Report For Heterogeneous Networks Design and Optimization Credit - 03!07!23

Heterogeneous Networks Design and
Optimization
Submitted By:
Ehab Khaled
Habiba Tullah Fouda
Hager Ahmed
Maged El-Dafashy
Mahmoud Reda
Mariam Hany
Marina Ehab Communication System
Mostafa Mohamed Engineering
Nour El-Deen Amin Graduation Project Report
Nurhan Ahmed
Rahma Ahmed Supervisor(s):
Prof. Salwa Hussein El Ramly
Prof. Hussein Abd El Aty El
Sayed
Sponsored by:
OMEGA Wireless
04/07/2023
Name ID Contribution
Mahmoud Reda 18p9933 Chapter 4 (Sections: 4.1-4.3)
Chapter 9 (Sections: 9.1-9.3)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Chapter 14 (Section: 14.3)
Ehab Khaled 18P6929 Chapter 4 (Sections: 4.3-4.5)
Chapter 9 (Sections: 9.3-9.5)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Hager Ahmed 18p6623 Chapter 2 (Section: 2.10.1)
Mohamed Chapter 10 (Sections: 10.1-10.3)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Rahma Ahmed Hesham 18p9374 Chapter 2 (Sections: 2.9, 2.10.2)
Chapter 6 (Sections: 6-6.4)
Chapter 7 (Sections: 7-7.4)
Chapter 12
Chapter 13 (Design)
Mariam Hany 18p5465 Chapter 3 (3G)
Chapter 10: (Sections: 10.4-10.6)
Chapter 12 (iBwave)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Nour El-Deen Amin 18P3446 Chapter 3: (Sections: 3-3.2)
Chapter 8 (Noise)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Maged Nagy El- 18p9495 Chapter 4 (Sections: 4.5-4.6)
Dafashy Chapter 11 (Multioperator Systems)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Chapter 14 : (Sections: 14.0 - 14.3),
High Rise Sector 1 Design Plan
Nurhan Ahmed Sakr 18p3553 Chapter 2: (Sections:2-2.9)
Chapter 6: (Section: 6.8)
Chapter 12 (iBwave)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Marina Ehab Adly 18p1809 Chapter 3: (Section: 3.5)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Mostafa Mohamed 18p6697 Chapter 3: (Sections: 3.3, 3.4)
Chapter 12 (iBwave)
Chapter 13 (Design)
Habiba Mohamed 18P4511 Chapter 4(LTE)
Fouda Chapter 6 (IBS): (Sections: 6.5-6.6)
Chapter 7 (DAS): (sections: 7.5)
DECLARATION
We hereby certify that this material, which we now submit for assessment on the programme
of study leading to the award of Bachelor of Science in (Electronics and Communication
Systems Engineering) is entirely our own work, that we have exercised reasonable care to
ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of our knowledge breach any law of
copyright, and have not been taken from the work of others and to the extent that such work
has been cited and acknowledged within the text of our work.
Signed: by all students
Mahmoud Reda
Rahma Ahmed Hesham
Maged Nagy Wadea Herz
Nurhan Ahmed Sakr
Marina Ehab Adly
Mostafa Mohamed Sayed
Ehab Khaled Elsayed
Nour El-Deen Amin Ibrahim Fouad
Hager Ahmed Mohamed
Mariam Hany Wadie
Habiba Mohamed Foudah
Date: 4, July 2023.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
It has been a great opportunity to gain lots of experience in real-time projects, followed by
the knowledge of how to design and analyze real projects.
We express our deepest and sincere gratitude to our graduation project supervisors, Prof.
Salwa Hussein El Ramly and Prof. Hussein Abd El Atty Elsayed, for giving us the opportunity
to do research and providing invaluable guidance throughout this project. Their vision,
sincerity, and motivation have deeply inspired us. It was a great privilege and honor to work
and study under their guidance. Their knowledge and lenience enabled us to pursue our work
effectively.
We also want to thank our sponsor Omega Wireless (US based leading wireless design and
optimization company). And special thanks to Eng. Rehab Ibrahim, for her guidance and
support throughout the term. Also, for providing us with useful tools and resources that helped
us in completing our research.
We are deeply grateful to all the professors and teaching assistants of Ain Shams University
who were there for us through our bachelor’s degree journey. We are grateful for their effort
that helped us achieve this level of knowledge to be able to carry out this project.
Finally, our thanks go to all the people who have supported us to complete the research
work directly or indirectly.
ABSTRACT
Our goal in this project is to be able to design a full HetNet network, so several steps must be
taken to achieve this goal. Starting with a study of each cellular generation (2G, 3G, 4G) and
how each generation provides different data rates and access techniques, the next step is to
understand the in-building solutions and macro site coverage problems to provide the required
indoor coverage. DAS would be the best solution for providing a dedicated in-building
solution, and we should select the appropriate DAS type based on our design requirements.
Each DAS solution brings with it a set of challenges that must be overcome, one of which is
noise. In our research, we will look at some noise parameters and how to calculate them, as
well as how each component in our system generates noise. We will look for ways to reduce
its impact on our system so that we can improve the quality of the received signal for end users.
The link budget calculation is one of the most important calculations when designing our
indoor systems because it accounts for the various losses in the system that the signal will have
to endure from the transmitter to the receiver as well as other losses in the path in between
them. These losses could be caused by noise from any component in the system, body loss
from the number of people on the floor, or path loss from the distance between the transmitter
and the receiver, even if there is no obstruction between them. As expected, any additional
clutter will degrade the signal. We will also discuss the design considerations for each
generation, because a system for 2G cannot be designed in the same way that a system for high-
speed internet and high-quality voice calls over 4G can. We also have to make sure that the
indoor DAS system implemented in the building is prepared for future traffic growth.
AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
TABLE OF CONTENT
List of figures .......................................................................................................................... 6
LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................... 12
1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 14
1.1 GSM (2G) ........................................................................................................................... 14
1.2 UTRA (3G) ........................................................................................................................ 14
1.3 LTE .................................................................................................................................... 14
1.4 Antennas ............................................................................................................................. 15
1.5 Indoor Building solution .................................................................................................... 15
1.6 Distributed antenna systems ............................................................................................... 15
1.8 NOise.................................................................................................................................. 16
1.9 Link budget ........................................................................................................................ 16
1.10 Designing Indoor Das Solutions ......................................................................................... 17
1.11 Multioerator System ........................................................................................................... 17
1.12 iBwave................................................................................................................................ 17
2 CHAPTER TWO: GSM (2G) .................................................................................. 18
2.1 2G access technique ........................................................................................................... 18
2.1.1 GSM up/downlink bands ................................................................................................. 19
2.2 Duplexing mode ................................................................................................................. 21
2.3 Cellular structure ................................................................................................................ 21
2.4 Interference in 2g................................................................................................................ 22
2.4.1 Co-channel interference ................................................................................................... 22
2.4.2 Adjacent interference ....................................................................................................... 23
2.5 Frequency channel assignments ......................................................................................... 24
2.5.1 Fixed distribution (commonly used) ................................................................................ 24
2.5.2 Dynamic distribution ....................................................................................................... 24
2.5.3 Hybrid distributions ......................................................................................................... 24
2.6 Cell splitting ....................................................................................................................... 24
2.7 Cell sectorization ................................................................................................................ 25
2.8 Gsm power control ............................................................................................................. 26
2.9 Gsm physical and logical channels..................................................................................... 26
2.9.1 GSM physical channel ..................................................................................................... 26
2.9.2 Logical channel ................................................................................................................ 27
2.9.2.1 Traffic channels ............................................................................................................... 27
2.9.2.2 Control channels .............................................................................................................. 27
2.10 GSM Network Architecture ............................................................................................... 29
2.10.1 Mobile Station (MS) ........................................................................................................ 29
2.10.2 Base Station Subsystem (BSS) ........................................................................................ 31
2.10.3 Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) ............................................................................. 32
3 CHAPTER THREE: THIRD GENERATION ....................................................... 35
3.1 CDMA ................................................................................................................................ 35
3.1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 35
3.1.2 CDMA Definition ............................................................................................................ 35
3.1.3 CDMA Standards ............................................................................................................. 35
3.1.4 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) ........................................................................ 36
3.1.5 CDMA Technology ......................................................................................................... 36
3.1.6 CDMA Analogy ............................................................................................................... 36
3.1.7 CDMA Capacity .............................................................................................................. 37
3.1.8 CDMA Advantages .......................................................................................................... 37
3.1.9 CDMA Disadvantages ..................................................................................................... 37
3.2 WCDMA ............................................................................................................................ 38
3.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 38
3.2.2 WCDMA Modes .............................................................................................................. 39
3.2.3 Code Reuse ...................................................................................................................... 40
3.3 3G UMTS ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................................ 40
3.3.1 3G UMTS Interfaces ........................................................................................................ 41
1
3.4 RAKE RECIEVER............................................................................................................. 42

3.5 HANDOVERS ................................................................................................................... 43
3.5.1 Soft handover ................................................................................................................... 43
3.5.2 Softer handover ................................................................................................................ 43
3.5.3 Hard handover.................................................................................................................. 44
4 CHAPTER FOUR: LTE .......................................................................................... 45
4.1 LTE INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 45
4.2 LTE TECHINQUES........................................................................................................... 45
4.2.1 Multipath Fading .............................................................................................................. 45
4.2.2 OFDM .............................................................................................................................. 47
4.2.3 OFDMA ........................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.4 SC-FDMA ........................................................................................................................ 49
4.3 LTE FRAME STRUCTURE .............................................................................................. 51
4.4 USER SCHEDUALING .................................................................................................... 52
4.5 LTE RF Channel Bandwidth .............................................................................................. 53
4.6 Reference Signal Received Power (RSSP) ......................................................................... 54
4.7 Power Control in LTE ........................................................................................................ 55
5 CHAPTER FIVE: ANTENNAS .............................................................................. 57
5.1 WHAT IS AN ANTENNA .................................................................................................. 57
5.2 Types of antennas ............................................................................................................... 58
5.2.1 Directional antenna .......................................................................................................... 58
5.2.2 Isotropic antenna .............................................................................................................. 58
5.2.3 Omnidirectional antenna .................................................................................................. 59
5.3 ANTENNA PARAMETERS.................................................................................................... 59
5.3.1 Radiation Pattern .............................................................................................................. 59
5.3.2 Side lobes ......................................................................................................................... 60
5.3.3 Front to Back Ratio .......................................................................................................... 60
5.3.4 Half Power Beamwidth .................................................................................................... 60
5.3.5 Antenna Gain ................................................................................................................... 61
5.4 ANTENNA POLARIZATION .......................................................................................... 61
5.5 ANTENNA TILTING ........................................................................................................ 62
5.6 SISO ................................................................................................................................... 63
5.6.1 Fading .............................................................................................................................. 63
5.7 SIMO .................................................................................................................................. 64
5.8 MISO .................................................................................................................................. 65
5.9 MIMO ................................................................................................................................ 66
6 CHAPTER SIX: INDOOR BUILDING SOLUTION ............................................ 68
6.1 WHAT IS IBS? .................................................................................................................. 68
6.2 WHY IBS? ......................................................................................................................... 68
6.3 IBS BUSSINESS CASE .................................................................................................... 69
6.4 Macro layer as an indoor coverage ..................................................................................... 70
6.5 Indoor 3g/hspa coverage .................................................................................................... 71
6.6 THE CORRECT WAY TO PLAN 3g/4g iNDOOR cOVERAGE ..................................... 72
6.7 Basics of Indoor RF Planning............................................................................................. 73
6.7.1 Isolation: .......................................................................................................................... 73
6.7.1.1 Isolation in 2G.................................................................................................................. 73
6.7.1.2 Isolation in 3G.................................................................................................................. 73
6.8 Overcoming the high-rise problem ..................................................................................... 73
6.8.1 Zone Planning Concept .................................................................................................... 74
7 CHAPTER SEVEN: DISTRIBUTED ANTENNA SYSTEMS .............................. 76
7.1 DAS main components:...................................................................................................... 76
7.2 Passive DAS components:.................................................................................................. 78
7.2.1 Coaxial cable .................................................................................................................... 78
7.2.2 Splitters ............................................................................................................................ 78
7.2.3 Tap/uneven splitters ......................................................................................................... 79
7.2.4 Attenuators: ...................................................................................................................... 80
7.2.5 Dummy load/Terminators: ............................................................................................... 80
7.2.6 Circulator: ........................................................................................................................ 80
7.2.7 3dB coupler: ..................................................................................................................... 81
2
7.2.8 Filters: .............................................................................................................................. 82

7.3 Passive DAS: ...................................................................................................................... 83
7.3.1 How does passive DAS work? ......................................................................................... 83
7.3.2 Advantages of implementing passive DAS: ..................................................................... 84
7.3.3 Disadvantages of implementing passive DAS: ................................................................ 84
7.4 Application of passive DAS: .............................................................................................. 85
7.5 Active das: .......................................................................................................................... 85
7.5.1 Active Vs Passive DAS.................................................................................................... 86
7.5.2 Why Use Active DAS ...................................................................................................... 86
7.6 Hybrid DAS: ...................................................................................................................... 87
7.6.1 Main components of hybrid DAS: ................................................................................... 87
7.6.2 Hybrid solution applications: ........................................................................................... 88
7.6.3 Hybrid DAS solutions precautions: ................................................................................. 89
7.7 Combination between passive and active DAS: ................................................................. 89
7.8 Combination between outdoor and indoor using DAS ....................................................... 89
8 CHAPTER EIGHT: NOISE .................................................................................... 90
8.1 NOISE FUNDAMENTALS ............................................................................................... 90
8.1.1 Thermal Noise .................................................................................................................. 90
8.1.1.1 Spectral Noise Density ..................................................................................................... 91
8.1.1.2 Thermal Noise Level........................................................................................................ 91
8.1.1.3 Reference Noise Level per 1 Hz ...................................................................................... 91
8.1.1.4 Reference Noise Level ..................................................................................................... 91
8.1.2 Noise Factor ..................................................................................................................... 92
8.1.3 Noise Figure ..................................................................................................................... 92
8.1.4 Noise Floor ...................................................................................................................... 93
8.2 Cascaded Noise .................................................................................................................. 93
8.2.1 The Friis Formula ............................................................................................................ 93
8.2.1.1 Calculation of Cascaded Noise ........................................................................................ 93
8.2.2 Amplifier After the Cable Loss ........................................................................................ 94
8.2.2.1 Example: .......................................................................................................................... 94
8.2.2.2 Calculations of Signal level, noise Power and the SNR: ................................................. 94
8.2.2.3 Conclusion: Passive Loss will Degrade the System ......................................................... 95
8.2.3 Amplifier Prior to the Cable Loss .................................................................................... 95
8.2.3.1 Example: .......................................................................................................................... 96
8.2.3.2 Better NF.......................................................................................................................... 96
8.2.3.3 Calculations of Signal level, noise Power and the SNR: ................................................. 96
8.3 LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER AND REMOTE UNITS: ....................................................... 97
8.3.1 Uniform Performance: ..................................................................................................... 97
8.4 NOISE CONTROL ............................................................................................................ 98
8.4.1 Noise Load on Base Stations ........................................................................................... 98
8.4.2 Noise and 2G Base Stations ............................................................................................. 98
9 CHAPTER NINE: LINK BUDGET...................................................................... 100
9.1 LINK BUDGET COMPONENTS ................................................................................... 101
9.1.1 Transmitter Losses ......................................................................................................... 101
9.1.2 Receiver Losses ............................................................................................................. 102
9.1.3 Radio Link Losses.......................................................................................................... 102
9.2 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PATH LOSS ..................................................................... 103
9.2.1 2G DL Link Budget Calculations .................................................................................. 103
9.2.1.1 The Transmitting Part .................................................................................................... 103
9.2.1.2 The Receiving Part ......................................................................................................... 103
9.2.1.3 In Radio Channel ........................................................................................................... 105
9.2.1.4 Maximum Allowable Path Loss ..................................................................................... 106
3
9.2.2 2G UL Link Budget Calculations .................................................................................. 107

