Wind turbine

A wind turbine is a device that converts the kinetic energy of

wind into electrical energy. As of 2020, hundreds of thousands
of large turbines, in installations known as wind farms, were
generating over 650 gigawatts of power, with 60 GW added
each year.[1] Wind turbines are an increasingly important
source of intermittent renewable energy, and are used in many
countries to lower energy costs and reduce reliance on fossil
fuels. One study claimed that, as of 2009, wind had the "lowest
relative greenhouse gas emissions, the least water consumption
demands and the most favorable social impacts" compared to
photovoltaic, hydro, geothermal, coal and gas energy
sources.[2]

Smaller wind turbines are used for applications such as battery

charging and remote devices such as traffic warning signs.
Larger turbines can contribute to a domestic power supply
while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the
electrical grid.[3]
Thorntonbank Wind Farm, using 5
Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, with
MW turbines REpower 5M in the
either horizontal or vertical axes, though horizontal is most
North Sea off the coast of Belgium
common.[4]

History
The windwheel of Hero of Alexandria (10–70 CE) marks one of
the first recorded instances of wind powering a machine.[5]
However, the first known practical wind power plants were
built in Sistan, an Eastern province of Persia (now Iran), from
the 7th century. These "Panemone" were vertical axle
windmills, which had long vertical drive shafts with rectangular
blades.[6] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or
cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or
draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane
Nashtifan wind turbines in Sistan,
industries.[7]
Iran
Wind power first appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages.
The first historical records of their use in England date to the
11th and 12th centuries; there are reports of German crusaders taking their windmill-making skills
to Syria around 1190.[8] By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the
Rhine delta. Advanced wind turbines were described by Croatian inventor Fausto Veranzio in his
book "Machinae Novae" (1595), he described vertical axis wind turbines with curved or V-shaped
blades.
The first electricity-generating wind turbine was installed by
the Austrian Josef Friedländer at the Vienna International
Electrical Exhibition in 1883. It was a Halladay windmill for
driving a dynamo. Friedländer’s 22-foot (6.6-meters) diameter
Halladay “wind motor” was supplied by U.S. Wind Engine &
Pump Co. of Batavia, Illinois. The five horsepower windmill
drove a dynamo at ground level that fed electricity into a series
of batteries. The batteries powered various electrical tools and
lamps, as well as a threshing machine. Friedländer’s windmill
and its accessories were prominently installed at the north
Illustration of the wind turbine for
entrance to the main exhibition hall ("Rotunde") in the Vienna
power generation erected by Josef
Prater.[9][10][11] Friedlaender at the International
Electrical Exhibition in Vienna in
In July 1887 Scottish academic James Blyth installed a battery-
1883
charging machine to light his holiday home in Marykirk,
Scotland.[12] Some months later, American inventor Charles F.
Brush was able to build the first automatically operated wind
turbine after consulting local University professors and his
colleagues Jacob S. Gibbs and Brinsley Coleberd and
successfully getting the blueprints peer-reviewed for electricity
production.[13] Although Blyth's turbine was considered
uneconomical in the United Kingdom,[13] electricity generation
by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries with
widely scattered populations.[8]
James Blyth's electricity-generating
In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for wind turbine, photographed in 1891
mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an
estimated combined peak power of about 30 megawatts (MW).
The largest machines were on 24-meter (79 ft) towers with
four-bladed 23-meter (75 ft) diameter rotors. By 1908, there
were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in the United
States from 5 kilowatts (kW) to 25 kW. Around the time of
World War I, American windmill makers were producing
100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-
pumping.[15]

By the 1930s, use of wind turbines in rural areas was declining

as the distribution system extended to those areas.[16]

