of
Huuse (2002). Position of the delta top, clinoform break point and
bottom of slope are interpreted from the S4eS5 isochron (Fig. 6a).
Position of the Baltic River is adapted from Funnell (1996). The
bottom current is interpreted from the S4.2 incisions together with
the basin geometry proposed by Huuse (2002).
5.3.2. Palaeogeography at 1.96 Ma (contourite deposition)
Figure 16b shows the palaeogeography at the time of the con-
tourite deposition at S10. Water depth has been interpreted from
clinoform height, together with the palaeogeography maps of Huuse
(2002). Position of the delta top, clinoform break point and bottom of
slope are interpreted from the S9-S10 isochron (Fig. 6e). Position of
the Baltic river is adapted from Funnell (1996). The bottom current is
interpreted from the Alignment of the contourites together with the
basin geometry proposed by Huuse (2002).
6. Conclusions
 Fourteen seismic units have been interpreted on a combination
of regional 2D seismic data and high-resolution 3D seismic
data in blocks AeF of the Dutch Southern North Sea. These
units correlate with the units of Kuhlmann and Wong (2008),
with the exception of splitting unit S5eS6 (Kuhlman & Wong’s
(2008) unit S6) in two: S5eS5.1 and S5.1eS6. The stratigraphy
was identified as a large, Plio-Pleistocene delta prograding
from the north-east in the Pliocene and from the east in the
Pleistocene.
 The five palaeoenvironmental intervals interpreted by
Kuhlmann et al. (2006) were identified and adjusted as follows:
B Interval 1 (MMU-S4) is interpreted as an open marine,
temperate environment, with homogenous, mud-rich,
NEeSW prograding sediments.
B Interval 2 (S4eS5) represents a transitional environment,
with alternations between warmer periods, associated with
coarser-grained, silty sand deposits, and colder periods,
during which time finer grained, mud-rich sediments were
deposited. On surface S4.2, elongate, slope-parallel incisions
were identified. These are interpreted as being incised by
a bottom current acting parallel to the slope, and flowing
from southenorth.
B Interval 3 is interpreted as restricted marine, with forced
regression in units during falls in relative sea-level. The
interpretation differs from that of Kuhlmann and Wong
(2008) in that, where their study places the first forced
regression at the top of their unit 6 (unit S5.1eS6 in this
study), this study places it in unit S5.1eS6. This study
identified the forced regression through identifying
erosional truncation of clinoforms in the seismic data.
B Interval 4 (S8eS12) is interpreted as a shallow marine, arctic
environment. Southenorth aligned lineaments on the upper
slope were interpreted as iceberg scours. The iceberg
scoured interval is between S8 and S12. Average azimuth of
the scours is 0 e10 indicating the influence of a south-
enorth flowing current. On the S10 structure map, moun-
ded sand deposits on the mid-lower slope showing up-slope
migration in survey Z3NAM1998C are identified as shallow-
water mounded contourites surrounded by non-
depositional troughs due to moat-like confined flow. They
are interpreted as being deposited by a bottom current with
a lesser velocity than the current responsible for the S4.2
incisions. RMS amplitude confirmed the presence of gas in
the contourite mounds.
B Interval 5 (S12eS13) is interpreted as nearshore to fluvial,
with floating glaciation (as evidenced by iceberg scours)
during sea-level high-stands and grounded glaciation
(forming deep. Quaternary valleys) during low-stands.
 An anti-clockwise tidal bottom current was interpreted as
responsible for the bottom slope incision at 2.42 Ma, and the
mid-slope contourite deposition at 1.96 Ma, as well as being
responsible for the iceberg scours. The study would benefit
from further work being undertaken to provide firm ages of
intervals where ages have been interpolated. The stratigraphic
framework and in particular the chronology set out in this
study should be integrated with the stratigraphy from the
adjoining sectors to ensure a consistent, basin-wide interpre-
tation of the delta stratigraphy.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dave Marsden and Andy Mortimer of Volantis
Exploration for the provision of the dataset and valuable assistance
in the regional interpretation of the study area. We are grateful for
the provision of Schlumberger’s Petrel and SMT Kingdom software
licenses to the University of Manchester.