9.2.2.1 The Transmitting Part .................................................................................................... 107
9.2.2.2 The Receiving Part ......................................................................................................... 107
9.2.2.3 In Radio Channel ........................................................................................................... 108
9.2.2.4 Maximum Allowable Path Loss ..................................................................................... 108
9.2.3 BALANCING THE LINK ............................................................................................. 108
9.2.4 COVERAGE RADIUS .................................................................................................. 109
9.3 PATH LOSS MODEL...................................................................................................... 109
9.3.1 Free space loss model .................................................................................................... 109
9.3.2 Modified indoor model. ................................................................................................. 110
9.3.3 PLS model...................................................................................................................... 111
9.4 DESIGN CONCIDIRATION AND REQUIREMENTS ................................................. 114
9.4.1 2G .................................................................................................................................. 114
9.4.2 3G .................................................................................................................................. 114
9.4.3 4G .................................................................................................................................. 116
9.5 LINK BUDGET CALCULATIONS FOR PASSIVE/ACTIVE/HYPRID DAS ............. 119
9.5.1 Passive DAS .................................................................................................................. 119
9.5.2 Active DAS .................................................................................................................... 119
9.5.3 Hybrid DAS ................................................................................................................... 119
10 CHAPTER TEN: DESIGNING INDOOR DAS SOLUTIONS ........................... 120
10.1 The Indoor Planning Procedure ........................................................................................ 120
10.2 RF Design Process............................................................................................................ 122
10.2.1 RF measurement ............................................................................................................ 122
10.2.2 Measurements of the existing coverage level ................................................................ 123
10.2.3 Measurements types ....................................................................................................... 123
10.2.4 Post implementation measurements .............................................................................. 123
10.3 Designing the Optimum Indoor Solutions ........................................................................ 124
10.3.1 Only use a visible antenna ............................................................................................. 124
10.3.2 Common mistakes while designing indoor solutions ..................................................... 124
10.3.3 Planning the antenna locations ....................................................................................... 125
10.3.4 The corridor Effect ......................................................................................................... 127
10.3.5 Fire cells inside the building .......................................................................................... 127
10.3.6 Indoor antenna performance .......................................................................................... 128
10.3.7 The ‘Corner Office Problem’ ......................................................................................... 131
10.3.8 Interleaving antennas in‐between floors ........................................................................ 132
10.3.9 Planning for full indoor coverage .................................................................................. 133
10.4 Indoor Design Strategy ..................................................................................................... 133
10.4.1 Hotspot Planning Inside Buildings................................................................................. 133
10.4.2 Special Design Considerations ....................................................................................... 137
10.5 Handover Considerations Inside Buildings ...................................................................... 138
10.5.1 Indoor 2G Handover Planning ....................................................................................... 139
10.5.2 Indoor 3G Handover Planning ....................................................................................... 140
10.5.3 Handover Zone Size ....................................................................................................... 141
10.6 Elevator Coverage ............................................................................................................ 142
10.6.1 Coverage Elevator Solutions .......................................................................................... 142
10.6.2 Control the Elevator HO Zone .............................................................................................. 145
11 CHAPTER ELEVEN: MULTIOPERATOR SYSTEMS .................................... 147
11.1 Multioperator Compatibility ............................................................................................. 147
11.1.1 Rx/Tx Isolation .............................................................................................................. 147
11.1.2 Return Loss .................................................................................................................... 148
11.1.3 Inter-band Isolation ........................................................................................................ 148
11.1.4 Passive Inter-modulation................................................................................................ 148
11.1.5 Passive Inter-modulation Power .................................................................................... 149
11.1.6 Components that Minimize PIM .................................................................................... 150
11.2 The Combiner System ...................................................................................................... 151
11.3 Inter-modulation Distortion .............................................................................................. 152
11.3.1 Inter-modulation Distortion Products ............................................................................ 153
11.4 Co-existence Issues for 2G/3G ......................................................................................... 153
4
11.4.1 Spurious Emissions ........................................................................................................ 154

11.4.2 Combined DAS for 2G and 3G ...................................................................................... 154
11.5 Co-existence Issues for 3G/3G ......................................................................................... 155
11.5.1 Adjacent Channel Interference Power Ratio (ACIR) ..................................................... 155
11.5.2 ACIR problem, with Indoor DAS .................................................................................. 156
11.5.3 Solving ACIR................................................................................................................. 156
11.6 Multioperator Agreement ................................................................................................. 157
11.6.1 The Parties Involved ...................................................................................................... 157
11.6.2 The Covered Aspects ..................................................................................................... 158
11.6.3 Co-existence Parameter.................................................................................................. 158
11.6.4 Future of the Indoor DAS .............................................................................................. 159
11.6.5 Logistics ......................................................................................................................... 159
12 CHAPTER TWELVE: IBWAVE ......................................................................... 160
12.1 About iBwave Software: .................................................................................................. 160
12.2 Implementation stages: ..................................................................................................... 160
13 CHAPTER THERTEEN: KEY VENUES ............................................................ 165
13.1 Design Introduction: ......................................................................................................... 165
13.1.1 Why Designing?............................................................................................................. 165
13.2 Steps: ................................................................................................................................ 165
13.2.1 OFFICE:......................................................................................................................... 165
13.2.2 Hospital .......................................................................................................................... 167
13.2.3 Sidi Gaber Station: ......................................................................................................... 170
14 CHAPTER FOURTEEN: HIGH RISE BUILDING ............................................ 177
14.1 Venue Discription............................................................................................................. 177
14.1.1 Venue Drawings............................................................................................................. 178
14.1.2 Sector Plan ..................................................................................................................... 179
14.1.3 KPI and Required Coverage ......................................................................................... 179
14.2 High rise building Implmntation ...................................................................................... 180
14.2.1 Desing Plan .................................................................................................................... 180
14.3 High Rise Building Sector 1 ............................................................................................. 182
14.3.1 Sector 1 Port A ............................................................................................................... 184
14.3.2 Sector 1 Port B ............................................................................................................... 194
14.3.3 Sector 1 Port C ............................................................................................................... 204
14.3.4 Sector 1 Port D ............................................................................................................... 214
14.4 High Rise Building Sector 2 ............................................................................................. 224
14.4.1 Floor 17 .......................................................................................................................... 226
14.4.2 Floor 18 .......................................................................................................................... 228
14.4.3 Floor 19 .......................................................................................................................... 231
14.4.4 Floor 20 .......................................................................................................................... 233
14.4.5 Floor 21 .......................................................................................................................... 236
14.4.6 Floor 22 .......................................................................................................................... 238
14.4.7 Floor 23 .......................................................................................................................... 241
14.4.8 Floor 24 .......................................................................................................................... 243
14.4.9 Floor 25 .......................................................................................................................... 246
14.4.10 Floor 26 .......................................................................................................................... 248
14.4.11 Floor 27 .......................................................................................................................... 251
14.4.12 Floor 28 .......................................................................................................................... 253
14.4.13 Floor 29 .......................................................................................................................... 256
15 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 259
16 References .............................................................................................................. 261
5
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1: FDMA [5]. .............................................................................................................................. 18

Figure 2. 2: TDMA [6]. .............................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 2. 3: TDMA/FDMA [5]. ................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 2. 4: Dead zone [8]. ......................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2. 5: Cell shape [8]. ......................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2. 6: Overlapping area [8]. .............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 2. 7: Cellular structure [5]. .............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 2. 8: Co-channel distance [5]. ......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2. 9: Adjacent interference [9]. ....................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2. 10: Cell types [10]....................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2. 11: Sectorized cell by 120-degree [10]. ...................................................................................... 25
Figure 2. 12: physical channels & TS [5]. .................................................................................................. 27
Figure 2. 13: GSM Network Architecture [5]. ........................................................................................... 29
Figure 2. 15: BTS link(interface) with MS [5]. .......................................................................................... 31
Figure 2. 16: EIR process [5]. .................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.1: Compare Between FDMA, TDMA, CDMA techniques [14]. ................................................. 38
Figure 3.2: CDMA Modes: FDD type........................................................................................................ 39
Figure 3.3: CDMA Modes: TDD type [15]. ............................................................................................... 39
Figure 3.4: compare FDMA/TDMA to CDMA/WCDMA frequency reuse [15]. ...................................... 40
Figure 3.5: UMTS architecture [16]. .......................................................................................................... 41
Figure 3.6: UMTS Interfaces [17]. ............................................................................................................. 42
Figure 3.7: Rake receiver [18]. ................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 3.8: Soft handover and softer handover [19]. .................................................................................. 44
Figure 4.1 : Multipath fading and ISI [20]. ................................................................................................ 45
Figure 4.2: Reduced ISI [21]. ..................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.3: MCM [22]. ............................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.4: FDM vs OFDM [23]. ............................................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.5: OFDM vs OFDMA [24]. ......................................................................................................... 48
Figure 4.6: OFDMA Hardware [25]........................................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.7: OFDMA vs SC-FDMA [4]. ..................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4.8: SC-FDMA implementation [26]. ............................................................................................. 50
Figure 4.10: Resource Blocks Assignment to different users [4]. .............................................................. 52
Figure 4.11 : LTE RF channel bandwidth [27]. ......................................................................................... 53
Table 4-1: the number of assigned sub-channel for each bandwidth [27]. ................................................. 53
Figure 4.12: Reference symbols [4]. .......................................................................................................... 54
Figure 4.13 Different powers in RSRP [4]. ................................................................................................ 55
Figure 4.14: Transmitter power in uplink [28]. .......................................................................................... 56
Figure 5.1: Radio waves [29]. .................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 5.2: Directional antenna [30]. ......................................................................................................... 58
Figure 5.3: Isotropic antenna [31]. ............................................................................................................. 58
Figure 5.4: Omni-directional antenna [32]. ................................................................................................ 59
Figure 5.5: Side lobes [33]. ........................................................................................................................ 60
Figure 5.6: Half power beamwidth [34]. .................................................................................................... 61
Figure 5.7: Antenna gain [35] .................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 5.8: Dual polarization [36]. ............................................................................................................. 62
Figure 5.9: Antenna tilting [37]. ................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 5.10: Electrical vs Mechanical tilting [38]. ..................................................................................... 63
Figure 5.11: SISO system [39]. .................................................................................................................. 63
Figure 5.12: multipath fading [40]. ............................................................................................................ 64
Figure 5.13: SIMO system [39]. ................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 5.14: MISO system [39]. ................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 5.15 MIMO system [39]. ................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 5.16: Diversity [41]. ........................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 5.17: Spatial multiplexing [41]. ...................................................................................................... 67
Figure 6. 1: Traffic doubled after implementing an indoor solution [4]..................................................... 70
6
Figure 6. 2: Orthogonality affects the efficiency of the 3G RF channel [4]. .............................................. 71

Figure 6. 3: The degradation of the 3G channel, and power load when servicing indoor users from the
macro layer [4]. .......................................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 6. 4: Zones planning [4]. ................................................................................................................. 74
Figure 7. 1: DAS [42]................................................................................................................................. 76
Figure 7. 2: DAS using donor antenna [43]. .............................................................................................. 77
Figure 7. 3: DAS using on-site BTS [44]. .................................................................................................. 77
Figure 7. 4: Losses for different cable sizes [4]. ........................................................................................ 78
Figure 7. 5: Different splitter types [4]....................................................................................................... 79
Figure 7. 6: 1:3 Splitter Example [4]. ......................................................................................................... 79
Figure 7. 7: Uneven Splitter [4]. ................................................................................................................ 79
Figure 7. 8: Attenuator [4].......................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 7. 9: Dummy load/terminator [4]. ................................................................................................... 80
Figure 7. 10: Circulator [4]. ....................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 7. 11: Circulator used for protection against power reflected from antenna [4]. ............................ 81
Figure 7. 12: 3dB Couples for power distribution across passive DAS [4]. ............................................... 82
Figure 7. 13: Duplexer [4]. ......................................................................................................................... 82
Figure 7. 14: Diplexer [4]. .......................................................................................................................... 82
Figure 7. 15: Triplexer [4]. ......................................................................................................................... 83
Figure 7. 16: Passive DAS [44]. ................................................................................................................. 84
Figure 7. 17: Typical Active DAS Architecture [4]. .................................................................................. 86
Figure 7. 18: Hybrid DAS structure [4]. .................................................................................................... 88
Figure 8.1: Cascaded system with a passive cable as first stage [4]. .......................................................... 94
Figure 8.2: Cascaded system with a passive cable after the first stage [4]. ................................................ 95
Figure 8.3: Pure active DAS with amplifiers located close to antenna [4]. ................................................ 98
Figure 9.1: sample of link budget calculation [45]. .................................................................................. 100
Figure 9.2 Link budget components [46]. ................................................................................................ 101
Figure 9.3: 2G Link Budget [4]. ............................................................................................................... 106
Figure 9.4: Free space loss [4]. ................................................................................................................ 110
Figure 9.5: Indoor model calculator [4]. .................................................................................................. 111
Figure 9.6: Example of a path loss slope [4]. ........................................................................................... 112
Figure 9.7: PLS constant for different environment [4]. .......................................................................... 113
Figure 9.8: Difference between free space loss and path loss based on PLS for dense office [4]. ........... 113
Figure 9.9: Different downlink power level requirements for each data rate in 2G/Edge [4]. ................ 114
Figure 9.10: The effect of interference on a signal, before and after modulation using CDMA [47]. ..... 115
Figure 9.11: 4G RF channel, showing the subcarriers and the physical resource blocks that represent it,
along with their frequency spacing [4]. .................................................................................................... 117
Figure 9.12 : Number of subcarriers for each 4G channel based on its bandwidth [4]. ........................... 117
Figure 9.13: Different coverage footprint of each channel bandwidth in 4G [4]. .................................... 118
Figure 10. 1: One way of structuring the indoor planning process [4]. .................................................... 121
Figure 10. 2: Initial RF survey measurement routes [4]. .......................................................................... 122
Figure 10. 3: Antennas need to be placed with a certain coverage overlap [4]. ....................................... 126
Figure 10. 4: The coverage from a typical indoor antenna will be uneven [4]. ........................................ 127
Figure 10. 5: Isotopic omni antenna directivity vs. directivity of a 1/2 λ dipole antenna [4]. .................. 129
Figure 10. 6: Example of horizontal and vertical directivity plots of omni and directional antennas [4]. 129
Figure 10. 7: Omni antennas with different gains (directivity) in a large open space [4]. ....................... 130
Figure 10. 8: Horizontal/vertical directivity plots of a indoor DAS antenna [4]. ..................................... 131
Figure 10. 9: The same building was implemented using two different strategies [4]. ............................ 131
Figure 10. 10: Often it is possible to interleave the layout of the antennas [4]. ...................................... 132
Figure 10. 11: The results of the interleaving coverage [4]. ..................................................................... 132
Figure 10. 12: Floor plan with no detailed information [4]. ..................................................................... 134
Figure 10. 13: Floor plan with ‘prediction plot’ of the downlink [4]. ...................................................... 135
Figure 10. 14: Version of the floor plan contains actual information [4]. ................................................ 136
Figure 10. 15: Floor plan with the DAS design [4]. ................................................................................. 136
Figure 10. 16: Antenna placements in a shopping mall [4]. ..................................................................... 137
Figure 10. 17: The typical 2G handover scenario in a building [4]. ......................................................... 139
Figure 10. 18: The typical 3G soft handover scenario in a building [4]. .................................................. 141
Figure 10. 19: The typical way to provide elevator coverage [4]. ............................................................ 143
Figure 10. 20: Two options for covering the elevator [4]. ....................................................................... 143
Figure 10. 21: Two antennas ‘back-to-back’ might work as a passive repeater [4]. ................................ 144
7
Figure 10. 22: Passive Repeater System for larger elevator shafts [4]. .................................................... 146
Figure 11.1: PIM generated from 2 frequencies [4]. ................................................................................ 149
Figure 11.2: PIM power vs. input power [4]. ........................................................................................... 150
Figure 11.3: PIM performance vs connector types [4]. ............................................................................ 150
Figure 11.4: 3-operator cavity combiner [4]. ........................................................................................... 151
Figure 11.5: 3-operator combiner using discreet components [4]. ........................................................... 151
Figure 11.6: IMD components and results [4]. ......................................................................................... 153
Figure 11.7: Second and third order IMD products [4]. ........................................................................... 153
Figure 11.8: Spurious emission from a transmitter [4]. ............................................................................ 154
Figure 11.9: Second-order IMD from 2G-900 hitting 3G UL [4]. ........................................................... 154
Figure 11.10: Third-order IMD from 2G-1800 hitting 3G uplink [4]. ..................................................... 155
Figure 11.11: Channel allocation on 3G [4]. ............................................................................................ 155
Figure 11.12: Typical channel usage of 2 operators [4]. .......................................................................... 156
Figure 11.13: ACIR in a building when 2 operators use different DAS systems [4]. .............................. 156
Figure 11.14: No ACIR with 2 operators on the same DAS system [4]................................................... 157
Figure 12. 1: iBwave Software [48]. ........................................................................................................ 160
Figure 12. 2: Example of given layout. .................................................................................................... 161
Figure 12. 3: Active DAS Vs Passive DAS [49]. ..................................................................................... 161
Figure 12. 4: Example of given KPI......................................................................................................... 162
Figure 12. 5: Example of 3D layout. ........................................................................................................ 163
Figure 12. 6: Different components of DAS [50]. .................................................................................... 164
Figure 12. 7: Prediction of Office Design. ............................................................................................... 164
Figure 13. 1: Office 3D ............................................................................................................................ 166
Figure 13. 2: Office Design Plan. ............................................................................................................. 166
Figure 13. 3: Office Design with Coverage.............................................................................................. 167
Figure 13. 4: Hospital 3D Layout Plan..................................................................................................... 168
Figure 13. 5: Hospital Design Plan. ......................................................................................................... 169
Figure 13. 6: Hospital Design with coverage. .......................................................................................... 170
Figure 13. 7: Sidi Gaber Station. .............................................................................................................. 170
Figure 13. 8: Sidi Gaber Station Floor 1 3D Layout Plan. ....................................................................... 171
Figure 13. 9: Sidi Gaber Station Floor 2 3D Layout Plan. ....................................................................... 172
Figure 13. 16-a: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 1 divided. ................................................................... 172
Figure 13. 10: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 1 divided. ...................................................................... 173
Figure 13. 11: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 1. ................................................................................... 173
Figure 13. 12: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 2 divided. ...................................................................... 174
Figure 13. 13: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 2. ................................................................................... 174
Figure 13. 14: Sidi Gaber Design Plan Floor 1. ....................................................................................... 175
Figure 13. 15: Sidi Gaber Design Plan Floor 2. ....................................................................................... 176
Figure 14. 1: The facade of the building. ................................................................................................. 177
Figure 14. 2: The high-rise building. ........................................................................................................ 177
Figure 14.1: The high rise building. ......................................................................................................... 177
Figure 14. 3: Floor 16 of the building. ..................................................................................................... 178
Figure 14.2: Floor 16 of the building. ...................................................................................................... 178
Figure 14. 4: Clutter profile of floors 1 to 15 and Clutter profile of floors 17 to 29 respectively. ........... 178
Figure 14. 5: Sectors of the high rise. ....................................................................................................... 179
Figure 14. 6: Power legend. ..................................................................................................................... 179
Figure 14. 7: The power per channel for GSM and UMTS respectively.................................................. 179
Figure 14.7: The power per channel for UTMS. ...................................................................................... 179
Figure 14.8: The power per channel for GSM. ........................................................................................ 179
Figure 14. 8: Port distribution of sector 1. ............................................................................................... 180
Figure 14. 9: Ericsson KRF 201 329. ....................................................................................................... 180
Figure 14. 10: Sector 1 BTSs. .................................................................................................................. 180
Figure 14. 11: Port A couplers. ................................................................................................................ 181
Figure 14. 12: Sector 1 Design Plan. ........................................................................................................ 182
Figure 14. 13: Components and powers of sector 1. ................................................................................ 183
Figure 14. 14: Material color codes.......................................................................................................... 183
Figure 14. 15: Basement 3 - Desing Plan. ................................................................................................ 184
Figure 14. 16: Basement 3 - 3D. .............................................................................................................. 184
Figure 14. 17: Basement 3 - GSM 1800. .................................................................................................. 185
Figure 14. 18: Basement 3 - GSM 900. .................................................................................................... 185
8
Figure 14. 19: Basement 3- UMTS 2100. ................................................................................................ 186