A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in

service at Yalta, USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on The first automatically operated
a 30-meter (98 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV wind turbine, built in Cleveland in
distribution system. It was reported to have an annual capacity 1887 by Charles F. Brush. It was 60
factor of 32 percent, not much different from current wind feet (18 m) tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6
machines.[17] metric tonnes) and powered a 12
kW generator.[14]
In the autumn of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine
was synchronized to a utility grid in Vermont. The Smith–
Putnam wind turbine only ran for about five years before one of the blades snapped off.[18] The
unit was not repaired, because of a shortage of materials during the war.[19]

The first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by John Brown &
Company in 1951 in the Orkney Islands.[13][20]
In the early 1970s, however, anti-nuclear protests in Denmark spurred artisan mechanics to
develop microturbines of 22 kW despite declines in the industry.[21] Organizing owners into
associations and co-operatives led to the lobbying of the government and utilities and provided
incentives for larger turbines throughout the 1980s and later. Local activists in Germany, nascent
turbine manufacturers in Spain, and large investors in the United States in the early 1990s then
lobbied for policies that stimulated the industry in those countries.[22][23][24]

It has been argued that expanding the use of wind power will lead to increasing geopolitical
competition over critical materials for wind turbines, such as rare earth elements neodymium,
praseodymium, and dysprosium. However, this perspective has been critically dismissed for failing
to relay how most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the
power of economic incentives for the expanded production of these minerals.[25]

Wind power density

Wind Power Density (WPD) is a quantitative measure of wind energy available at any location. It is
the mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is calculated for
different heights above ground. Calculation of wind power density includes the effect of wind
velocity and air density.[26]

Wind turbines are classified by the wind speed they are designed for, from class I to class III, with
A to C referring to the turbulence intensity of the wind.[27]

Class Avg Wind Speed (m/s) Turbulence

IA 10 16%
IB 10 14%

IC 10 12%

IIA 8.5 16%

IIB 8.5 14%

IIC 8.5 12%

IIIA 7.5 16%

IIIB 7.5 14%

IIIC 7.5 12%

Efficiency
Conservation of mass requires that the amount of air entering and exiting a turbine must be equal.
Accordingly, Betz's law gives the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine as
16⁄ [28]
27 (59.3%) of the rate at which the kinetic energy of the air arrives at the turbine.

The maximum theoretical power output of a wind machine is thus 16⁄27 times the rate at which
kinetic energy of the air arrives at the effective disk area of the machine. If the effective area of the
disk is A, and the wind velocity v, the maximum theoretical power output P is:

where ρ is the air density.

Wind-to-rotor efficiency (including rotor blade friction and drag) are among the factors affecting
the final price of wind power.[29] Further inefficiencies, such as gearbox losses, generator and
converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. To protect components from undue
wear, extracted power is held constant above the rated operating speed as theoretical power
increases as the cube of wind speed, further reducing theoretical efficiency. In 2001, commercial
utility-connected turbines delivered 75% to 80% of the Betz limit of power extractable from the
wind, at rated operating speed.[30][31]

Efficiency can decrease slightly over time, one of the main reasons being dust and insect carcasses
on the blades, which alter the aerodynamic profile and essentially reduce the lift to drag ratio of the
airfoil. Analysis of 3128 wind turbines older than 10 years in Denmark showed that half of the
turbines had no decrease, while the other half saw a production decrease of 1.2% per year.[32]

In general, more stable and constant weather conditions (most notably wind speed) result in an
average of 15% greater efficiency than that of a wind turbine in unstable weather conditions, thus
allowing up to a 7% increase in wind speed under stable conditions. This is due to a faster recovery
wake and greater flow entrainment that occur in conditions of higher atmospheric stability.
However, wind turbine wakes have been found to recover faster under unstable atmospheric
conditions as opposed to a stable environment.[33]

Different materials have varying effects on the efficiency of wind turbines. In an Ege University
experiment, three wind turbines, each with three blades with a diameter of one meter, were
constructed with blades made of different materials: A glass and glass/carbon epoxy, glass/carbon,
and glass/polyester. When tested, the results showed that the materials with higher overall masses
had a greater friction moment and thus a lower power coefficient.[34]