References
Andresen, K.J., Huuse, M., Clausen, O.R., 2008. Morphology and distribution of
Oligocene and Miocene pockmarks in the Danish North Sea e implications for
bottom current activity and fluid migration. Basin Research 20, 445e466.
Bijlsma, S., 1981. Fluvial sedimentation from the Fennoscandian area into the north-
west European basin during the late Cenozoic. Geologie en Mijnbouw 60,
337e345.
Cameron, T.D.J., Bulat, J., Mesdag, C.S., 1993. High resolution seismic profile through
a Late Cenozoic delta complex in the Southern North Sea. Marine and Petro-
leum Geology 10, 591e599.
Carter, R.M., 2007. The Role of Intermediate-Depth Currents in Continental Shelf-
Slope Accretion: Canterbury Drifts, SW Pacific Ocean. In: Geological Society
Special Publications, 276, pp. 129e154.
 J.Y. Stuart, M. Huuse / Marine and Petroleum Geology 38 (2012) 143e157
Cartwright, J.A., 1994. Episodic basin-wide fluid expulsion from geopressured shale
sequences in the North Sea basin. Geology 2, 447e450.
Cartwright, J., 1995. Seismic-stratigraphical analysis of large-scale ridge-trough
sedimentary structures in the Late Miocene to Early Pliocene of the central
North Sea. Special Publication of the International Association of Sedimentol-
ogists 22, 285e303.
Collinson, J.D., Mountney, N.P., Thompson, D., 2006. Sedimentary Structures. Terra
Publishing, Harpenden.
Funnell, B.M., 1996. Plio-Pleistocene palaeogeography of the Southern North Sea
basin (3.75e0.60 Ma). Quaternary Science Reviews 15, 391e405.
Huuse, M., 2002. Cenozoic Uplift and Denudation of Southern Norway: Insights
from the North Sea Basin. In: Geological Society, London, Special Publications,
vol. 196, pp. 209e233.
Huuse, M., Claussen, O.R., 2001. Morphology and origin of major Cenozoic sequence
boundaries in the eastern North Sea Basin: top Eocene, Near-top Oligocene and
the mid-Miocene unconformity. Basin Research 13, 17e41.
Huuse, M., Lykke-Andersen, H., 2000. Overdeepened Quaternary valleys in the
eastern Danish North Sea: morphology and origin. Quaternary Science Reviews
19, 1233e1253.
Huuse, M., Lykke-Andersen, H., Michelsen, O., 2001. Cenozoic evolution of the
eastern North Sea Basin e new evidenc from high-resolution and conventional
seismic data. Marine Geology 177, 243e269.
Jordt, H., Faleide, J.I., Bjørlykke, K., Ibrahim, M.T., 1995. Cenozoic sequence stratig-
raphy in the Central and Northern North Sea: tectonic development, sediment
distribution and provenance areas. Marine and Petroleum Geology 12,
845e879.
Kilhams, B., McArthur, A., Huuse, M., Ita, E., Hartley, A., 2011. Enigmatic large-scale
Furrows of Miocene to Pliocene age from the Central North Sea: current scoured
pockmarks? Geo-Marine Letters XX, 1e13.
Knutz, P.C., 2010. Channel structures formed by contour currents and fluid expul-
sion: significance for Late Neogene development of the central North Sea basin.
In: Vining, B.A., Pickering, S.C. (Eds.), Petroleum Geology: From Mature Basins to
New Frontiers e Proceedings of the 7th Petroleum Geology Conference. The
Geological Society of London, pp. 77e94.
Köthe, A., 2007. Cenozoic Biostratigraphy from the German North Sea Sector (G-11-
1 Borehole, Dinoflagellate Cysts, Calcareous Nannoplankton). In: Z. dt. Ges.
Geowiss, vol. 158(2). Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, pp. 287e327.
Köthe, A., Gaedicke, C., Lutz, R., 2008. Erratum: the age of the Mid-
Miocene Unconformity (MMU) in the G-11-1 borehole, German North
Sea sector. In: Z. dt. Ges. Geowiss, vol. 159(4). Schweizerbart, Stuttgart.
pp. 687e689.