Figure 14. 20: Ground Floor - 3D. ........................................................................................................... 186
Figure 14. 21: Ground Floor- Design Plan. .............................................................................................. 187
Figure 14. 22: Ground Floor- GSM 900................................................................................................... 187
Figure 14. 23: Ground Floor - GSM 1800................................................................................................ 188
Figure 14. 24: Ground Floor - UTMS 2100. ............................................................................................ 188
Figure 14. 25: Floor 1- 3D. ...................................................................................................................... 189
Figure 14. 26: Floor 1- Desing Plan. ........................................................................................................ 189
Figure 14. 27: Floor 1 - GSM 900. ........................................................................................................... 190
Figure 14. 28: Floor 1 - GSM 1800. ......................................................................................................... 190
Figure 14. 29: Floor 1 - UMTS 2100. ...................................................................................................... 191
Figure 14. 30: Floor 2-3D. ....................................................................................................................... 191
Figure 14. 31: Floor 2-Design Plan. ......................................................................................................... 192
Figure 14. 32: Floor 2-GSM 900. ............................................................................................................. 192
Figure 14. 33: Floor 2-GSM 1800. ........................................................................................................... 193
Figure 14. 34: Floor 2-UMTS 2100. ........................................................................................................ 193
Figure 14. 35: Floor 3-3D. ....................................................................................................................... 194
Figure 14. 37: Floor 3-GSM 900. ............................................................................................................. 195
Figure 14. 38: Floor 3-GSM 1800. .......................................................................................................... 195
Figure 14. 40: Floor 4-3D. ....................................................................................................................... 196
Figure 14. 42: Floor 4-GSM 900. ............................................................................................................ 197
Figure 14. 43: Floor 4-GSM 1800. .......................................................................................................... 198
Figure 14. 44: Floor 4-UMTS 2100. ....................................................................................................... 198
Figure 14. 45: Floor 5-3D. ....................................................................................................................... 199
Figure 14. 47: Floor 5-GSM 900. ............................................................................................................ 200
Figure 14. 48: Floor 5-GSM 1800. ........................................................................................................... 200
Figure 14. 50: Floor 6-3D. ....................................................................................................................... 201
Figure 14. 52: Floor 6-GSM 900. ............................................................................................................. 202
Figure 14. 53: Floor 6-GSM 1800. .......................................................................................................... 203
Figure 14. 55: Floor 7-3D. ....................................................................................................................... 204
.................................................................................................................................................................. 204
Figure 14. 57: Floor 7-GSM 900. ............................................................................................................ 205
Figure 14. 58: Floor 7-GSM 1800. .......................................................................................................... 205
Figure 14. 59: Floor 7-UMTS 2100. ....................................................................................................... 206
Figure 14. 60: Floo8-3D. .......................................................................................................................... 206
Figure 14. 62: Floor 8-GSM 900. ............................................................................................................ 207
Figure 14. 63: Floor 8-GSM 1800. .......................................................................................................... 208
Figure 14. 65: Floor 9-3D. ....................................................................................................................... 209
Figure 14. 67: Floor 9-GSM 900. ............................................................................................................ 210
Figure 14. 68: Floor 9-GSM 1800. ........................................................................................................... 210
Figure 14. 70: Floor 10-3D. ..................................................................................................................... 211
Figure 14. 71: Floor 10-Design Plan. ....................................................................................................... 212
Figure 14. 72: Floor 10-GSM 900. ........................................................................................................... 212
Figure 14. 73: Floor 10-GSM 1800. ......................................................................................................... 213
Figure 14. 74: Floor 10-UMTS 2100. ...................................................................................................... 213
Figure 14. 75: Floor 11-3D. ..................................................................................................................... 214
Figure 14. 77: Floor 11-GSM 900. ........................................................................................................... 215
9
Figure 14. 78: Floor 11-GSM 1800. ......................................................................................................... 215

Figure 14. 80: Floor 12-3D. ..................................................................................................................... 216
Figure 14. 82: Floor 12-GSM 900. ........................................................................................................... 217
Figure 14. 83: Floor 12-GSM 1800. ......................................................................................................... 218
Figure 14. 85: Floor 14-3D. ..................................................................................................................... 219
Figure 14. 87: Floor 14-GSM 900. ........................................................................................................... 220
Figure 14. 88: Floor 14-GSM 1800. ......................................................................................................... 220
Figure 14. 90: Floor 15-3D. ..................................................................................................................... 221
Figure 14. 92: Floor 15-GSM 900. ........................................................................................................... 222
Figure 14. 93: Floor 15-GSM 1800. ......................................................................................................... 223
Figure 14. 95: Floor 17-3D. ..................................................................................................................... 226
Figure 14. 97: Floor 17- GSM 900. .......................................................................................................... 227
Figure 14. 98: Floor 17- GSM 1800. ........................................................................................................ 227
Figure 14. 99: Floor 17- UMTS 2100. ..................................................................................................... 228
Figure 14. 100: Floor 18-3D. ................................................................................................................... 228
Figure 14. 101: Floor 18-Design Plan. ..................................................................................................... 229
Figure 14. 102: Floor 18- GSM 900. ........................................................................................................ 229
Figure 14. 103: Floor 18- GSM 1800. ...................................................................................................... 230
Figure 14. 104: Floor 18- UMTS 2100. ................................................................................................... 230
Figure 14. 105: Floor 19-3D. ................................................................................................................... 231
Figure 14. 107: Floor 19- GSM 900. ........................................................................................................ 232
Figure 14. 108: Floor 19- GSM 1800. ...................................................................................................... 232
Figure 14.109 : Floor 19- UMTS 2100. ................................................................................................... 233
Figure 14. 110: Floor 20-3D. ................................................................................................................... 233
Figure 14. 112: Floor 20- GSM 900. ........................................................................................................ 234
Figure 14. 113: Floor 20- GSM 1800. ...................................................................................................... 235
Figure 14.114: Floor 20- UMTS 2100. .................................................................................................... 235
Figure 14.115: Floor 21-3D. .................................................................................................................... 236
Figure 14.116: Floor 21-Design Plan. ...................................................................................................... 236
Figure 14.117: Floor 21- GSM 900. ......................................................................................................... 237
Figure 14. 118: Floor 21- GSM 1800. ...................................................................................................... 237
Figure 14. 120: Floor 22-3D. ................................................................................................................... 238
Figure 14. 122: Floor 22- GSM 900. ........................................................................................................ 239
Figure 14.123: Floor 22- GSM 1800. ....................................................................................................... 240
Figure 14. 125: Floor 23-3D. ................................................................................................................... 241
Figure 14. 127: Floor 23- GSM 900. ........................................................................................................ 242
Figure 14. 128: Floor 23- GSM 1800. ...................................................................................................... 242
Figure 14. 130: Floor 24-3D. ................................................................................................................... 243
Figure 14.132: Floor 24- GSM 900. ......................................................................................................... 244
Figure 14. 133: Floor 24- GSM 1800. ...................................................................................................... 245
Figure 14. 135: Floor 25- 3D. .................................................................................................................. 246
Figure 14. 136: Floor 25- Design Plan. .................................................................................................... 246
Figure 14.137: Floor 25-GSM 900. .......................................................................................................... 247
10
Figure 14. 138: Floor 25-GSM 1800. ....................................................................................................... 247

Figure 14. 139: Floor 25-UMTS 2100. .................................................................................................... 248
Figure 14. 140: Floor 26-3D. ................................................................................................................... 248
Figure 14. 142: Floor 26-GSM 900. ......................................................................................................... 249
Figure 14. 143: Floor 25-GSM 1800. ....................................................................................................... 250
Figure 14. 145: Floor 27-3D. ................................................................................................................... 251
Figure 14.147: Floor 27-GSM 900. .......................................................................................................... 252
Figure 14. 148: Floor 27-GSM 1800. ....................................................................................................... 252
Figure 14. 150: Floor 28-3D. ................................................................................................................... 253
Figure 14. 152: Floor 28-GSM 900. ......................................................................................................... 254
Figure 14. 153: Floor 28-GSM 1800. ....................................................................................................... 255
Figure 14. 156: Floor 29-3D. ................................................................................................................... 256
Figure 14. 158: Floor 29-GSM 900. ......................................................................................................... 257
Figure 14. 159: Floor 29-GSM 1800. ....................................................................................................... 257
11
LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS
ACRONYM Definition of Acronym
GSM global system for mobile communication
SMS SMS short message services
TDMA Time division multiple access
FDMA Frequency division multiple access.
FDD Frequency duplexing division
BW Band width.
FDM Frequency division multiplexing
TDM Time division multiplexing.
BSS Business Support System
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
DS Direct Sequence
DAS Distributed Antenna System
RU Remote Unit
HRU Hybrid remote unit
MU Master unit
RF Radio frequency
F Noise Factor
IS-95 Interim Standard 95
12
LNA Low Noise Amplifier
NF Noise Figure
PIM Product Information Management
RF Radio Frequency
S/N Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio
TIA Telecommunications Industry Association
UL Uplink
PN Pseudo-random Noise sequence
Rx Receiver
Tx Transmitter
PIM Passive Inter-modulation
IMD Inter-modulation Distortion
MOA Multioperator Agreement
MAPL Maximum Allowable Path Loss
LB Link Budget
13
1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 GSM (2G)
GSM was successfully launched in the 1990’s and this is the first mobile technology
which is considered as a digital system. The beginning of 2G has introduced a lot of
facilities to its user as it supports more users compared to the first generation, moreover
it supports high channel capacity, lower cost and good security compared to the previous
generation. The services that this technology has supported are voice and SMS services.
That’s why GSM was very attractive to the people who existed in this time, and it was
successfully spread out all over the world [1].
1.2 UTRA (3G)
3G is the third generation of wireless mobile telecommunications technology. It offers

faster data transfer and better voice quality than 2G, GPRS, and 2.75G Enhanced Data
Rates for GSM Evolution networks, the 3G standard had to deliver packet-switched data
with better spectral efficiency at far greater speeds technologies than GSM. The 3G
systems and radio interfaces are based on spread spectrum radio transmission technology
and uses CDMA as the multiple access technique [2].
1.3 LTE
Due to a significant rise in mobile data usage and the introduction of new applications
like mobile TV, Web 2.0, and streaming contents, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) has been working on Long-Term Evolution (LTE) on the path to fourth-
generation mobile. The main goal of LTE is to develop a packet-optimized radio access
technology with high data rates, low latency, and support for variable capacity
installations. Its network architecture was developed with the dual goals of facilitating
packet-switched traffic and upholding excellent service quality and mobility [2].
14
1.4 ANTENNAS
An antenna is a metallic structure that captures and/or transmits radio electromagnetic