The air velocity is the major contributor to the turbine efficiency. This is the reason for the
importance of choosing the right location. The wind velocity will be high near the shore because of
the temperature difference between the land and the ocean. Another option is to place turbines on
mountain ridges. The higher the wind turbine will be, the higher the wind velocity on average. A
windbreak can also increase the wind velocity near the turbine.[35]

Types
Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical
axis, the former being both older and more common.[36] They
can also include blades or be bladeless.[37] Household-size
vertical designs produce less power and are less common.[38]

Horizontal axis The three primary types: VAWT

Savonius, HAWT towered; VAWT
Large three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) with Darrieus as they appear in operation
the blades upwind of the tower produce the overwhelming
majority of wind power in the world today.[4] These turbines
have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into
the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a
wind sensor coupled with a yaw system. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the
blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.[39] Some
turbines use a different type of generator suited to slower rotational speed input. These don't need
a gearbox and are called direct-drive, meaning they couple the rotor directly to the generator with
no gearbox in between. While permanent magnet direct-drive generators can be more costly due to
the rare earth materials required, these gearless turbines are sometimes preferred over gearbox
generators because they "eliminate the gear-speed increaser, which is susceptible to significant
accumulated fatigue torque loading, related reliability issues,
and maintenance costs."[40] There is also the pseudo direct
drive mechanism, which has some advantages over the
permanent magnet direct drive mechanism.[41]

Most horizontal axis turbines have their rotors upwind of the

supporting tower.[42] Downwind machines have been built,
because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping
them in line with the wind. In high winds, downwind blades
can also be designed to bend more than upwind ones, which Components of a horizontal axis
reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance, wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft
mitigating risk during gales. Despite these advantages, upwind and brake assembly) being lifted
designs are preferred, because the pulsing change in loading into position
from the wind as each blade passes behind the supporting
tower can cause damage to the turbine.[43]

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of

electric power are usually three-bladed. These have low torque
ripple, which contributes to good reliability. The blades are
usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and
range in length from 20 to 80 meters (66 to 262 ft). The size
and height of turbines increase year by year. Offshore wind
turbines are built up to 8 MW today and have a blade length up
to 80 meters (260 ft). Designs with 10 to 12 MW were in
preparation in 2018,[44] and a "15 MW+" prototype with three The rotor of a gearless wind turbine
118 meters (387 ft) blades is planned to be constructed in being set. This particular turbine
2022.[45] The average hub height of horizontal axis wind was prefabricated in Germany,
turbines is 90 meters.[46] before being shipped to the U.S. for
assembly.

Vertical axis

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor

shaft arranged vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is
that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be
effective,[47] which is an advantage on a site where the wind
direction is highly variable. It is also an advantage when the
turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less
steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near
the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the Offshore Horizontal Axis Wind
ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for Turbines (HAWTs) at Scroby Sands
maintenance. However, these designs produce much less Wind Farm, England
energy averaged over time, which is a major drawback.[38][48]

Vertical turbine designs have much lower efficiency than standard horizontal designs.[49] The key
disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher torque and
hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360-degree rotation
of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the
blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of
modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor
prior to fabricating a prototype.[50]
When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building generally
redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed
at the turbine. If the height of a rooftop mounted turbine tower
is approximately 50% of the building height it is near the
optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind
turbulence. While wind speeds within the built environment
are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites,[51][52]
noise may be a concern and an existing structure may not
adequately resist the additional stress. Onshore Horizontal Axis Wind
Turbines in Zhangjiakou, Hebei,
Subtypes of the vertical axis design include: China

Darrieus wind turbine

"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges
Darrieus.[53] They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on the
tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power
source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The
torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades, which results in greater solidity of the
rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by the rotor area.

