CHAPTER 6: Erik Erikson’s Psycho- Social Theory 1. Trust vs.

Mistrust
of Development
Erik Homburger Erikson Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory
of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth
- The Father of Psychosocial Development
continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this
- Nationality American/ German
stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which
- Fields Developmental Psychology Influences
they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for
Sigmund
stability and consistency of care.
Freud/ Anna Freud Coined the term Lifespan
Development
- He was an artist and a teacher in the late 1920s 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
when he met Anna Freud,
Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of
- An Austrian psychoanalyst. With Anna‘s
Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. This
encouragement, he began to study child
stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to
psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic
approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at
Institute.
this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal
- He studied groups of Aboriginal children to learn control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
about the influence of society and culture on
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
child development. From this, he developed a
number of theories, the most famous being his
psychosocial development. Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's
- He believed that humans have to resolve different theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative
conflicts as they progress through each stage of versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more
development in the life cycle.
frequently. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing
- Erikson‘s theory consists of eight stages of
development. Each stage is characterized by a years in a child‘s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a
different conflict that must be resolved by the ―time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the
individual. If a person is unable to resolve a parents may see as aggressive."
conflict at a particular stage, they will be confront
and struggle with it later in life.
Elements 4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry

Ego Identity- Ego identity is developed by human (competence) vs. inferiority occurs during childhood
interaction and how an individual becomes more between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the
conscious of themselves and their surroundings. stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do
Ego Strength- Ego strength deals with an individual sums, to do things on their own.
becoming competent in different areas life, by becoming
competent in life they feel more important.
Teachers begin to take an important role in the child‘s life
Conflict- Conflict is a turning point during which an as they teach the child specific skills.
individual struggles to attain some psychological quality.
Sometimes referred to as a psychosocial crisis, this can be
a time of both vulnerability and strength, as the individual
works toward success or failure.

Personality- consists of all the relatively stable and

distinctive styles of thought, behavior and emotional Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age
responses that characterize a person‘s adaptations to
surrounding situations. 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0-
1½
Psychosexual Development- Refers to the emotional and
psychological changes across the life cycle that occurs in 2. Autonomy vs. Will 1½ -
the context of the individual‘s social environment. Shame 3

3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5

4. Industry vs. Competency 5 - 12

Inferiority
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+
5. Identity vs. Role Fidelity 12 -
Confusion 18