waves. Antennas come in all shapes and sizes from little ones that can be found on your
roof to watch TV to really big ones that capture signals from satellites millions of miles
away.
Our antennas are available in standard and custom designs and engineered for use in cars,
heavy-transport vehicles including rail, and a wide variety of personal electronics,
including mobile devices and wearable technology. Our antennas offer high-quality
transmission for a wide variety of frequencies including, but not limited to Bluetooth,
WLAN, and ZigBee. We manufacture our antennas in facilities worldwide, which include
testing capabilities in near and far field patterns, scattering parameters, SAR, vibration,
humidity, temperature shock, salt fog, throughput, and acoustic [3].
1.5 INDOOR BUILDING SOLUTION
When creating and putting indoor coverage solutions into operation, there are many
difficulties, both from a business and technical viewpoint. The overall business case and
network performance depend primarily on indoor radio planners. 80% of users are inside
buildings in many areas, making it difficult to provide high-performance indoor coverage,
especially at higher data speeds. It is much more than just a technological problem; among
other things, the business case and potential of the implemented solutions must be
evaluated. It's important for an indoor radio planner to look beyond the present technical
problem and consider future problems as well [4].
1.6 DISTRIBUTED ANTENNA SYSTEMS
As we have understood from the previous section that IBS is needed to ensure adequate
coverage and dominance like distributed antenna systems, where a uniform dominating
signal must be distributed throughout the building from the indoor cell using indoor
antennas. You must split the signal from the interior base station to a number of antennas
spread across the building in order to accomplish this [4].
These antenna terminals should ideally operate at about the same power level and have a
similar uplink loss/noise figure as the serving base station. The fact that all of the antennas
15
in the building will operate on the same cell and be regulated by the same parameter
setting is what drives the uniformly distributed coverage level for all of the antennas in
the building. To maximize the performance of the indoor coverage system, uniform
performance across the DAS is a critical element [4].
1.8 NOISE
In any communication system, some undesirable signal can enter the communication
during transmission or reception, making the recipient uncomfortable and raising
concerns about the communication's quality. Noise is the term for this disruption. The
performance of the radio link is significantly impacted by noise power produced by
amplifiers and the base station. Therefore, in order to understand how noise affects the
performance of the data rate, we need to understand how noise is calculated [4].
1.9 LINK BUDGET
Finally, before we begin our design, we must investigate the link budget. The basic
calculation for planning any RF link between a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx) is the
link budget (LB) (Rx). There are two link budget calculations for two-way
communication: uplink and downlink. These calculations assist in determining the
maximum allowable path loss (MAPL) in the downlink and uplink paths. As a result, the
attenuation, and gains of the end-to-end path between Tx and Rx must be considered.
Furthermore, we must consider the type of distribution system in design, and various
parameters must be considered when calculating the link budget for each type. Based on
these DAS parameters, the radio service requirement, and the impact of noise from
existing signal sources operating on the same frequency or channel, the link budget for
both links, uplink and downlink, must be calculated to determine the system's service
range in both directions [4].
16
1.10 DESIGNING INDOOR DAS SOLUTIONS
Creating a well-structured and documented workflow for the task at hand is crucial,
before beginning to design the first indoor solution. We will also discuss the design tasks
of the RF planner and the team. Their main task is to make a suitable compromise between
meeting the design goals, securing the system, and designing and implementing the
system to maximize the business case. We must consider when designing the DAS the
antenna system features, possibilities, and limitations in the particular building to a
maximum, in order to make the system applicable for practical implementation. It is
important to make sure that the indoor DAS system implemented in the building is
prepared for future traffic growth. It is a major challenge to service elevators with RF
coverage and requires special consideration [4].
1.11 MULTIOERATOR SYSTEM
Large public places as malls, airports and tunnels tend to share the implemented DAS
system between the different operators and their different bands (2G, 3G, 4G). We discuss
the variety of problems that need to be tackled such as inter modulation and the standards
of the contractual agreement between the operators to share the DAS system [4].
1.12 iBwave
The in-building wireless market receives solutions from iBwave Solutions, a telecom
radio planning software vendor. The software iBwave Design, which is primarily used by
telecom operators, system integrators, and equipment vendors, is what iBwave is most
known for. The world's leader in software innovation and delivery, iBwave keeps the
globe connected by making convergent networks simple.
17
2 CHAPTER TWO: GSM (2G)
GSM was successfully launched in the 1990’s and this is the first mobile technology
which is considered as a digital system. The beginning of 2G has introduced a lot of
facilities to its user as it supports more users compared to the first generation, moreover
it supports high channel capacity, lower cost and good security compared to the previous
generation. The services that this technology has supported are voice and SMS services.
That’s why GSM was very attractive to the people who existed in this time, and it was
successfully spread out all over the word [1].
2.1 2G ACCESS TECHNIQUE
In 2G TDMA/FDMA was used which supported more users than the frequency division
multiple access technique (FDMA) which was used in the 1st generation technology.
In FDMA the total bandwidth is divided into subcarriers, each user will take a specific
sub-carrier to make a call. Moreover, more than one user can use the same sub-carrier but
not at the same time. Hence the efficiency of bandwidth has enhanced as the subcarriers
are not booked for one user like frequency division multiplexing (FDM). This means that
all calls occur at the same time but at different frequencies. The central frequency in each
subcarrier is called carrier frequency [5].
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏 − 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟. (1)
Figure 2. 1: FDMA [5].
In time division multiple access (TDMA), We have a frame. Frame is a time duration
which is divided into 8 time slots. Each user will take a specific time slot to make a call.
The time slot is not booked for a specific user like in time division multiplexing (TDM)
all the time as there is a possibility for more than one user to take the same time slot but
18
not in the same time. This means that all calls occur at different time slots but same
frequencies [5].
Channel = time slot.
Figure 2. 2: TDMA [6].
In TDMA/FDMA each sub-carrier is divided into 8 time slots the majority of them are
for traffic signals and the minority are for control signals each user will use a specific
time slot in order to make a call and this time slot also isn’t booked for one user more
than one user can use the same time slot but not in the same time.
So, we can deduce that TDMA/FDMA is supporting a number of users more than FDMA
and TDMA TDMA/FDMA reduced the blocking of calls by increasing the number of
channels.
Number of users= number of sub-BW * no of time slot per frame.
Channel =specific time slot at specific carrier [5].
Figure 2. 3: TDMA/FDMA [5].
2.1.1 GSM up/downlink bands
➢ Uplink
19
GSM 900:
• 890-915 MHz
• BW= 25MHz
• Carrier separation =200KHz = carrier bandwidth + guard bandwidth
GSM: 1800:
• 1710-1785 MHz
• BW=75 MHz
GSM 1900:
• 1850-1910 MHz
• BW=60 MHz
➢ Downlink
GSM 900 :
• 960-935 MHz
• BW= 25MHz
GSM 1800:
• 1880-1805 MHz
• BW=75MHz
GSM 1900 :
• 1930-1990 MHz.
• BW=60 MHz
• Carrier separation =200KHz = carrier bandwidth + guard bandwidth [5].
From the bands above, it is noticed that the downlink bands is higher the downlink the
logic behind this that the uplink means that the mobile station is the transmitter and the
20
base station is the receiver and the power of the mobile station is a little bit low that’s
why the low frequency is used and this low frequency corresponds low power losses so
using the low frequencies at the uplink will corresponds the low power that is emitted
from the mobile station.
On the other side of the coin downlink means that the base station is the transmitter, and
the mobile station is the receiver and the power emitted from the base station is higher
than from the mobile station so using higher frequencies is accepted in the downlink [5].
2.2 DUPLEXING MODE
Duplexing is the way of allocating the channel in the uplink and downlink to the same
user. In GSM frequency duplexing division (FDD) is used in which one user takes a
specific band in uplink and another in downlink (pair of bands) [7].
2.3 CELLULAR STRUCTURE
The area that is exposed to be covered to cells; each cell is a hexagon shape Although the
radiation of each antenna covers 360 degrees while using an omnidirectional antenna. The
reason behind this that if we used circle cells that are attached to each other’s by their
edge, dead zone (non-covered area) will be appear [8].
Figure 2. 4: Dead zone [8].
Also using overlapped circles means fast switching between two base stations which is
good, and mobile will be served by the channel of the highest power so if the mobile
station is existed in the overlapping area, it will be served form the channel of the highest
power. And this forms the hexagonal shape [8].
21
Figure 2. 5: Cell shape [8].
Figure 2. 6: Overlapping area [8].
Each cell includes Base station at the center of the cell which includes antenna. Each
antenna generates more than 1 frequency depending on the traffic,
Cell with high traffic corresponds several Carrier frequencies and vice versa. We cannot
use the same carrier frequency several times at same cell or at same cluster, this causes
co channel interference [8].
Figure 2. 7: Cellular structure [5].
2.4 INTERFERENCE IN 2G
2.4.1 Co-channel interference

Interference occurs when two signals are operates at the same frequency within the same
area at the same time, because of having limited bandwidth, no of users will be limited,
22
therefore we have to reuse frequencies without causing interference to increase no of

users. This will happen by using the same frequency several times at the same time but
not in the same cell or same cluster (different clusters). As reuse distance increases, co-
channel interference decreases (signal to interference ratio inc). Because the power of the
two signals is reduced by going through a long distance. As interference decreases quality
increases. Cluster size must obey the relation N= 𝑖 2 + 𝑖𝑗 + 𝑗 2 where i,j are integers
numbers [5].
Figure 2. 8: Co-channel distance [5].
• As cluster size increases, the reuse distance increases therefore co-channel

interference decreases hence quality increases.
• As cluster size increases, the number of channels per specific area decreases hence
system capacity decreases [5].
2.4.2 Adjacent interference

This kind of interference occurs while putting two adjacent frequencies in the same cell
and this happened because the filter that is used to select the specific carrier is not perfect
so part of the adjacent carriers could be taken and cause adjacent interference.
Figure 2. 9: Adjacent interference [9].
23
To overcome this problem: Guard bands can be used but this will cause a waste of
bandwidth. So, we can distribute the frequencies over the cell with precise distribution in
order to avoid the presence of adjacent frequencies in the same cell [9].
2.5 FREQUENCY CHANNEL ASSIGNMENTS
There are 3 ways for the distribution of frequency all over the cells.
2.5.1 Fixed distribution (commonly used)

This way depends on a constant distribution of frequency without taking into
consideration that each cell has its own condition and its own system capacity which
can differ from one cell to other. So fixed distribution will not be proper according to
the system capacity perspective. But fixed distributions mean not much time for precise
frequency planning and not too many transceivers will be used [5].
2.5.2 Dynamic distribution

Dynamic channel assignment has solved the problem of the system capacity as the
frequencies will be redistributed and replanned according to the condition of system
capacity at each cell.
Example: A cell with lower traffic corresponds to fewer number of frequencies.
A cell with higher traffic corresponds to a higher number of frequencies.
Unfortunately, although this way supports accurate frequency planning, it needs a lot of
transceivers with high costs, and time required to make accurate planning will be high
[5].
2.5.3 Hybrid distributions

Hybrid distribution always distributes frequencies in a fixed way first then by observing
the conditions of cells it will be decided if a dynamic distribution is needed or not. So,
wasting time decreases but too many transceivers will be used [5].
2.6 CELL SPLITTING
This is a concept that is used in all mobile technologies in order to enhance the system
capacity by [10]:
1) reducing coverage by : reducing power , reducing height or down tilt.
24
2) Adding extra cells in dead zone that will appear.

3) No Cells increases, capacity increases.
Figure 2. 10: Cell types [10].
2.7 CELL SECTORIZATION
1) Each cell will be divided into sectors.
2) Each sector will be served by the antenna.
3) Omni directional antenna leads to the presence of 6 cells that cause co-
channel interference.
4) So we will use directional antenna hence: cells will be affected by less co-
channel cells only.
5) By replacing omni directional to directional antenna co-channel interference

will decrease so we can decrease cluster size to support more system
capacity in the whole system [10].
Figure 2. 11: Sectorized cell by 120-degree [10].
25
2.8 GSM POWER CONTROL
Power control in GSM is optional. Although small power is needed to be transmitted to

the mobile while being closer to the base station and high power is needed to be
transmitted to the mobile while being far away from the base station but in GSM base
station transmits with the maximum power of itself and then power control takes place.
Also, in uplink mobile sends with the maximum power of the base station during the call
because if it sends with the maximum of itself maybe this power extends to another cell
and causes interference. The mobile station knows the maximum power of the base station
as the base station sends info with its maximum power to the mobile station then power
control takes place [11].
Example: suppose that: TX power (base station) =-40dB, RX power target = -100db
And the actual RX power = -90 dB.
So, the mobile will send to the base station to reduce the power by 10 dB in order to reach
to the target RX power.
This update occurs every 480 msec.
Note: during the call: mobile sends with a max power of the base station
No calls: mobile sends with normal power [11].
2.9 GSM PHYSICAL AND LOGICAL CHANNELS
The physical channel is the medium over which the information is carried while the
logical channels consist of the information carried over the physical channel.
2.9.1 GSM physical channel

GSM band is divided into 124 RF channels, and each channel is divided into 8-time slots
using TDMA. These time slots are called “physical channels’’.
26
Figure 2. 12: physical channels & TS [5].
2.9.2 Logical channel

Logical channels are divided into two main types:
2.9.2.1 Traffic channels

1) Speech:
Speech channels are supported by two different methods of coding known as
i. Full Rate (TCH/FR) = 22.8 kb/s
ii. Half Rate (TCH/HR) = 11.4 kb/s
2) Data:
i. Data Channel 9.6kb/s
ii. Data Channel 4.8kb/s
iii. Data Channel 2.4Kb/s [5].
2.9.2.2 Control channels

1) Broadcast Channels (BCH): From Single BTS to all the mobiles in the area
(Down Link or Forward Link)
i. Frequency Correction Control CHannel (FCCH): Allow the MS to
synchronize its frequency to the exact frequency of the base station.
ii. Synchronization CHannel (SCH): Allow MS to frame synchronize with the
BTS.
iii. Broadcast Control CHannel (BCCH): Broadcasts some general cell
information such as Location Area Identity (LAI), Cell Identity, and
Network Identity; maximum output power allowed in the cell [5].
27
2) Common Control Channels (CCCH): To or from a certain BTS to a single

mobile
i. Paging CHannel (PCH): BTS Transmits a paging message to indicate an
incoming call or short message. The paging message contains the
identity number of the mobile subscriber (IMSI) that the network wishes
to contact.
ii. Random Access CHannel (RACH): Used by the MS to acknowledge the
page from the PCH, MS Answers paging messages on the RACH by
requesting a signaling channel of SDCCH, and Used by the MS to
originate the call.
iii. Access Grant CHannel (AGCH): Assigns a signaling channel (SDCCH)
to the MS and Carries the data which instructs the MS to operate in a
certain physical channel (ARFCN and Time Slot) [5].
3) Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH):

i. Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH): Responsible for call
setup procedures (Ciphering and equipment validation).
ii. Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH): Responsible for the power
control and time advance information on the forward link and power
measurements for serving and adjacent links on the reverse link, BTS
Instructs the MS on the transmitting power to use and gives instructions
on timing advance (TA), and MS Sends averaged measurements on its
own BTS (signal strength and quality) and neighboring BTS’s (signal
strength) where the MS continues to use SACCH for this purpose during
a call.
iii. Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH): Responsible for carriers’
urgent messages (Handoff Requests) and transmits necessary handover
information [5].
28
2.10 GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
The GSM network is made up of four parts: the mobile device itself (MS), the base
station subsystem (BSS), the network switching subsystem (NSS), and the operation
and support subsystem (OSS) [5].
Figure 2. 13: GSM Network Architecture [5].
2.10.1 Mobile Station (MS)

There are two components for the mobile station:
i. Mobile Equipment (ME): It’s the terminal used by the user. It can be purchased
from any store. Every mobile has a SIM card, no calls can be made without it. It
has an International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) unique around the world.
The IMEI is a 15-digit number. Verifies that the mobile station is type-approved
and not stolen [5].
ii. Subscriber Identity Mobile (SIM): It’s an electronic microchip for storing
information. It has six active pins. Information stored on SIM includes:
• Subscriber identification (your phone number).