Giromill

A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety
has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting.[54] The advantages of variable
pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a higher coefficient of
performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which
lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.[55]

Savonius wind turbine

These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in
anemometers, Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in
some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-
starting if there are at least three scoops.[56]

Twisted Savonius is a modified savonius, with long helical scoops to provide

smooth torque. This is often used as a rooftop wind turbine and has even been
adapted for ships.[57]
A vertical axis
Twisted
Airborne wind turbine
Savonius type
turbine.
Airborne wind turbines consist of wings or a small aircraft tethered to the
ground.[58] They are useful for reaching faster winds above which traditional
turbines can operate. There are prototypes in operation in east Africa.[59]

Floating wind turbine

These are offshore wind turbines that are supported by a floating platform.[60] By having them
float, they are able to be installed in deeper water allowing more of them. This also allows them to
be further out of sight from land and therefore less public concern about the visual appeal.[61]

Unconventional types

Counter-rotating wind turbine Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Light pole wind turbine
offshore

Design and construction

Wind turbine design is a careful balance of cost, energy output,
and fatigue life.

Components

Wind turbines convert wind energy to electrical energy for

distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be
divided into three components:

The rotor, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine Components of a horizontal-axis
cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low wind turbine
speed rotational energy.[62]
The generator, which is approximately 34% of the wind
turbine cost, includes the electrical generator,[63][64] the
control electronics, and most likely a gearbox (e.g.,
planetary gear box),[65] adjustable-speed drive, or
continuously variable transmission[66] component for
converting the low-speed incoming rotation to high-speed
rotation suitable for generating electricity.
The surrounding structure, which is approximately 15% of
the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw
mechanism.[62] Inside view of a wind turbine tower,
showing the tendon cables
A 1.5 (MW) wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United
States has a tower 80 meters (260 ft) high. The rotor assembly
(blades and hub) measures about 80 meters (260 ft) in
diameter.[67] The nacelle, which contains the generator is 15.24
meters (50.0 ft) and weigh around 300 tons.[68]

Turbine monitoring and diagnostics

Due to data transmission problems, structural health

Nacelle of a wind turbine
monitoring of wind turbines is usually performed using several
accelerometers and strain gages attached to the nacelle to
monitor the gearbox and equipment. Currently, digital image correlation and
stereophotogrammetry are used to measure dynamics of wind turbine blades. These methods
usually measure displacement and strain to identify location of defects. Dynamic characteristics of
non-rotating wind turbines have been measured using digital image correlation and
photogrammetry.[69] Three dimensional point tracking has also been used to measure rotating
dynamics of wind turbines.[70]

Technology
Generally, efficiency increases along with
turbine blade lengths. The blades must be
stiff, strong, durable, light and resistant to
fatigue.[71] Materials with these properties
include composites such as polyester and
epoxy, while glass fiber and carbon fiber
have been used for the reinforcing.[72]
Construction may involve manual layup or
injection molding. Retrofitting existing
turbines with larger blades reduces the task
and risks of redesign.[73]

As of 2021, the longest blade was 115.5 m

(379 ft), producing 15 MW.[74]
Development in size and power of wind turbines, 1990–
Blades usually last around 20 years, the 2016
typical lifespan of a wind turbine.[75]

Blade materials

Materials commonly used in wind turbine blades are described below.

Glass and carbon fibers

The stiffness of composites is determined by the stiffness of fibers and their volume content.
Typically, E-glass fibers are used as main reinforcement in the composites. Typically, the
glass/epoxy composites for wind turbine blades contain up to 75% glass by weight. This increases
the stiffness, tensile and compression strength. A promising composite material is glass fiber with
modified compositions like S-glass, R-glass etc. Other glass fibers developed by Owens Corning are
ECRGLAS, Advantex and WindStrand.[76]
Carbon fiber has more tensile strength, higher stiffness and
lower density than glass fiber. An ideal candidate for these
properties is the spar cap, a structural element of a blade which
experiences high tensile loading.[72] A 100-metre (330 ft) glass
fiber blade could weigh up to 50 tonnes (110,000 lb), while
using carbon fiber in the spar saves 20% to 30% weight, about
15 tonnes (33,000 lb).[77]