Kuhlmann, G., 2004. High-resolution stratigraphy and paleoenvironmental changes
in the southern North Sea during the Neogeneean integrated study of Late
Cenozoic marine deposits from the northern part of the Dutch offshore area.
Ph.D. thesis, Utrecht University, Geologica Ultraiectina, Mededelingen van de
Faculteit Geowetenschappen, 245, 205 pp.
157
Kuhlmann, G., Langereis, C.G., Munsterman, D., van Leeuwen, R.-J., Verreussel, R.,
Meulenkamp, J., Wong, T.E., 2006. Chronostratigraphy of Late Neogene sedi-
ments in the southern North Sea Basin and paleoenvironmental interpretations.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 239, 426e455.
Kuhlmann, G., Wong, T.E., 2008. Pliocene palaeoenvironmental evolution as inter-
preted from 3D-seismic data in the southern North Sea, Dutch offshore sector.
Marine and Petroleum Geology 25, 173e189.
Michelsen, O., Danielsen, M., Heilmann-Clausen, C., Jordt, H., Laursen, G.V.,
Thomsen, E., 1995. Occurrence of major sequence stratigraphic boundaries in
relation to basin development in Cenozoic deposits of the southeastern North
Sea. Norwegian Petroleum Society Special Publications 5, 415e427.
Mitchum, R.M., Vail, P.R., Sangree, J.B., 1977. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes
of sea level, Part 6: stratigraphic interpretation of seismic reflection patterns in
depositional sequences. AAPG Memoir 26, 117e133.
Møller, L.K., Rasmussen, E.S., Claussen, O.R., 2009. Clinoformmigration patterns of
a Late Miocene delta complex in the Danish Central Graben; implications for
relative sea level changes. Basin Research 21, 704e720.
Nielsen, S.B., Clausen, O.R., Jacobsen, B.H., Thomsen, E., Huuse, M., Gallagher, K.,
Balling, N., Egholm, D., 2010. The ICE hypothesis stands: how the dogma of late
Cenozoic tectonic uplift can no longer be sustained in the light of data and
physical laws. Journal of Geodynamics 50 (2), 102e111.
Overeem, I., Weltje, G.J., Bishop-Kay, C., Kroonenberg, S.B., 2001. The Late Cenozoic
Eridanos delta system in the Southern North Sea Basin: a climate signal in
sediment supply? Basin Research 13, 293e312.
Rasmussen, E.S., 2005. Late Cenozoic depositional history of the Danish North Sea
Basin: implications for the petroleum systems in the Kraka, Halfdan, Siri and
Nini basins. Petroleum Geology Conference Series 6, 1347e1358.
Schroot, B.M., Klaver, G.T., Schüttenhelm, R.T.E., 2005. Surface and subsurface
expressions of gas seepage to the seabed e examples from the Southern North
Sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology 22, 499e515.
Shanmugam, G., Spalding, T.D., Rofheart, D.H., 1993. Process Sedimentology and
Reservoir Quality of Deep-Marine Bottom-Current Reworked Sands (Sandy
Contourites): an Example from the Gulf of Mexico. In: Geological Society
Special Publications, vol. 276, pp. 317e338.
Sørensen, J.C., Gregersen, U., Breiner, M., Michelsen, O., 1997. High-frequency
sequence stratigraphy of Upper Cenozoic deposits in the central and south-
eastern North Sea areas. Marine and Petroleum Geology 14 (2), 99e123.
Stow, P.A., Faugères, J.C., Howe, J.A., Pudsey, C.J., Viana, A.R., 2002. Bottom Currents,
Contourites and Deep-sea Sediment Drifts: Current State-of-the-art. In:
Geological Society, London, Memoirs, vol. 22, pp. 2e20.
Viana, A.R., Faugères, J.-C., Kowsmann, R.O., Lima, J.A.M., Caddah, L.F.G., Rizzo, J.G.,
1998. Hydrology, morphology and sedimentology of the Campos continental
margin, offshore Brazil. Sedimentary Geology 115 (1e4), 133e157.
Ziegler, P.A., 1990. Geological Atlas of Western and Central Europe, third ed. Shell
International Petroleum Maatschappij B.V., 239 pp.