• Charging (your credit).
• Security (no one can use your SIM card) [5].
29
Figure 2. 14: SIM card [5].
There are four GSM identification numbers belonging to SIM stored in SIM
card:
o MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN): It’s a number dialed to reach a mobile
station. It has a maximum of 15 digits.
o IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity): It’s the non-dialable number
for identifying a subscriber in the GSM network. It has 15 digits.
o MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number): It’s used to route a call to the
serving MSC/VLR service area of the called subscriber.
o TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity Number): It’s used instead of
the IMSI within an MSC/VLR. It keeps the subscriber’s IMSI confidential
[5].
The mobile station has two modes:

a. Attached mode: mobile is connected to the network.
It’s classified to
i. Idle: (No call)
• Registration: Mobile was closed and then opened. The Mobile was
disconnected from the network for a long time.
• Local Area Updating: The network must know which cell its located on
throw paging.
• Paging: It doesn’t make calls until it knows the service is happening. It’s
important to save power and time.
• Roaming: For international calling.
ii. Active:
• Ongoing call
30
• Handover: If the preset levels for triggering the handover are fulfilled, the
network might evaluate that the mobile could be served by a new cell with
a better radio signal level.
• Monitoring power and Quality of its BTS: To measure the power to
increase it, if it’s weak, and vice versa. To measure the quality throw BER
which affects the interference.
• Monitoring power of neighboring BTSs: If the power of the neighbor cell
is higher, then the mobile will be handover to it [5].
b. Detached mode:
It’s classified to
i. IMSI detached: Mobile logged out from the coverage area but it’s still
registered on the network.
ii. Implicit detached: Mobile send to the network that it will be detected before
closing [5].
2.10.2 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Sub-system (BSS) handles all radio-related system operations. It
contains two components base transceiver station and a base station controller.
Base transceiver station:
A BTS serves as the interface between MSs and the network by giving network
subscribers radio access, converting GSM radio signals into a format that can be
recognized by the BSC. The GSM Air Interface (Um) offers the physical connection
between BTS and the mobile device (MS) [5].
Figure 2. 15: BTS link(interface) with MS [5].
31
1) BTS main functions:

- Records the signal strength measurements and forwards it to BSC.
- Channel coding: detection & correction of errors.
- Interleaving.
- Ciphering and deciphering data.
- Modulation and demodulation process [5].
Base station controller:
The BSC, which controls base station operations, is the key node within a BSS. One of
the key functions of the BSC is to control a major fraction of the radio network. The
GSM abis Interface offers the physical connection between BSC and BTS .
1) During call setup:
- By paging, BSC finds the MS that the network wants to contact.
- Allocate the frequency for call setup.
2) During call progress:

- Monitoring the call's quality.
- Depending on where the MS is located, controlling the sent power to the
MS.
- After obtaining the power measurements from the MS and the BTS,
controls the handover to the MS [5].
2.10.3 Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

Mobile switching center:
The MSC serves as the main node in a GSM network. That's the node that regulates the
establishment of calls and all calls must path through it [5].
1) Main MSC functions include:
- Call routing.
- Switching.
- Charging report.
- Controlling connected BSCs.
- Communicates with other MSCs.
- Communicates with HLR & VLR.
2) MSC types:
32
- VMSC: the visited MSC is the first core network device that switches
between BSCs and is combined with a VLR.
- TMSC: the transit MSC second-level MSC that switches between

multiple VMSCs.
- GMSC: The Gateway Mobile Switching Center is used to route calls
outside the mobile network (PLMN, PSTN) [5].
Home location register:
It serves as permanent storage for a person's subscription information up until that
subscription is canceled. The HLR is a centralized network database that maintains and
administers all mobile subscriptions belonging to a certain operator.
1) Main functions of HLR:
- Subscribers’ identification numbers/IMSI & MSISDN.

- Subscribers’ current location & allowed/barred services details.
- Subscribers’ authentication details using AUC.
- Charging & billing method [5].
Visited location register:

A VLR serves as a temporary storage facility for subscription information for MSs
located inside a specific MSC service area, hence there is one VLR for each MSC
service area in a GSM network. Thus, each time a subscriber uses a service or modifies
its status, the MSC doesn't need to go to HLR which can be located in another
nation. Each MSC has a VLR integrated with it.
1) Main functions of VLR:
- Temporary mobile station number /TMSI.

- Mobile status.
- Current location area of the mobile station.
- Supplementary service details [5].
Authentication center:
These security functions have been defined in order to protect GSM network.
33
1) Subscriber authentication: Through the use of authentication, the network

makes sure that no unauthorized users, including those attempting to
impersonate others, are able to access the network.
2) Radio ciphering: The information transferred between a network and an MS
is encrypted using radio information ciphering. Only data intended for an
MS can be decoded [5].
Equipment identity register:

The EIR equipment is used to stop stolen mobile devices as well as when a mobile
operator wants to block a specific kind of mobile phone. An International Mobile
Equipment Identity number is used to identify the mobile equipment (IMEI). It is
necessary to have a separate authentication process for the MS equipment. The
equipment identification procedure uses the IMEI to ensure that the MS terminal
equipment is valid.
Figure 2. 16: EIR process [5].
1) EIR is made up of three sub-classes:
- The Whitelist (not stolen).

- The Blacklist (stolen).
- The Gray List [5].
34
3 CHAPTER THREE: THIRD GENERATION
3.1 CDMA
3.1.1 Introduction
In this part intend to introduce CDMA use in wireless telephone systems. The focus is on
explaining, both the key aspects of CDMA technology, and the primary benefits the
technology offers to wireless communication system operators and their subscribers.
There is a tremendous amount of detailed technical information which is intentionally not
covered in this forum.
It has been necessary, though, to assume at least a rudimentary familiarity with cellular
telephone systems, including the basic characteristics of radio and the RF spectrum, as
well as fundamental system design concepts such as frequency re-use [12].
3.1.2 CDMA Definition

One of the most important concepts to any cellular telephone system is that of "multiple
access", meaning that multiple, simultaneous users can be supported. In other words,
many users share a common pool of radio channels, and any user can gain access to any
channel (each user is not always assigned to some channel). A channel can be thought of
as merely a portion of the limited radio resource which is temporary allocated for a
specific purpose, such as someone's phone call. A multiple access method is a definition
of how the radio spectrum is divided into channels and how channels are allocated to the
many users of the system. So, CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum signaling since
modulated coded signal has a much higher data bandwidth than the data being
communicated [12].
3.1.3 CDMA Standards

With CDMA, unique digital codes, rather than separate RF frequencies or channels, are
used to differentiate subscribers. The codes are shared by both the mobile station (cellular
phone) and the base station and are called "pseudo-Random Code Sequences." All users
share the same range of radio spectrum.
For cellular telephony, CDMA is a digital multiple access technique specified by the
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) as "IS-95".
35
In March 1992, the TIA established the TR-45.5 subcommittee with the charter of
developing a spread-spectrum digital cellular standard. In July of 1993, the TIA gave its
approval of the CDMA IS-95 standard.
IS-95 systems divide the radio spectrum into carriers which are 1,250 KHz (1.25 MHz)
wide. One of the unique aspects of CDMA is that while there are certainly limits to the
number of phone calls that can be handled by a carrier, this is not a fixed number [12].
3.1.4 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

IS-95 uses a multiple access spectrum spreading technique called Direct Sequence (DS)
CDMA.
Each user is assigned a binary, Direct Sequence code during a call. The DS code is a
signal generated by linear modulation with wideband Pseudorandom Noise (PN)
sequences. As a result, DS CDMA uses much wider signals than those used in other
technologies. Wideband signals reduce interference and allow one-cell frequency reuse.
There is no time division, and all users use the entire carrier, all the time [13].
3.1.5 CDMA Technology

Though CDMA application in cellular telephony is relatively new, it is not a new
technology. CDMA has been used in many military applications, such as anti-jamming
(because of the spread signal, it is difficult to jam or interfere with a CDMA signal),
ranging (measuring the distance of the transmission to know when it will be received),
and secure communications (the spread spectrum signal is very hard to detect [13].
3.1.6 CDMA Analogy

An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish
to talk to each other simultaneously.
To avoid interference:
1. People could take turns speaking (TDMA)
2. People could speak at different pitches (FDMA)
3. People could speak in different languages (CDMA) [13].
36
3.1.7 CDMA Capacity

The factors deciding the CDMA capacity are:
• Processing Gain
• Signal to Noise Ratio
• Voice Activity Factor
• Frequency Reuse Efficiency
Capacity in CDMA is soft, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users are separated
by code. This means, CDMA operates in the presence of noise and interference.
In addition, neighboring cells use the same frequencies, which means no re-use. So,
CDMA capacity calculations should be very simple. No code channel in a cell, multiplied
by no cell. But it is not that simple. Although not available code channels are 64, it may
not be possible to use a single time, since the CDMA frequency is the same [13].
3.1.8 CDMA Advantages

CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the number of
users. It has the following advantages:
• CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other
words, a user near the base station transmitting with the same power will drown
the signal latter. All signals must have equal power at the receiver.
• Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed versions of time
(a chip or later) of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and used to make
decisions at the bit level.
• Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing
operator. Two base stations receive mobile signal, and the mobile receives signals
from the two base stations. [14]
3.1.9 CDMA Disadvantages

The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follow:
• The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay
or may cause interference.
• Time synchronization is required.
• Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.
37
• As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station needs
constant tight power control. This can result in several handovers [14].
Figure 3.1: Compare Between FDMA, TDMA, CDMA techniques [14].
3.2 WCDMA
3.2.1 Introduction
WCDMA Formulated by the European standardization organization 3GPP, WCDMA is
widely supported by the global standardization organizations, equipment manufacturers,
component suppliers and operators. It will become one of the mainstream future 3G
systems. The core network evolves based on and can thus be compatible with the existing
GSM/GPRS networks. It can be based on the TDM, ATM and IP technologies to evolve
towards the all-IP network architecture. Logically, the core network comprises two parts:
The circuit domain and the packet domain to complete the circuit-switched services and
the packet-switched services respectively. Based on the ATM technology, the UTRAN
uniformly processes voice and packet services and evolves towards the IP network
architecture. MAP and GPRS tunneling technologies are the core of the mobility
management mechanism in the WCDMA system. The air interface adopts the WCDMA
technologies with the signal bandwidth of 5 MHz and the chip rate of 3.84 Mcps. It uses
the AMR voice encoding scheme and supports the synchronous/asynchronous Node B
operation mode [15].
38
3.2.2 WCDMA Modes

WCDMA has two different modes of operation:
1. FDD:
a. In this duplex method, uplink and downlink employ two separated
frequency bands for this duplex method.
b. A pair of frequency bands with specified separation is assigned for a
connection [15].
Figure 3.2: CDMA Modes: FDD type
2. TDD:
a. In this duplex method, uplink and downlink transmission are carried over
the same frequency band using synchronized time intervals.
b. Thus, timeslots in a physical channel are divided into transmission and
reception part [15].
Figure 3.3: CDMA Modes: TDD type [15].
39
3.2.3 Code Reuse

Code reuse improves your productivity. As The code reuse concept captures the idea of
reusing the code for the enterprise network. This can resolve the intra cell interference
issue.
In WCDMA, all cells may use the same carrier frequency as shown in figure below but
different scrambling codes. This means no frequency planning but scrambling codes and
power planning [15].
Figure 3.4: compare FDMA/TDMA to CDMA/WCDMA frequency reuse [15].
3.3 3G UMTS ARCHITECTURE
The 3G UMTS core network architecture was a migration of that used for GSM with
further elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS. In
view of the different ways in which data could be carried, the UMTS core network was
split into two different areas:
• Circuit switched elements: These elements were primarily based on the GSM
network entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, a permanent channel
for the duration of the call.
• Packet switched elements: These network entities were designed to carry packet data.
This enabled much higher network usage as the capacity could be shared and data
was carried as packets which were routed according to their destination.
Some network elements, particularly those that were associated with registration were
shared by both domains and operated in the same way that they did with GSM [16].
40
Figure 3.5: UMTS architecture [16].
There are several components in this network architecture in the circuit switching path and
the packet switching path. These components are the following:
• Mobile switching center (MSC): This was essentially the same as that within GSM,
and it managed the circuit switched calls under way.
• Gateway MSC (GMSC): This was effectively the interface to the external networks.
• Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): As the name implies, this entity was first
developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried over into the
UMTS network architecture. The SGSN provided several functions within the
UMTS network.
• Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Like the SGSN, this entity was also first
introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) was
the central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handled inter-
working between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet switched
networks and could be considered as a very sophisticated router. In operation, when
the GGSN received data addressed to a specific user, it checked if the user was active
and then forwarded the data to the SGSN [16].
3.3.1 3G UMTS Interfaces
UMTS can in many aspects be looked upon as an extension to GSM and GPRS. The greatest
changes are related to the access part of the network. The access network, called UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Network (UTRAN), consists of base stations and base stations controllers.
41
The base stations are called Node B. A Node B can support FDD mode, TDD mode or dual-
mode operation. Several base stations are managed by a Radio Network Controller (RNC).
The RNC is responsible for the Handover decisions that require signalling to the UE. A
logical view of the network is shown in Figure 1. Iub is the interface between an RNC and
a Node B. Iur is the logical interface between two RNCs. Logically, Iur represents a point-
to- point link between RNCs, however the physical realization may not be a point-to-point
link. Iu is the interconnection point between an RNC and the 3G Core Network [17].
Figure 3.6: UMTS Interfaces [17].
3.4 RAKE RECIEVER
A Rake Receiver is a radio receiver which is designed for the purpose of countering the
effects of multipath fading. Due to reflections from multiple obstacles in the environment,
the radio channel can consist of multiple copies of the transmitted signal having different
amplitude, phases, or delays. A rake receiver can resolve this issue and combine them. For
this purpose, several sub-receivers are used which are known as “fingers”. When the
transmitter transmits the signal then it travels through the environment which consists of
various obstacles and the transmitted signal is reflected by them and is received by the rake
receiver from multiple paths. Rake receiver then feeds them to different fingers
(correlators). The delays in each received signal are compensated and are needed by the
Combiner, Integrator and Comparator which combines them suitably with different
appropriate time delays [18].
42
Figure 3.7: Rake receiver [18].
3.5 HANDOVERS
Handover is simply when mobile station moves from cell to another while making a call
without disturbance of a call. There are three main common types of handovers: soft
handover, softer handover, and hard handover. Every type depends on whether using the
same base station, using two different stations, or even changing the system from 3G to 2G
[19].
3.5.1 Soft handover
If mobile station has connections going on at the same time with cells from two different
base stations, it is called soft handover. Mobile base stations will communicate with each
other over a single RF link, after which the base stations will transmit a call to the RNC,
which will combine the signals using rake receiving as depicted in fig. 14 and assess the
signals' quality before selecting the one with the best quality. During this form of handover,
both cells will be loaded with power and noise. The transmission link between the base
stations and the RNC will eventually be doubled [19].
3.5.2 Softer handover
If it is simultaneously connected to cells from the same base station, this is called a softer
handover. The mobile device will use both RF connections, and the base station will use rake
reception to combine the signal before sending it to the RNC. The mobile will then use its
receiver to receive two distinct signals from the base station. Also, in this form, the base
station will be loaded because there is double connection with the mobile for a single call
[19].
43
Figure 3.8: Soft handover and softer handover [19].
3.5.3 Hard handover
In this type of handover, the mobile station is connected to one of the system technologies like
LTE and goes to another technology like 3G or 2G. This might happen because of bad
coverage. Traffic and control channels are disconnected and must be reconnected. Handover
should be less noticeable. There are also other handovers specifically in UMTS like handover
between UMTS FDD and GSM and handover between UMTS FDD and UMTS TDD [19].
44
4 CHAPTER FOUR: LTE
4.1 LTE INTRODUCTION
Long-term evolution is regarded as the final step in the direction of 4G. It lowers the cost
per bit, increases the number of services that provide a better user experience at a lower
cost, uses existing and new frequency bands, has a UL peak rate greater than 50Mpbs,
and a DL peak rate greater than 100Mpbs [4].
4.2 LTE TECHINQUES
OFDMA is the downlink technique used in LTE, while SC-FDMA is the uplink
technique. However, why is OFDM used? The primary reason for this is the issue of
multipath propagation [20].
4.2.1 Multipath Fading
Multipath is the propagation phenomenon in radio communication that results in radio

signals reaching the receiving antenna via two or more paths. Atmospheric ducting,
ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflection from objects such as mountains and
buildings are all causes of multipath, which allows a receiver to receive several delayed
versions of the same signal. As shown in Figure 4.1, the multi-path will cause an
overlapping of two symbols known as Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) [20].
Figure 4.1 : Multipath fading and ISI [20].
45
Intersymbol interference can be reduced by increasing the symbol duration, as shown in

Figure 4.2, but longer symbol duration results in lower data rates, so MCM is used to
solve this problem [21].
Figure 4.2: Reduced ISI [21].
MCM (Multi-Carrier Modulation) is the principle of data transmission that divides a data
stream into several bit streams, each with a much lower data rate. To overcome low data
rates, the concept of Multicarrier Modulation is based on the fact that long symbol
duration means narrow bandwidth in the frequency domain, so each user is assigned
parallel multi subcarriers, as shown in Figure 3. Because of the guards, the MCM wastes
bandwidths, as shown in Figure 4.3, but OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing) will solve this problem [22].
Figure 4.3: MCM [22].
46
4.2.2 OFDM
As shown in Figure 4.4, OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a multi-

carrier modulation that relies on multiple subcarriers for transmission. OFDM has good
isolation between cell subcarriers/users, but radio channel degradation will affect this in
practise. OFDM differs from traditional FDM in that it uses single carriers for modulation,
requiring a specific guard band between the carriers. OFDM divides user data and sends
it in several data streams, each of which is modulated into individual subcarriers.
These orthogonal subcarriers travel in parallel. The main advantage of OFDM is that it
distributes high-rate data streams across multiple parallel lower bandwidth subcarriers.
Lower bandwidth subcarriers with cyclic prefixes are more resilient to multipath
distortion. The subcarrier spacing for LTE is 15 KHz [23].
OFDM Has Several Advantages:
• In Non-Line of Sight operation, the system will have high spectrum efficiency
• OFDM is ideal for operation in a multipath environment (which mainly represent

95% of the typical mobile environment).
• The design of the receiver and the equalizer is much simpler as compared with
other options.
• Supports adaptable RF bandwidths, thus the various channel segments used for
LTE [23].
Figure 4.4: FDM vs OFDM [23].