Hybrid reinforcements
A turbine blade convoy passing
Instead of making wind turbine blade reinforcements from through Edenfield, England
pure glass or pure carbon, hybrid designs trade weight for cost.
For example, for an 8-metre (26 ft) blade, a full replacement by
carbon fiber would save 80% of weight but increase costs by 150%, while a 30% replacement would
save 50% of weight and increase costs by 90%. Hybrid reinforcement materials include E-
glass/carbon, E-glass/aramid. The current longest blade by LM Wind Power is made of
carbon/glass hybrid composites. More research is needed about the optimal composition of
materials [78]

Nano-engineered polymers and composites

Additions of small amount (0.5 weight %) of nanoreinforcement (carbon nanotubes or nanoclay) in

the polymer matrix of composites, fiber sizing or inter-laminar layers can improve fatigue
resistance, shear or compressive strength, and fracture toughness of the composites by 30% to
80%. Research has also shown that incorporating small amounts of carbon nanotubes (CNT) can
increase the lifetime up to 1500%.[79]

Costs

As of 2019, the capital cost of a wind turbine was around $1 million per megawatt of nameplate
capacity, though this figure varies by location; for example, such numbers ranged from a half
million in South America to $1.7 million in Asia.[80]

For the wind turbine blades, while the material cost is much higher for hybrid glass/carbon fiber
blades than all-glass fiber blades, labor costs can be lower. Using carbon fiber allows simpler
designs that use less raw material. The chief manufacturing process in blade fabrication is the
layering of plies. Thinner blades allow reducing the number of layers and so the labor, and in some
cases, equate to the cost of labor for glass fiber blades.[81]

Offshore has significantly higher installation costs.[82]

Non-blade materials

Wind turbine parts other than the rotor blades (including the rotor hub, gearbox, frame, and
tower) are largely made of steel. Smaller turbines (as well as megawatt-scale Enercon turbines)
have begun using aluminum alloys for these components to make turbines lighter and more
efficient. This trend may grow if fatigue and strength properties can be improved. Pre-stressed
concrete has been increasingly used for the material of the tower, but still requires much
reinforcing steel to meet the strength requirement of the turbine. Additionally, step-up gearboxes
are being increasingly replaced with variable speed generators, which requires magnetic
materials.[71]
Modern turbines use a couple of tons of copper for generators, cables and such.[83] As of 2018,
global production of wind turbines use 450,000 tonnes (990 million pounds) of copper per
year.[84]

Material supply

A 2015 study of the material consumption trends and

requirements for wind energy in Europe found that bigger
turbines have a higher consumption of precious metals but
lower material input per kW generated. The material
consumption and stock at that time was compared to input
materials for various onshore system sizes. In all EU countries,
the estimates for 2020 doubled the values consumed in 2009.
These countries would need to expand their resources to meet
Nordex wind turbine manufacturing
the estimated demand for 2020. For example, the EU had 3%
plant in Jonesboro, Arkansas,
of world supply of fluorspar, and it would require 14% by 2020. United States
Globally, the main exporting countries are South Africa,
Mexico, and China. This is similar with other critical and
valuable materials required for energy systems such as magnesium, silver and indium. The levels
of recycling of these materials are very low, and focusing on that could alleviate supply. Because
most of these valuable materials are also used in other emerging technologies, like light emitting
diodes (LEDs), photo voltaics (PVs) and liquid crystal displays (LCDs), their demand is expected to
grow.[85]