6. Intimacy vs. Love 18 -

Isolation 40

7. Generativity vs. Care 40 -

Stagnation 65
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs
during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this
stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal
identity, through an intense exploration of personal
values, beliefs, and goals.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage
takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this period, the major
conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships
with other people.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight
stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during during middle
adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). Generativity refers to
"making your mark" on the world through creating or
nurturing things that will outlast an individual
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage
of Erik Erikson‘s stage theory of psychosocial
development. This stage begins at approximately age 65
and ends at death. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and can develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
Chapter 7: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory;
proposed that moral development is a continual
process that occurs throughout the lifespan.
• Used Piaget‘s story-telling technique
to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas.
• He based his theory upon research
and interviews with groups of young children.
• A series of moral dilemmas were
presented to these participants and they were also
interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their
judgments of each scenario. • One of the best known
stories of Kohlberg‘s (1958) concerns a man called
Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and
younger, some over nine), we don‘t have a personal code
of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the
standards of adults and the consequences of following or
breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based
on the physical consequences of actions.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment
Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to
avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must
have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this
stage, children recognize that there is not just one right
view that is handed down by the authorities. Different
individuals have different viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults),
we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued
adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and
reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the
person belongs.
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships.
The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being
a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the
approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The
child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of
society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order
to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles,
and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and
justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral
reasoning is as far as most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking
necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality).
That is to say, most people take their moral views from
those around them and only a minority think through
ethical principles for themselves.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual
Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while
rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest
number, there are times when they will work against the
interest of particular individuals.
The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in
Heinz‘s dilemma, the protection of life is more important
than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this
stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines
which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to
everyone.
E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will
be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it
means going against the rest of society in the process and
having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or
imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this
stage.
Chapter 9: Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory
Lev Semonovich Vygotsky
• ―The Mozart of Psychology‖
• Lev Semonovich Vygotsky was born in
Western Russia on November 5, 1986.His
father, Semi L‘vovich, founded the ―Society
of Education in Gomel‖, and held a wide range
of active interest including foreign language,
history, literature, theater and arts. His mother
was educated as teacher.
• His work began when he was studying learning
and development to improve his own teaching.
• He wrote on language, thought, psychology of
art, learning and development and educating
students with special needs.
Sociocultural theory of development:
• Crucial influence that social interactions and
language, embedded within a cultural context,
have on cognitive development.
• Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning
happens through participation in social
activities.
• Parents, teachers and other adults in the
learner‘s environment all contribute to the
process. They explain, model, assist, give
directions and provide feedback.
• Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and
collaborate and enrich the learning experience.
Language
• Language can be viewed as a verbal expression
of culture.
• Every culture has the words it needs for its
lifestyle.
• It opens the door for learners to acquire
knowledge that others already have.
• It is use to know and understand the world and
solve problems.
• It serves a social function but it also has an
important individual function. It helps the
learner to regulate and reflect on his own
thinking.
Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of Actual Development
Which the child may perform certain level of
competency she/ he may not immediately be at it.
Zone of Proximal Development
The difference between what the child
accomplish alone and what he/she can accomplish with
guidance of another.
Scaffolding
Refers to the support or assistance that lets the
child accomplish a task he/she cannot accomplish
independently.
It is not about doing the task for the child while
he/she watches.
It is not about doing short cuts for the child
It should involve the judicious assistance given
by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the
zone of actual to the zone of proximal development.
Chapter 10: Stages of Child Learning
Development
Musinski (1999) describes three phases of learning:
dependence, independence, and interdependence. These
passages of learning ability from childhood to adulthood,
labeled by Covey (1990) as the ―maturity continuum,‖
are identified as follows:
• Dependence is characteristic of the infant and young
child, who are totally dependent on others for
direction, support, and nurturance from a physical,
emotional, and intellectual standpoint (unfortunately,
some adults are considered to be stuck in this stage if
they demonstrate manipulative behavior, do not listen,
are insecure, or do not accept responsibility for their
own actions).
• Independence occurs when a child develops the ability
to physically, intellectually, and emotionally care for
himself or herself and make his or her own choices,
including taking responsibility for learning.
• Interdependence occurs when an individual has
sufficiently advanced in maturity to achieve self-
reliance, a sense of self-esteem, and the ability to give
and receive, and when that individual demonstrates a
level of respect for others. Full physical maturity does
not guarantee simultaneous emotional and intellectual
maturity.
Pedagogy is the art and science of helping children to learn
(Knowles, 1990; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2011).
Play builds your child's creativity and imagination as
well as other skills. Whether it is simply rolling a ball
back and forth with a sibling or putting on a costume and
imagining she's an astronaut—she's developing important
social skills such as learning to take turns, cooperating,
and getting along with others.
Does all play look the same to you? Sociologist Mildred
Parten describes six types of play that a child will take
part in, depending on their age, mood, and social setting.
Unoccupied Play
Unoccupied play refers to activity when a child actually
isn't playing at all. He may be engaged in seemingly
random movements, with no objective. Despite
appearances, this definitely is play and sets the stage for
future play exploration.
Solitary (Independent) Play
Solitary play is just what it sounds like—when your child
plays alone. This type of play is important because it
teaches a child how to keep himself entertained,
eventually setting the path to being self-sufficient.1
Any child can play independently, but this type of play is
the most common in younger children around ages 2 or 3.
At that age, they are still pretty self-centered and lack
good communication skills. If a child is on the shy side
and doesn't know his playmates well, he may prefer this
type of play.
Onlooker Play
Onlooker play is when a child simply observes other
children playing and doesn't partake in the action. It's
common for younger children who are working on their
developing vocabulary.
Don't worry if your little one is behaving this way. It
could be that the child feels shy, needs to learn the rules,
or maybe is the youngest and wants just to take a step
back for a while.
Parallel Play
Put two 3-year-olds in a room together and this is what
you are likely to see: the two children having fun, playing
side by side in their own little world. It doesn't mean that
they don't like one another, they are just engaging in
parallel play.
Despite having little social contact between playmates,
children who parallel play actually learn quite a bit from
one another like taking turns and other social niceties. 3
Even though it appears they aren't paying attention to
each other, they truly are and often mimic the other one's
behavior. As such, this type of play is viewed as an
important bridge to the later stages of play.
Associative Play
Slightly different from parallel play, associative play also
features children playing separately from one another.
But in this mode of play, they are involved with what the
others are doing—think children building a city with
blocks. As they build their individual buildings, they are
talking to one another and engaging each other.
This is an important stage of play because it helps little
ones develop a whole host of skills—socialization (what
should we build now?) and problem solving (how can we
make this city bigger?), cooperation (if we work together
we can make our city even better) and language
development (learning what to say to get their messages
across to one another).4 Through associative play is how
children begin to make real friendships.
Cooperative Play
Cooperative play is where all the stages come together
and children truly start playing together. It is common in
older preschoolers or in younger preschoolers who have
older siblings or have been around a lot of children).
Cooperative play uses all of the social skills your child
has been working on and puts them into action.5 Whether
they are building a puzzle together, playing a board game,
or enjoying an outdoor group game, cooperative play sets
the stage for future interactions as your child matures into
an adult.
Other Types of Play
While these stages are important and necessary for a
child's social development, there are other types of play
that also contribute to a child's maturity. These types of
play usually develop as a child begins to engage in
cooperative play and include:
• Dramatic/Fantasy Play: When your child who
loves to play dress-up, doctor, or restaurant, it's
dramatic or fantasy play. Through this type of
play, not only does your child's imagination get
a workout, but she learns how to take turns,
cooperate, share and work on language
development. Through roleplay, kids are also
able to learn about functioning in the greater
community.
• Competitive Play: Whether she's beating her
brother at Chutes and Ladders or playing on a
local soccer team, your child is engaging in
competitive play. Rules and turn-taking, and
functioning as part of a team are the big lessons
taken from this type of play. You may have to
give your child guidance about dealing with
both winning and losing.
• Physical Play: Gross and fine motor skills
really come into play here, whether your child
is throwing a ball or riding a bike. Physical
play encourages kids to be active.
• Constructive Play: Forms of constructive play
include building with blocks, making a road for
 toy cars, or constructing a fort out of couch
pillows. Constructive play teaches kids about
manipulation, building, and fitting things
together.6 Cognitive skills are used to figure out
how to make something work best, whether it is
a block tower that won't stand up or a
sandcastle that keeps collapsing.
• Symbolic Play: This type of play can be vocal
(singing, jokes, rhymes), graphic arts (drawing,
coloring), counting, or making music. This type
of play helps children learn to develop skills in
expressing themselves and exploring their
experiences, ideas, and emotions.