47
4.2.3 OFDMA
In the downlink path from the base station to the user, 4G/LTE employs OFDMA
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access). This is a multicarrier system that
distributes radio resources to multiple users across a number of orthogonal subcarriers in
the spectrum. The use of orthogonal channel spacing will result in more efficient spectrum
utilisation and improved inter carrier isolation. The system divides the LTE carrier into
many individual subcarriers separated by 15kHz. The modulation order of each individual
subcarrier is determined by the quality of the radio channel. OFDMA will assign
individual bandwidth to users based on their bandwidth requirements.
Unused subcarriers will not be transmitted, reducing power transmission, interference,

and power consumption. OFDMA is based on OFDM but differs from it in terms of
scheduling and resource assignment. In OFDM, the entire bandwidth belongs to a single
user for a set period; in OFDMA, multiple users share the same bandwidth at any given
time. Figure 4.5 depicts the difference between OFDMA and OFDM [24].
Figure 4.5: OFDM vs OFDMA [24].
Figure 4.5 depicts the hardware implementation of OFDMA, in which the data stream to
be transmitted is split into parallel streams, each of which is then mapped to frequency
domain subcarriers. The result is then converted into a time domain signal by an IFFT
function, which can then be modulated and transmitted over the air to the receiver. After
demodulation, the signal is fed into the FFT function at the receiver, which converts the
time domain signal into a frequency domain representation from which the individual
48
subcarrier frequencies can be detected. Finally, the slow data streams from each
subcarrier are reconfigured to form a single fast data stream [25].
Figure 4.6: OFDMA Hardware [25].
4.2.4 SC-FDMA
4G/LTE uses SCFDMA (Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access) in the
Uplink path from the mobile to the base station, as shown in Figure 4.7 (shown with only
four subcarriers). The user data in SCFDMA is divided across multiple subcarriers, as
opposed to the downlink channel in OFDMA, where each subcarrier serves one user. The
data of the users is also spread across multiple subcarriers in OFDMA. The primary
distinction between OFDMA and SCFDMA is that the symbols in SCFDMA are encoded
to appear as a single carrier modulated at a higher data rate. The resulting SC FDMA
signal will have the peak to average ratio of a single carrier rather than the higher peak to
average ratio of a multiple carrier waveform. SCFDMA has a lower average power than
OFDMA and thus does not drain the battery in the mobile; the circuitry in the mobile to
drive SCFDMA is also less complicated and less expensive to produce [4].
49
Figure 4.7: OFDMA vs SC-FDMA [4].
Figure 4.8 depicts the difference in hardware implementation between OFDMA and SC-
FDMA, where an FFT block is added before the IFFT in SC-FDMA [26].
Figure 4.8: SC-FDMA implementation [26].
50
4.3 LTE FRAME STRUCTURE
LTE frame is 10 milliseconds long. Each LTE frame has 10 sub-frames (1ms each) while
each sub-frame is then divided into 2 slots (0.5ms each). The slots are divided into
symbols where each slot has either 6 or 7 symbols. The size of the cyclic prefix determines
how many symbols are in each slot Normal cyclic prefix (4.67µs) and Extended cyclic
prefix (16.67µs) are the two cyclic prefix sizes used by LTE. When the Normal CP is
employed, there will be seven symbols in each slot. Each LTE symbol has a 66.67µs
symbol time. It will be around 71.34µs when adding a typical cyclic prefix, the spacing
between each carrier is 15Khz [4].
Figure 4.9: Resource block [4].
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4.4 USER SCHEDUALING
As illustrated in Figure 4.10, each user is scheduled for a specific number of resource
blocks in the time-frequency grid. The greater the user’s needed data speed, the more
resource blocks are allotted to that user. Figure 4.10 can demonstrate how three different
users were assigned to an LTE carrier, with each user receiving a unique set of resource
blocks. According to the chosen cyclic prefix, each resource block has a time slot duration
of 0.5 ms, or six or seven OFDM symbols. One scheduling block is the smallest resource
unit that could have been given to the user. Two major resource blocks make up one
scheduling block. As one resource block is 0.5 ms, one scheduling block is 1 ms. Thus,
scheduling of resources can be taken at 1 ms, so every two resource blocks, 180 kHz wide
and in total 1 ms in length, is called a scheduling block [4].
Figure 4.10: Resource Blocks Assignment to different users [4].
The scheduling procedure involves more than just allocating resource blocks. Modulation
and channel coding schemes are also assigned by the scheduler. Depending on how far a
user is from the base station, a different modulation technique is assigned to each user.
While a user far from the base station may be assigned a low modulation order such as
QPSK, a proximate user may be given a high modulation order such as 64-QAM. The
scheduling is primarily done to ensure high bandwidth usage and continuous service [4].
52
4.5 LTE RF CHANNEL BANDWIDTH
The carrier of 4G/LTE can be placed in different bandwidths, so that the network operator
can best utilized in the existing spectrum. It can scale its bandwidth to 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15,
and 20 MHz. Higher bandwidth means there is a larger number of subcarriers as shown
in the figure 4.11 [27].
Figure 4.11 : LTE RF channel bandwidth [27].
LTE can be deployed as TDD of FDD mode so it can fit into most spectrum allocations
in a paired spectrum of FDD. Or in an unpaired one for 1.4 and 3 MHz channels using
TDD. This corresponds to more flexibility as it reused the existing bands for 2G and 3G
systems [27].
Table 4-1: the number of assigned sub-channel for each bandwidth [27].
Carrier BW (MHZ) 1.4 3.0 5.0 10 15 20
No, of Sub-channels 6 15 25 50 75 100
No. of Sub-carriers 72 180 300 600 900 1200
53
4.6 REFERENCE SIGNAL RECEIVED POWER (RSSP)
The reference signal receive power (RSRP) is the mean power of resource elements that
are carrying cell specific reference signals. It is only measure in reference carrying
signals. RSRP is used to measure the signal power form a specific sector as well as
exclude noise and interference from the other sectors. The reference signal position in the
time domain is fixed (0 and 4 for type 1 frame) as shown in figure (4-12). Bu for the
frequency domain, it depends on the Cell ID. Reference signals are modulated to identify
the cells they belong to [4].
Figure 4.12: Reference symbols [4].
54
After UE measure the average of several resource elements, it sends a report to the base
station with the received power. The measured power ranges from -44 dBm to -140 dBm
[4].
Figure 4.13 Different powers in RSRP [4].
4.7 POWER CONTROL IN LTE
The LTE power control mechanism in LTE systems constitutes of a closed loop
component operating around an open loop point of operation. Specifically, the open
loop component has a parameterized fractional path loss compensation factor, enabling a
trade-off between cell edge bitrate and cell capacity.
In case of 4G DL, rather than varying power in the Downlink, full power is distributed
uniformly over the whole bandwidth. The same Power Spectral Density (PSD) is used on
all DL channels. For example, PDSCH, PHICH, PDCCH etc. As compared to Downlink.
In case of Uplink in LTE, Power control is used. As the battery of the phone (UE) is
power limited compared to base station power in the DL [28].
Uplink power control is used mainly for the following two reasons.
1. limit intra-cell and inter-cell interference.
2. reduce UE power consumption.
For the UL power control, there are two methods:
• Conventional power control

• Fractional power control
Conventional Power control is used in attempt to maintain a constant Signal to

Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR) at the receiver. UE increases their transmit
55
power to fully compensate any increase in path loss. Whereas for fractional Power
Control scheme. It allows the received SINR to decrease as the path loss increases,
i.e., the received SINR decreases as the UE moves towards cell edge. The UE transmit
power at a reduced rate as the path loss increases, when compared to conventional
power control, i.e, increase in path loss are only partially compensated [28].
Figure 4.14: Transmitter power in uplink [28].
56
5 CHAPTER FIVE: ANTENNAS
The aim of this chapter is to explain what an antenna is, its types, some of its properties,
and SISO, SIMO, MISO, and MIMO systems. This would help to improve the
performance of wireless communication systems. Some smart antennas in mobile
communications that enhances the capabilities of the mobile and cellular system such as
faster bitrate and multiuse interference. Moreover, engineers should be aware of this
useful topic specifically how antennas operate.
5.1 WHAT IS AN ANTENNA
An antenna is a passive device because it doesn't boost the input signal's power. An
antenna can either transmit information by converting a high frequency current into an
electromagnetic wave or receive information by turning an electromagnetic wave into a
high frequency current. Knowing what happens when a transmission line's end is opened
can help us better understand how antennas operate. The incident wave from the source
will be reflected to the source when a transmission line is opened at the end, and the
combined incident and reflecting waves will produce a standing wave. Since the currents
in the two Transmission lines are in opposition to one another, the magnetic field that the
first Transmission line produces will be cancelled by the other, preventing wave
propagation. There won't be any cancellation because the transmission line's end will be
bent in an antenna, ensuring that the currents flow in the same direction [29].
Figure 5.1: Radio waves [29].
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5.2 TYPES OF ANTENNAS
In radio systems, many different antenna types are used whose properties are especially
used for applications. Antennas are classified in 3 various types. These types are isotropic
antenna, directional antenna, and omni-directional antenna [30].
5.2.1 Directional antenna
A directional antenna is a radio frequency wireless antenna designed to function more

effectively in some directions than in others. The purpose of that directionality is
improving transmission and reception of communications and reducing interference [30].
Figure 5.2: Directional antenna [30].
5.2.2 Isotropic antenna
An isotropic antenna is defined as a hypothetical antenna having the same radiation in all
directions. It is assumed that the power gain of an isotropic antenna is 1.0. It is the ideal
case yet not practical [31].
Figure 5.3: Isotropic antenna [31].
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5.2.3 Omnidirectional antenna
Omnidirectional antenna is an antenna, which has a non-directional pattern in each plane,

and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane [32].
Figure 5.4: Omni-directional antenna [32].
5.3 ANTENNA PARAMETERS
To describe the performance of the antenna, there are various interrelated parameters that
are important. These parameters are as follows: radiation pattern, radiation intensity,
directivity, gain and efficiency.
• Radiation pattern is the representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a
function of space coordinates.
• Radiation intensity: it is a plot of the power radiated from an antenna per unit solid
angle.
• Directivity: is a concept that describes the ratio of an antenna’s radiation intensity in
each direction relative to the amount radiated by an isotropic antenna.
• Gain: is the antenna radiation strength at any direction in free space in (Decibels).
• Efficiency: ratio between power radiated to power incident [33].
5.3.1 Radiation Pattern

An antenna radiation pattern is defined as mathematical function or graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates. It is defined as for the far-field as a function of directional coordinates that
can be field pattern or power pattern. Often it is normalized with respect to its maximum
59
value. Principle patterns are the 2D patterns of linearly polarized antennas, measured in
2 plans: E-plan and H-plan. E-plan is a plane parallel to E vector and containing the
direction of maximum radiation. H-plan is a plane parallel to H vector, orthogonal to the
E-plan and containing the direction of maximum radiation. The pattern lobes of the
antenna can be classified as: major lobes, side lobes, and back lobes [33].
5.3.2 Side lobes
As some of the energy is not radiated in the intended direction that the main lobe is
directed at, side lobes in directional antennas are undesirable. Side lobes point in a
different direction, creating noise for people to whom the transmitter does not want to
convey a signal. Also, side lobes could cause an issue while receiving as the antenna
is receiving fromthe main lobe which is pointed at the sending client and receiving from
other unwanted sources through the side lobes. So, side lobes should be minimized as
much as possible as they cause noise to other receivers while sending and gets unwanted
signals from unwanted sources while receiving [33].
Figure 5.5: Side lobes [33].
5.3.3 Front to Back Ratio
Front to back ratio is the ratio of the main lobe's power gain to the back loop's power
gain in a directional antenna. The front to rear ratio should be as high as possible because
the back loop, like side lobes, generates noise when sending and problems when
receiving. The front to back ration is measured in dB [34].
5.3.4 Half Power Beamwidth
Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between two vectors, originating at the
pattern’s origin and passing through these points of the major lobe where the radiation
intensity is half its maximum (-3dB) [34].
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Figure 5.6: Half power beamwidth [34].
5.3.5 Antenna Gain
The gain is measured in dBi as i stands for isotropic. Also, antenna gain can be measured
in dBd in which the antenna radiation intensity iscompared to reference dipole antenna
(defined as 2.15 dBi gain) [35].
Figure 5.7: Antenna gain [35]
5.4 ANTENNA POLARIZATION
It is defined as the orientation of the electric field vector of the radiated electromagnetic
wave by the antenna with a negligible number of losses. When a propagating wave from
an antenna has an electric field that is perpendicular to the earth's surface, this is referred
to as vertical polarization. When a propagating wave from an antenna has an electrical
field that is perpendicular to the earth's surface, this is referred to as horizontal
polarization. Vertical polarization refers to the oscillation of an antenna's electrical field
on the vertical plane. Horizontal polarization refers to the oscillation of an antenna's
electrical field on the horizontal plane. However, for avoiding interference and reducing
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noise, dual polarization is needed in this case. A dual-polarity antenna is an antenna that
can receive and transmitting radiofrequency signals with two distinct forms of horizontal
and vertical polarization simultaneously. The most significant advantage of dual polarity
antenna over horizontal and vertical polarity antennas is their use in high-density
environments. So, the antennas could receive a vertical or horizontal polarized wave [36].
Figure 5.8: Dual polarization [36].
5.5 ANTENNA TILTING
Antenna titling refers to the inclination of the antenna or bending from vertical position.
The uses of tilt are to Reduce interference and to increase coverage in some specific areas,
having each cell to meet only its designed area. The antenna is used most frequently in a
down tilt position. It is uncommon to use up tilt, which occurs when the inclination is up
[37].
Figure 5.9: Antenna tilting [37].
The most common sort of tilting is down, and there are two kinds of down tilting:
mechanical and electrical. Mechanical tilt refers to the act of physically or manually
lowering the antenna. The back lobe of the antenna will be raised mechanically.
Mechanical tilt will result in a reduction of the sector's coverage longitudinally, but not in
62
width, which will remain constant and resemble an ellipse on the ground. Sector array
antennas use separate antennas whose emission patterns are altered by electrical tilt, which
does not involve any physical movement. In the same way that a circle on the earth gets
smaller and smaller, electrical tilt shrinks in both length and width. Electrical tilt will also
cause the back lobe to tilt downward. Electrical tilting can be carried out remotely without
the use of manpower [38].
Figure 5.10: Electrical vs Mechanical tilting [38].
5.6 SISO
SISO stands for Single Input Single Output. In other words, or put another way, a
transmitter antenna, and a reception antenna. Although it is an easy and affordable
procedure, it is not very reliable. It acts as a standard when assessing throughput
performance gain while employing more sophisticated antenna systems [39].
Figure 5.11: SISO system [39].
5.6.1 Fading
Fading caused by multipath is what restricts SISO's performance. Numerous copies of

the signals are mixed at the receiver side in a wireless communication environment, some
63
of them constructively and others destructively. As a result, the ultimate result of