A 2011 study by the United States Geological Survey estimated resources required to fulfill the US
commitment to supplying 20% of its electricity from wind power by 2030. It did not consider
requirements for small turbines or offshore turbines because those were not common in 2008
when the study was done. Common materials such as cast iron, steel and concrete would increase
by 2%–3% compared to 2008. Between 110,000 and 115,000 metric tons of fiber glass would be
required per year, a 14% increase. Rare-earth metal use would not increase much compared to
available supply, however rare-earth metals that are also used for other technologies such as
batteries which are increasing its global demand need to be taken into account. Land required
would be 50,000 square kilometers onshore and 11,000 offshore. This would not be a problem in
the US due to its vast area and because the same land can be used for farming. A greater challenge
would be the variability and transmission to areas of high demand.[86]

Permanent magnets for wind turbine generators contain rare-earth metals such as neodymium
(Nd), praseodymium (Pr), terbium (Tb), and dysprosium (Dy). Systems that use magnetic direct
drive turbines require greater amounts of rare-earth metals. Therefore, an increase in wind turbine
manufacture would increase the demand for these resources. By 2035, the demand for Nd is
estimated to increase by 4,000 to 18,000 tons and for Dy by 200 to 1200 tons. These values are a
quarter to half of current production. However, these estimates are very uncertain because
technologies are developing rapidly.[87]

Reliance on rare earth minerals for components has risked expense and price volatility as China
has been main producer of rare earth minerals (96% in 2009) and was reducing its export
quotas.[86] However, in recent years other producers have increased production and China has
increased export quotas, leading to a higher supply and lower cost, and a greater viability of large
scale use of variable-speed generators.[88]

Glass fiber is the most common material for reinforcement. Its demand has grown due to growth in
construction, transportation and wind turbines. Its global market might reach US$17.4 billion by
2024, compared to US$8.5 billion in 2014. In 2014, Asia Pacific produced more than 45% of the
market; now China is the largest producer. The industry receives subsidies from the Chinese
government allowing it to export cheaper to the US and Europe. However, price wars have led to
anti-dumping measures such as tariffs on Chinese glass fiber.[89]

Wind turbines on public display

A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind
turbines by placing them on public display, either with visitor centers
around their bases, or with viewing areas farther away.[90] The wind
turbines are generally of conventional horizontal-axis, three-bladed
design, and generate power to feed electrical grids, but they also serve
the unconventional roles of technology demonstration, public
relations, and education.[91]

Small wind turbines

Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications
including on- or off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore The Nordex N50 wind
platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other turbine and visitor centre of
purposes that require energy where there is no electric grid, or where Lamma Winds in Hong
the grid is unstable. Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty- Kong, China
watt generator for boat or caravan use. Hybrid solar and wind
powered units are increasingly being used for traffic signage,
particularly in rural locations, as they avoid the need to lay long cables
from the nearest mains connection point.[92] The U.S. Department of
Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) defines
small wind turbines as those smaller than or equal to 100
kilowatts.[93] Small units often have direct drive generators, direct
current output, aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and use a vane to
point into the wind.[94]

Wind turbine spacing

On most horizontal wind turbine farms, a spacing of about 6–10 times
the rotor diameter is often upheld. However, for large wind farms A small Quietrevolution
distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economical, QR5 Gorlov type vertical
taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This axis wind turbine in Bristol,
England. Measuring 3 m in
conclusion has been reached by research[95] conducted by Charles
diameter and 5 m high, it
Meneveau of Johns Hopkins University[96] and Johan Meyers of
has a nameplate rating of
Leuven University in Belgium, based on computer simulations[97] that 6.5 kW to the grid.
take into account the detailed interactions among wind turbines
(wakes) as well as with the entire turbulent atmospheric boundary
layer.
Recent research by John Dabiri of Caltech suggests that vertical wind turbines may be placed much
more closely together so long as an alternating pattern of rotation is created allowing blades of
neighbouring turbines to move in the same direction as they approach one another.[98]

Operability

Maintenance

Wind turbines need regular maintenance to stay reliable and available.