combining all incoming signals becomes extremely complex, and the combined signal
significantly deviates from the original signal broadcast from the source. The combined
signal's quality is typically worse than the original signal when it reaches the receiver.
Fading is a term used to describe the process by which a signal degrades along its many
paths of propagation. Signal quality degrades is typically the implication when we use
the word "fading. “The use of numerous antennas at the transmitter, receiver, or both is
one method for preventing fading. This method is known as antenna diversity. There is a
strong chance that at least one of the received signals won't be hampered by fading if
several duplicates of the message signal can be delivered simultaneously across separate
fading [40].
Figure 5.12: multipath fading [40].
5.7 SIMO
SIMO stands for Single Input Multiple Output. In other words, one antenna at the
transmitter and more than one antenna at the receiver. It is also known as receive diversity.
This Receive diversity serves the purpose of giving better fading resistance. Switched
diversity SIMO and maximum ratio combining SIMO are the two types of SIMO that can
be used. By switching to the antenna with the strongest signal, switched diversity SIMO
searches for the best signal. This type of SIMO takes the two signals and adds them
together to produce a combination, which is known as maximum ratio combining SIMO.
The signals from the two antennas combine to form the total signal in this manner. The
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main drawback of SIMO is that if the receiver is inside a mobile device, such a smartphone
handset, the levels of processing might be constrained by size, cost, and battery life [39].
Figure 5.13: SIMO system [39].
5.8 MISO
MISO stands for Multiple Input Single Output. multiple antennas at the transmitter and
one antenna at the receiver. Transmit diversity is the name of MISO. The radio system
uses it to strengthen the radio channel and increase fading resistance. The information
will be transmitted by the two transmitters in distinct applied coding schemes, allowing
the receiver to decode it. When using MISO, the high level of processing is relocated
from the receiver to the transmitter. The reduced amount of processing necessitates less
battery use, which has a good effect on size, cost, and battery life at the receiver [39].
Figure 5.14: MISO system [39].
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5.9 MIMO
MIMO stands for multiple Input Multiple Output. In MIMO there are multiple antennas
at the transmitter and the receiver. When compared to SISO, MIMO data performance
can rise by more than 30% in open spaces and by over 100% in heavy
scattering/multipath locations. This makes it clear that MIMO is important and that
mobile networks need to use it effectively if they are to attain the necessary high data
throughputs. The indoor data throughput utilizing MIMO can be more than twice as fast
as what can be obtained using outside networks, according to performance measurement
campaigns comparing indoor MIMO performance [39].
Figure 5.15 MIMO system [39].
MIMO provides spatial multiplexing and diversity. Diversity transmits the same signal
using many antennas, which improves dependability when there is poor channel quality.
Cross-polarized antennas for indoor deployment would hopefully offer an easier practical
solution for designers to deal with the challenge of physical antenna separation and
installation. Spatial correlation of the antenna signals will reduce the performance, so to
ensure good MIMO performance, designers need to create sufficient de-correlation
between the multiple individual MIMO paths [41].
Figure 5.16: Diversity [41].
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Diversity hence enhances connection robustness and combats signal fading. Spatial
multiplexing is an option when the channel quality is acceptable. Several independent
subchannels are formed in the same allotted bandwidth when using spatial multiplexing
if the scattering from the environment is sufficiently rich. There are no additional costs
for bandwidth or power with these separate subchannels. The system's data rate is
increased by the fact that each spatial channel carries its own independent information.
Anyhow, the number of receive antennas needs to be larger than or equal to the number
of broadcast antennas to use MIMO spatial multiplexing [41].
Figure 5.17: Spatial multiplexing [41].
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6 CHAPTER SIX: INDOOR BUILDING SOLUTION
When creating and putting indoor coverage solutions into operation, there are many
difficulties, both from a business and technical viewpoint. The overall business case and
network performance depend primarily on indoor radio planners. 80% of users are inside
buildings in many areas, making it difficult to provide high-performance indoor coverage,
especially at higher data speeds. It is much more than just a technological problem; among
other things, the business case and potential of the implemented solutions must be
evaluated. It's important for an indoor radio planner to look beyond the present technical
problem and consider future problems as well [4].
6.1 WHAT IS IBS?
Indoor Building Solutions (IBS) is a solution that radio planners developed in order to
provide indoor coverage to the service providers’ users. Buildings like airports, shopping
malls, large corporate office buildings and hospitals are called hotspot buildings. In most
major cities, 10% of these buildings produce traffic that sum up close to 50% of the
overall traffic produced by these cities [4].
6.2 WHY IBS?
When designing and implementing solutions for radio coverage, indoor radio planners
carry a major responsibility for the overall business case and performance of the network,
due to the fact that almost 80% of users are inside buildings. Providing high-performance
indoor coverage is essential, however, it is a technical challenge as well as a challenge
when looking at it from a business case [4].
Some of the technical challenges that radio planners face are typical, they include:
• Lack of coverage.
• Improvement of service quality.
• Need for higher data rates.
• Offloading existing macro networks.
• Demand of continuous coverage [4].
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6.3 IBS BUSSINESS CASE
Indoor business solutions can make a great business case, depending on what part of the
world you analyse, the bulk of traffic originates inside buildings. Therefore, special
attention to the in-building solutions is needed. Commercial reasons are considered the
main driver to any operator, as any engineer must understand that the main reason for
providing IB solutions is to make a positive business case. Mobile operators must do a
business evaluation before deciding to invest in any in-building coverage solutions. the
operator must use standard tools and metrics to evaluate the business case, in order to be
able to calculate the revenue of each individual user of the different user segments. This
will enable the operator to compare the business case on all the individual indoor coverage
projects and to evaluate the Value of the Proposed Solution [4].
You must carefully evaluate the suggested solution's worth before evaluating any indoor
coverage options. You must address the following inquiries :
1) Will there be a strong business case for the investment?
2) When will the investment start to return its costs?
3) Is the chosen solution the best fit for future requirements?
• Increasing data rates.
• More operators & more capacity.
• New services?
4) Can the chosen solution accommodate any future changes to the structure?
• Extension; reconstruction.
5) Does the proposed solution free up necessary capacity by offloading the macro
layer?
• If you free up electricity or capacity on the outdoor network that may serve
other users, it is added value and must be considered in the business case for
the inside solution.
6) Is the IB Coverage Solution being offered for strategic reasons; as it can be for an
advantage over competing operators, or increase in network traffic in other areas,
or roaming value internationally.
7) Can dedicated corporate buildings be covered?
• Higher data rates and more coverage for large capacity and better quality [4].
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6.4 MACRO LAYER AS AN INDOOR COVERAGE
Using Macro coverage to provide the needed indoor coverage is a viable solution is some
cases even though it requires a fine balance and compromise. In urban environments, the
deep indoor penetration needed for 2G and 3G is not provided due to the fact that in these
environments, inter-site distance can be down to 300-500m. Therefore, even tight macro
grids will be in many cases not sufficient to provide higher data rates on 3G (64-384 kbps)
or users on higher 4G data rates [4].
After implementing an indoor building solution, users in hotspot buildings can enjoy a
high coverage level that matches traffic produced, that was not possible when these
buildings were previously serviced by macro sites. It is shown in this figure how more
revenue is generated with indoor solutions [4].
Figure 6. 1: Traffic doubled after implementing an indoor solution [4].
Why is it a problem to provide coverage to indoor mobile users using a macro site?
Well, only a minor part of the traffic is serviced by the direct signal in line-of-sight to the
base station antenna. The coverage inside the buildings relies on reflections from adjacent
buildings. If a building with the rooftop macro has no, or only low, adjacent buildings,
this problem can be a major issue, due to the lack of buildings to reflect the signal back
into the servicing building [4].
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6.5 INDOOR 3G/HSPA COVERAGE
Radio planners with indoor 2G planning experience need to be very careful not to apply
all the radio planning strategy gained on 2G when designing indoor 3G/HSPA solutions.
There are some expensive mistakes that can compromise high-speed data performance
which will hugely affect the business case for these indoor solutions [4].
The efficiency of the 3G RF-channel is expressed using the term ‘orthogonality’ which is
extremely sensitive to degradation from the ‘RF environment’. The same 5 MHz (3.84
Mbps) 3G RF channel can in some cases carry high data rates, in excess of 2 Mbps,
provided that the users are in line‐of‐sight to the serving cell, and only if a minor portion
of the signal is reflected energy. When covering 3G indoor user from the macro layer in
an urban or suburban environment, the RF channel relies on many reflections, diffractions
and phase shifts – a multipath channel. This will degrade the efficiency of the radio
channel, as shown in the figure below [4].
Figure 6. 2: Orthogonality affects the efficiency of the 3G RF channel [4].
HSDPA and HSUPA need a high‐performing RF link, in order to support the highest
possible data rates. In addition to degraded orthogonality, there are several additional
degrading factors to take into account, in order to evaluate the impact on the macro layer
from users inside buildings [4].
The link loss increases with the distance from the base station, the free space loss and the
additional penetration loss into the building. The penetration loss depends on the wall
type, thickness and material. Typical penetration losses of the outer wall of a building can
71
vary from 15 to 50 dB or more, depending on the type and the frequency. In addition to
the penetration and free space loss from the base station, the clutter inside the
building will also add to the attenuation of the RF link [4].
Figure 6. 3: The degradation of the 3G channel, and power load when servicing indoor users from the macro
layer [4].
It is clear that it is very costly to cover indoor 3G users from macro base stations because
of the impact of power drain of the macro layer, the degraded RF channel due to low
orthogonality, the pilot pollution in high‐rise buildings and the load increase due to soft
handover (lack of dominance) when more macro cells are servicing users inside a building
[4].
6.6 THE CORRECT WAY TO PLAN 3G/4G INDOOR COVERAGE
The correct way to do 3G/4G indoor and macro planning, is to plan the network ‘from
the inside out’ not from the outside in. This is especially important in the high‐capacity
areas, that is, areas with hotspot buildings. Operators doing 3G/4G roll‐out need to realize
that a portion of the roll‐out cost should be reserved for indoor coverage in the most
important high‐traffic buildings.
Deploying indoor systems in these hotspot buildings will save a lot of cost, grief and
hassle in the long run. This will certainly be the most economical strategy, providing
better data service with higher data rates and higher quality in the network. 3G/4G
networks should be planned, from the inside out [4].
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6.7 BASICS OF INDOOR RF PLANNING
There is criteria that should be taken into the consideration during radio frequency
planning in all the mobile technologies one of those guidelines is:
6.7.1 Isolation:
Isolation plays a crucial role while RF planning in indoor building solutions. The main
purpose of isolation is to isolate the signal level outside the building and the signal level
inside it in order to achieve high performance with no noise or interference. This could
be done by using a metallic coat layer in the windows that will cause attenuation to the
macro signal outside the building and will make the signal level inside the building
dominant. Using this thin metallic layer will attenuate the signal by 20-40 dB. There is a
new sort of window that has a film on it, this type attenuates the signal outside by 50-70
dB and enhances the IBS RF planning design [4] [12].
6.7.1.1 Isolation in 2G
May be because there are different frequencies inside and outside building so isolation
will be easy because it is hard for interference to be done but actually isolation is
important it is needed to achieve co-channel isolation more than 11dB theoretically but
practically we have to remember the fading environment so we will add a margin about
6-10db so the total co-channel isolation will be about 17dB in order to avoid co-channel
interference as well as the ping pong handover [4].
6.7.1.2 Isolation in 3G
As it is known that soft handover exists in 3G so we can see about 3 serving cells to one
user. So it should be ensured that the user inside the building is served from one base
station only in order to avoid wasting resources and channels so isolation is crucial in 3G
and to make the signal level inside the building dominant according to the user inside the
buildings and to avoid the unwanted soft handover. So we should make the indoor cell
10–15 dB more powerful inside the building than any outside macro signal [4].
6.8 OVERCOMING THE HIGH-RISE PROBLEM
While observing the high buildings which have no metallic coat on their windows it can
be noticed that those building suffering from leakage the signal level outdoor inside the
73
building because there is not isolation, and we need to make the signal inside the building
dominant. This could be solved by using conventional way by putting omnidirectional
antennas in the walkways with high RF level to overcome the signal level outside the
building.
But unfortunately, this high-level power will cause leakage from inside to the macro-site
placed outside the building and this will degrade the performance of the macro site.
So, the most efficient solution is to replace the omnidirectional antenna with a directive
one and place it in the corner and direct it toward the central area inside the building.
This will make the signal level inside the building dominant according to the people inside
the building and will not cause leakage from inside to outside and vice versa [4].
6.8.1 Zone Planning Concept

Dividing the buildings into zones is crucial for the business case in order to select the
proper isolation level to each zone of the building which has different conditions [4] [13].
Figure 6. 4: Zones planning [4].
From the figure above this building can be divided into three zones because of their
different conditions:
Zone A: zone A is located in a safe area compared to the other zones as it is located
under the ground so it’s hard to see a leakage from inside to outside or vice versa.
Typical design levels for zone‐A are:
• –85 dBm for 2G RxLev
• –90 dBm CPICH level for 3G.
• –87 dBm RSRP level for 4G [4].
Zone B: Zone B needs high isolation because of being existed in the mid zone so it is
mandatory to ensure that there is no leakage from inside to outside and vice versa and
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ensure that we have avoided the ping pong effect in 2G or the soft hand over in 3G.
Typical design levels for zone‐B are:
• –70 dBm for 2G RxLev.

• –75 dBm RSRP level for 4G [4].
Zone C: The top part of the building needs a high planning compared to other zones
because of not being isolated completely and because the interference that could
happened. Typical design levels for zone C are:
• –60 dBm for 2G RxLev.
• –70 to –65 dBm RSRP level for 4G [4].
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7 CHAPTER SEVEN: DISTRIBUTED ANTENNA

SYSTEMS
As we have understood from the previous section that IBS is needed to ensure adequate
coverage and dominance like distributed antenna systems, where a uniform dominating
signal must be distributed throughout the building from the indoor cell using indoor
antennas. You must split the signal from the interior base station to a number of antennas
spread across the building in order to accomplish this.
These antenna terminals should ideally operate at about the same power level and have a
similar uplink loss/noise figure as the serving base station. The fact that all of the antennas
in the building will operate on the same cell and be regulated by the same parameter
setting is what drives the uniformly distributed coverage level for all of the antennas in
the building. To maximize the performance of the indoor coverage system, uniform
performance across the DAS is a critical element [42].
Figure 7. 1: DAS [42].
7.1 DAS MAIN COMPONENTS:
The signal source and the signal distribution system are the two main elements of a DAS.
The signal source communicates with mobile carriers and receives their signals. And then
the signal is distributed throughout the building by the signal distribution system [43].
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1) Types of DAS signal sources:
DAS have two types of signal sources: off-air antennas, on-site BTS. Both serve
to receive signals from nearby mobile carriers.
• Donor antenna (off-air):
To send and receive signals from a cell carrier, the donor antenna is installed on
the building's roof [43].
Figure 7. 2: DAS using donor antenna [43].
• BTS (on-site):
The same principles that apply to cell towers apply to on-site BTS signal sources.
The BTS often links to the mobile operator's core network using fiber optic cables,
independent of any existing company IT infrastructure, or may take its signal
through the donor antenna. For each carrier, several BTSs may occasionally be
placed [44].
Figure 7. 3: DAS using on-site BTS [44].
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2) Types of DAS signal distribution systems:

The three main types of DAS signal distribution systems are passive DAS,
active DAS, and hybrid DAS [44].
7.2 PASSIVE DAS COMPONENTS:
7.2.1 Coaxial cable

The price of placing the cable, not the cost of the cable, is the main cost associated with
establishing passive indoor systems. Heavy rigid passive wire installation can be quite
difficult in a building. It is more difficult to work with heavier cable types starting at size
7/8 inch and higher.
Carefully consider the performance versus the cost of installing the cable. If choosing a
cable size thinner can help you save 50% on installation costs, you might be okay with
the additional 2 dB of cable loss [4].
This table shows the losses for different cable sizes based on many measurements:
Figure 7. 4: Losses for different cable sizes [4].
7.2.2 Splitters
The most widely used passive elements in distributed antenna systems, which divide the
signal to or from additional antennas, are splitters and power dividers. One coax line can
be split into two or more lines using splitters. The power is distributed between the ports
when the signal is split. Only half the power minus the insertion loss, which is typically
0.1dB, is available at the two ports when splitting to two ports. It's critical to close every
port on the splitter; do not leave any open ports it should be terminated with a dummy
load if it isn't in use [4].
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Figure 7. 5: Different splitter types [4].
An example of how power is split in 1:3 splitter taking insertion loss into consideration:
1) calculate the loss through the splitter:
splitter loss = 10 log (no. of ports) + insertion loss
= 10 log (3)+0.1dB = 4.87dB
So for input 10dBm power on port 1,
the output power on ports 2:4 = 10 - 4.87=5.13 dBm [4].
Figure 7. 6: 1:3 Splitter Example [4].
7.2.3 Tap/uneven splitters