In the best case turbines are available to generate energy 98% of the
time.[99][100] Ice accretion on turbine blades has also been found to
greatly reduce the efficiency of wind turbines, which is a common
challenge in cold climates where in-cloud icing and freezing rain
events occur.[101] De-icing is mainly performed by internal heating, or
in some cases by helicopters spraying clean warm water on the
blades.[102]

Modern turbines usually have a small onboard crane for hoisting

maintenance tools and minor components. However, large, heavy
Workers inspect wind
components like generator, gearbox, blades, and so on are rarely
turbine blades
replaced, and a heavy lift external crane is needed in those cases. If the
turbine has a difficult access road, a containerized crane can be lifted
up by the internal crane to provide heavier lifting.[103]

Repowering

Installation of new wind turbines can be controversial. An alternative is repowering, where existing
wind turbines are replaced with bigger, more powerful ones, sometimes in smaller numbers while
keeping or increasing capacity.[104]

Demolition and recycling

Some wind turbines which are out of use are recycled or repowered.[105][106] 85% of turbine
materials are easily reused or recycled, but the blades, made of a composite material, are more
difficult to process.[107]

Interest in recycling blades varies in different markets and depends on the waste legislation and
local economics. A challenge in recycling blades is related to the composite material, which is made
of fiberglass with carbon fibers in epoxy resin, which cannot be remolded to form new
composites.[108]

Wind farm waste is less toxic than other garbage. Wind turbine blades represent only a fraction of
overall waste in the US, according to the Wind-industry trade association, American Wind Energy
Association.[109]

Several utilities, start-up companies, and researchers are developing methods for reusing or
recycling blades.[107] Manufacturer Vestas has developed technology that can separate the fibers
from the resin, allowing for reuse.[110] In Germany, wind turbine blades are commercially recycled
as part of an alternative fuel mix for a cement factory.[107] In the United Kingdom, a project will
trial cutting blades into strips for use as rebar in concrete, with the aim of reducing emissions in
the construction of High Speed 2.[111] Used wind turbine blades have been recycled by
incorporating them as part of the support structures within pedestrian bridges in Poland[112] and
Ireland.[113]

Comparison with other power sources

Advantages

Wind turbines is one of the lowest-cost sources of renewable energy along with solar panels.[114] As
technology needed for wind turbines continued to improve, the prices decreased as well. In
addition, there is currently no competitive market for wind energy (though there may be in the
future), because wind is a freely available natural resource, most of which is untapped.[115] The
main cost of small wind turbines is the purchase and installation process, which averages between
$48,000 and $65,000 per installation. Usually, the total amount of energy harvested amount to
more than the cost of the turbines.[116]

Wind turbines provide a clean energy source,[117] use little water,[2] emitting no greenhouse gases
and no waste products during operation. Over 1,400 tonnes (1,500 short tons) of carbon dioxide
per year can be eliminated by using a one-megawatt turbine instead of one megawatt of energy
from a fossil fuel.[118]

Disadvantages

Wind turbines can be very large, reaching over 140 m (460 ft) tall and with blades 55 m (180 ft)
long,[119] and people have often complained about their visual impact.

Environmental impact of wind power includes effect on wildlife, but can be mitigated if proper
strategies are implemented.[120] Thousands of birds, including rare species, have been killed by the
blades of wind turbines,[121] though wind turbines contribute relatively insignificantly to
anthropogenic avian mortality. Wind farms and nuclear power plants are responsible for between
0.3 and 0.4 bird deaths per gigawatt-hour (GWh) of electricity while fossil fuel power stations are
responsible for about 5.2 fatalities per GWh. In comparison, conventional coal fired generators
contribute significantly more to bird mortality.[122] A study on recorded bird populations in the
United States from 2000 to 2020 found the presence of wind turbines had no significant affect on
bird population numbers.[123]

Energy harnessed by wind turbines is variable, and is not a "dispatchable" source of power; its
availability is based on whether the wind is blowing, not whether electricity is needed. Turbines
can be placed on ridges or bluffs to maximize the access of wind they have, but this also limits the
locations where they can be placed.[115] In this way, wind energy is not a particularly reliable
source of energy. However, it can form part of the energy mix, which also includes power from
other sources. Technology is also being developed to store excess energy, which can then make up
for any deficits in supplies.[124]
Wind turbines have blinking lights that warn aircraft, to avoid collisions.[125] Residents living near
windfarms, especially those in rural areas, have complained that the blinking lights are a
bothersome form of light pollution.[125] A light mitigation approach involves Aircraft Detection
Lighting Systems (ADLSs) by which the lights are turned on, only when the ADLS's radar detects
aircraft within thresholds of altitude and distance.[125]

Records
See also List of most powerful wind turbines

Record Model/Name Location Constructor/Manufacturer

Largest and Østerild Wind

most V236-15[126] Turbine Test Vestas
powerful Field

Cap-Chat,
Largest
vertical-axis Éole[127] Québec, NRC, Hydro-Québec
Canada
Largest 1-
Monopteros
blade Jade Wind Park MBB Messerschmitt
turbine M50[128]
Éole, the largest vertical
Largest 2- axis wind turbine, in Cap-
Longyuan Wind
blade SCD6.5[129] Farm
Mingyang Wind Power
Chat, Quebec, Canada
turbine

Four-in-
Most rotors Maasvlakte Lagerwey
One[130]
Highest-
situated 2.5[131] Pastoruri Glaicer WindAid

Largest
offshore Haliade-X[74] Netherlands GE Wind Energy

See also
Wind turbine design Tidal stream generator
Compact wind acceleration turbine Unconventional wind turbines
Éolienne Bollée Wind lens
IEC 61400 Windbelt
Renewable energy Windpump

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Further reading
Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley
& Sons, 2nd edition (2011), ISBN 978-0-470-69975-1
Darrell, Dodge, Early History Through 1875 (http://telosnet.com/wind/early.html) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20101202073417/http://telosnet.com/wind/early.html) 2 December
2010 at the Wayback Machine, TeloNet Web Development, Copyright 1996–2001
Robert Gasch, Jochen Twele (ed.), Wind power plants. Fundamentals, design, construction
and operation, Springer 2012 ISBN 978-3-642-22937-4.
Erich Hau, Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics, Springer, 2013
ISBN 978-3-642-27150-2 (preview on Google Books)
Siegfried Heier, Grid integration of wind energy conversion systems, John Wiley & Sons, 3rd
edition (2014), ISBN 978-1-119-96294-6
 Peter Jamieson, Innovation in Wind Turbine Design. Wiley & Sons 2011, ISBN 978-0-470-
69981-2
J. F. Manwell, J. G. McGowan, A. L. Roberts, Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and
Application, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd edition (2012), ISBN 978-0-47001-500-1
David Spera (ed,) Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine
Engineering, Second Edition (2009), ASME Press, ISBN 9780791802601
Alois Schaffarczyk (ed.), Understanding wind power technology, John Wiley & Sons, (2014),
ISBN 978-1-118-64751-6
Hermann-Josef Wagner, Jyotirmay Mathur, Introduction to wind energy systems. Basics,
technology and operation. Springer (2013), ISBN 978-3-642-32975-3
GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation,
Sustainability, Illinois as Model State (http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/96
99)

External links
Media related to Wind turbine at Wikimedia Commons
Global Wind Energy Council (https://gwec.net/)
World's Largest Wind Turbine (https://newatlas.com/energy/h260-18mw-biggest-wind-turbine/)
Harvesting the Wind (45 lectures about wind turbines by professor Magdi Ragheb (https://archi
ve.today/20121215055532/https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/mragheb/www/NPRE%20475%20Wind%20
Power%20Systems/)

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