In uneven splitters, the power is not distributed equally among the ports. This is extremely
beneficial in designs where a single, heavy main wire is installed through the building
and antennas are then "tapped" for smaller amounts of power along the main cable. By
doing this, you can keep the loss minimal while reducing the need to install numerous
heavy cables in parallel.
A heavy "vertical" cable is installed in high-rise buildings in order to tap power to the
various floors in this building. You may balance out the loss to all the floors and provide
the necessary uniform coverage level by modifying the coupling loss on the various
tappers by selecting the ideal value [4].
Figure 7. 7: Uneven Splitter [4].
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Port 2 is called through where its output power is equal to the input power in port 1 minus
the insertion loss, and port 3 is called tap where its output power is equal to the input
power to port 1 minus the value of the coupler(loss) [4].
7.2.4 Attenuators:
Attenuators reduce the signal by the attenuator's value. To reduce the influence of noise
power from an active distributed antenna system or to prevent overdriving an amplifier,
attenuators are typically employed to reduce higher power signals to a desirable range of
operation. while attenuating high-power signals for many carriers, you should normally
employ a specific type of attenuator called a "cable absorber" for multi-operator systems.
The standard attenuation values are 1, 2, 3, 6 10, 12, 18, 20, 30, and 40 dB. They can be
combined to get the desired value. A 10 dB attenuator, for example, will weaken the
signal by 10 dB (port 2= port1 - attenuation) [4].
Figure 7. 8: Attenuator [4].
7.2.5 Dummy load/Terminators:

A dummy load is employed as matching loads on the transmission lines, frequently on a
circulator's single port or any other open or unused ports on other components [4].
Figure 7. 9: Dummy load/terminator [4].
7.2.6 Circulator:
The circulator splitter is a nonreciprocal component with high insertion loss in the
reverse direction (ports 2–1, 3–2 and 1–3) and low insertion loss in the forward
direction (ports 1–2, 2–3 and 3–1).
The insertion loss in the forward direction is typically less than 0.5 dB and in the
reverse direction better than 23dB [4].
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Figure 7. 10: Circulator [4].
A disconnected antenna or cable in the antenna system may reflect reverse power onto
the port of a transmitter, which can be avoided by using a circulator.
Circulators are frequently used in mobile systems to split the transmit and receive
directions from a combined Tx/Rx connection. Circulators can also be employed in a
multi-operator system to isolate transmitters in a combined network [4].
Figure 7. 11: Circulator used for protection against power reflected from antenna [4].
7.2.7 3dB coupler:

Signals from two signal sources are typically combined using the 3dB coupler. The
coupler will simultaneously divide the two combined signals into two output ports. When
developing passive distributed antenna systems, this can be very beneficial. The four ports
on the 3dB coupler (ports 2 and 3 / ports 1 and 4) are divided into two groups that are
isolated from one another. Power supplied to port 1 is spread to ports 2 and 3. If ports 2
and 3 are perfectly aligned, port 4 will be completely useless. Port 4 will often have a
dummy load connected to it.
For example, A 3 dB coupler can be used to combine two transmitters or two transceivers.
However, you should connect one half of the DAS to port 2 and the other to port 3 if you
need to combine the two transmitters and distribute the power to a passive distributed
antenna system. By doing this, you will double the DAS's power or increase it by 3dB.
The signal strength within the building will rise by 3dB using this strategy, which is
preferable to using the port 3 dummy load and wasting the 3dB [4].
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Figure 7. 12: 3dB Couples for power distribution across passive DAS [4].
7.2.8 Filters:
1) Duplexer:
A mixed TX/RX signal is split into separate TX and RX lines using a duplexer.
Keep in mind the insertion loss, the PIM standards, and the isolation between the
bands [4].
Figure 7. 13: Duplexer [4].
2) Diplexer:
The diplexer will split or combine entire bands from or with one another, for
instance, combining the 2100 and 1800MHz bands at the input and producing
distinct 2100 and 1800MHz bands at output. Keep in mind the insertion loss, the
PIM standards, and the isolation between the bands [4].
Figure 7. 14: Diplexer [4].
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3) Triplexer:
The triplexer refers to a three-band version that may separate or combine 900,
1800, and 2100MHz. Some manufacturers even create combination components
that have a duplexer as well as a duplexer or triplexer [4].
Figure 7. 15: Triplexer [4].
7.3 PASSIVE DAS:
We can create a design for a passive distributed antenna system now that we are aware of
how each passive component works. Where passive DAS is the most popular method for
delivering indoor solutions, particularly for small buildings.
Planning a passive DAS is quite simple the essential step is to determine the maximum
loss to each antenna in the system and then create a link budget for the specific areas that
each antenna covers. The design of the passive DAS must be modified to account for the
building's restrictions on where and how the heavy coax can be put. Prior to the initial
site assessment, the RF planner will frequently create a draught design based on floor
plans, which are then modified to match the building's installation requirements. In
reality, while constructing passive DAS the RF planner's job is frequently restricted to
installation planning rather than RF planning [4].
7.3.1 How does passive DAS work?

Passive DAS amplify and rebroadcast a signal from a donor position commonly on the
building roof. A bi-directional repeater is connected to a network of passive elements
such as coaxial cable, splitters, couplers, and antennas that amplify the donor signal [4].
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Figure 7. 16: Passive DAS [44].
7.3.2 Advantages of implementing passive DAS:

1) Components from many manufacturers are compatible.
2) The design process is simple but time-consuming.
3) It is installable in challenging conditions.
4) Low cost as no analog-to-digital converters is required.
5) Easier maintenance.
6) Not required carrier approval: There is less requirement for carrier approval
and coordination because passive DAS often rebroadcasts the signal of the
macro network.
7) Engage all carriers: Signals from all carriers in a specific area can often be
amplified by passive distributed antenna systems without the use of any
additional hardware. If there is enough signal where the donor antenna is
located, the donor antennas and amplifiers filter and amplify the signal for
every cellular carrier licensed in a specific area [4].
7.3.3 Disadvantages of implementing passive DAS:

1) The base station won't sound the VSWR alert even if there are mistakes nearby
because of the significant return loss, therefore there is no supervision of errors
in the system.
2) Data performance will suffer from high losses.
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3) It requires a high-power base station and a separate equipment room for

equipment like site support equipment, and power supply.
4) There is no upgrade flexibility.
5) It is challenging to balance out the link budget for all antennas and to get a
uniform coverage level [4].
7.4 APPLICATION OF PASSIVE DAS:
In conclusion, passive DAS is typically the best option for structures under 100,000
square feet, but it can also be scaled up to 500,000 square feet. The majority of
commercial buildings may receive adequate cellular coverage with a passive DAS, which
is significantly more affordable.
For example, it can be used in:
1) Retail sector/shopping malls.
2) Social events.
3) Small hotels & motels [4].
7.5 ACTIVE DAS:
The principle function of an active distributed antenna system is that, like a passive
distributed antenna system, it distributes the signal to a number of indoor antennas.
However, there are some big differences. The active distributed antenna system normally
relies on thin cabling, optical fibers and IT type cables, making the installation work very
easy compared with the rigid cables used for passive systems. The active distributed
antenna system consists of several components, the exact configuration depending on the
specific manufacturer. All active distributed antenna systems will to some extent be able
to compensate for the distance and attenuation of the cables.
The ability to compensate for the losses of the cables interconnecting the units in an active
distributed antenna system makes the system very easy and fast to plan, and easy to
implement in the building [4].
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Figure 7. 17: Typical Active DAS Architecture [4].
7.5.1 Active Vs Passive DAS
The differences between Active and Passive DAS include:

1) Active DAS will use components that must have power and they often consist of
fiber optic cables and remote nodes.
2) They also allow you to add capacity to the network by using a base station to
generate signal strength and communicate directly with the carrier (most active
DAS systems are carrier specific, utilizing a different base station for each
carrier).
3) No need for a large, high power base station installation with heavy power
supply and air conditioning, etc.
4) The system can be monitored remotely.
5) Changes can be made to the system remotely.
6) Active DAS systems are greener and eco-friendlier [4].
7.5.2 Why Use Active DAS

Ideally in an active DAS there will be no passive components that are not compensated
by the system. Therefore, the active DAS is able to monitor the end‐to‐end performance
of the total DAS and give alarms in case of malfunction or disconnection of cables and
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antennas. These active DAS systems can support one band–one operator, or large multi-
operator solutions [4].
We also do not use excessive DL transmit power while using a purely Active DAS
architecture because the amplifiers are as close to the antennas as possible. In addition,
purely active DAS has big advantages for the uplink data performance. Having the first
uplink in the RU, with no losses back to the base station, will boost the data performance.
This is very important for the performance of high‐speed data, the higher EDGE coding
schemes on 2G, high‐speed data on 3G and in particular, 4G performance.
In addition, by the use of transmission via low‐loss optical fibers, a typical active DAS
can reach distances of more than 5 km. The cable between EU and RU up to 250 m makes
these types of solutions applicable in medium to large buildings, typically large office
buildings, shopping malls, hospitals, campus environments and tunnels. Less power
consumption due to the need for less power from the base station with no ventilation saves
on operational costs while installing an Active DAS system , and makes the system more
green and more CO2 friendly. The fact that the installation work uses the thin cabling
infrastructure of an active DAS can also cut project cost and implementation time [4].
7.6 HYBRID DAS:
Hybrid DAS is a combination of active and passive DAS in order to take advantage of
active and passive DAS and to reduce the problems that exist in those two types [4]:
7.6.1 Main components of hybrid DAS:

➢ The main unit:
The MU is connected to the base station, on the other hand it is connected also to the
hybrid remote unit (HRU) and this occurs by the connection of optical fiber. So, we can
deduce that the connection between the MU and HRU is active which supports high
power. Also, one of the mandatory roles of the MU is monitoring the performance of this
active part by sending an alarm to the base station so the operator can resolve the trouble.
As the MU exists in the active part only it it not possible to detect any problem related to
the passive parts.
The status of the active part appears on the LED or via connected PC.
➢ The hybrid remote unit:
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HRU is responsible for converting the optical signal which is generated through the MU
to normal RF signal. The HRU will typically need to operate on medium‐ to high‐output
RF power, in order to compensate for the losses in the passive DAS that feed the signals
to the distributed antennas connected to the HRU [4].
Figure 7. 18: Hybrid DAS structure [4].
From the figure above t 1st part of the system is chosen to be the active part to use the
powerful of the optical fiber and 2nd part is the passive part which consists of one remote
only which is enough to achieve enough coverage to the desired area with the presence
of the splitter without using multi remote which is existed in the active DAS [4].
7.6.2 Hybrid solution applications:

Hybrid DAS solution is compatible to the applications that need high output power such
as [4]:
• Tunnels.
• Sport arenas.
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7.6.3 Hybrid DAS solutions precautions:

1. Making sure that the uplink can track the coverage of downlink by taking into
consideration that the power radiated from the uplink is less than from downlink.
2. Being careful not to use high power to only one antenna in the building to avoid
electromagnetic radiation and interference surrounding network [4].
7.7 COMBINATION BETWEEN PASSIVE AND ACTIVE DAS:
To choose the most efficient and optimum solution we can compromise between active
and passive das units by putting them in the proper locations that achieve the highest
efficiency such as putting the passive DAS closer to the base stations as passive DAS
corresponds high power loss moreover putting the active DAS in the more challenging
big areas [4].
7.8 COMBINATION BETWEEN OUTDOOR AND INDOOR

USING DAS
As we know that macro sites which is located on the roof tops lead to a degradation of
performance inside the buildings in coverage especially in in the lower floors, that’s why
it will be an optimum solution to use this microsite as a donor antenna to the DAS system
inside the building. This will save costs and will be a good exploitation. But actually,
capacity will be divided between people who are served from the microsite outside the
building and the people who are served inside the building from the same microsite [4].
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8 CHAPTER EIGHT: NOISE
The most critical aspect of radio planning is the noise performance and noise calculations.
An improvement in radio quality is not determined by the level of the signal, but by the
ratio of the signal to the noise. The lower the noise is relative to the signal level, the better
the radio performance. Mobile data rates and radio quality are dependent on signal-to-
noise ratios. SNR determines the quality of the radio link, also the data rate.
DAS noise is regarded by many RF planners as "black magic" on the UL of their link
budgets. The concept of noise is quite straightforward and easy to comprehend if you
don't overcomplicate it. Understanding noise and noise calculations is crucial for the radio
planner in designing any RF system [4].
The total system noise figure in a DAS system will also increase due to passive loss,
which radio planners must be aware of. The base station and amplifier noise power have
a significant impact on the radio link's performance.
The fundamentals of noise will be discussed across the pages that follow, with examples
of amplifier topologies and a step-by-step analysis of their performance [4].
8.1 NOISE FUNDAMENTALS
Flowing any electric current from any object will generate noise. The noise is generated
by random vibrations of electrons in the material. The vibrations, and hence the noise
power, are proportional to the physical temperature in the material. This noise is called
as ‘thermal noise’ [4].
8.1.1 Thermal Noise

Thermal noise is ‘white noise’; white noise has its power distributed equally throughout
the total RF spectrum, from the lowest frequency all the way to the highest microwave
frequency [4].
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8.1.1.1 Spectral Noise Density
In other words, the power spectral density of white noise is constant over the RF
frequency spectrum; hence the noise power is proportional to the bandwidth. Also, if the
bandwidth of the RF channel is doubled, the thermal noise power will also double [4].
8.1.1.2 Thermal Noise Level

First you need to establish the ‘base noise’, that is, the noise in 1 Hz bandwidth as
reference in order to be able to calculate the noise power of a given bandwidth. By
knowing this level, you can simply multiply the noise power in 1Hz by the bandwidth in
Hz. Thermal noise power is defined as [4]:
𝑃 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝐾𝑇𝐵). (2)
8.1.1.3 Reference Noise Level per 1 Hz

At room temperature (17 °C/290 K), in a 1 Hz bandwidth we can calculate the power:
𝑃 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (1.38 ∗ 10−23 ∗ 290 ∗ 1) = −204 (𝑑𝐵𝑤), (3)
where dBm takes its reference as 1 mW. The relation between 1 W and 1 mW is:
1
0.001
= 1000 = 30 𝑑𝐵𝑚, (4)
Therefore, you can calculate that the thermal noise power at (17 °C/290 K) in a 1 Hz
bandwidth in dBm:
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = −204 + 30 = −174 (𝑑𝐵𝑚/𝐻𝑧), (5)
Where −174 dBm/Hz in noise power is the reference for any noise power calculation
when designing radio systems. Relative to the bandwidth, you can use the reference level
of the −174 dBm/Hz and simply multiply it by the actual bandwidth of the radio channel
[4].
8.1.1.4 Reference Noise Level

The noise power density does not depend on frequency: the noise power remains the same
no matter what the radio frequency is. The noise power, with relation to the bandwidth,
is equally distributed throughout the spectrum [4].
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2G
Using −174 dBm/Hz as a reference, we can calculate the thermal noise floor for the 200
kHz channel as used for 2G. We just calculate the thermal noise in that bandwidth:
𝐾𝑇𝐵 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2𝐺 (200 𝑘𝐻𝑧) = −174 + 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔(200.000 𝐻𝑧) = −121 𝑑𝐵𝑚, (6)
The −121 dBm is the absolute lowest noise power of 200 kHz 2G channel [4].
3G
The 3G radio channel is 3.84 MHz. This makes the thermal noise floor for 3G:
𝐾𝑇𝐵 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3𝐺 (3.84𝑀𝐻𝑧) = −174 + 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔(3,840.000 𝐻𝑧) = −108 𝑑𝐵𝑚, (7)
The −108 dBm is the absolute lowest noise power of 3.84 MHz 3G channel [4].
8.1.2 Noise Factor

The noise factor (F) is defined as the input signal‐to‐noise ratio (S/N or SNR) divided
by the output signal‐to‐noise ratio.
It is the amount of noise introduced by the amplifier itself, on top of the input noise [4].
𝑆𝑁𝑅(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐹) = 𝑆𝑁𝑅 . (8)
(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
8.1.3 Noise Figure

The noise figure (NF) is noise factor defined in dB. It is the most important figure to note
on the uplink of any DAS or amplifier system. By defining the NF, it will affect the DAS
sensitivity on the uplink, and will determine the uplink performance. In any services, such
as 2G or 3G, there will be the limiting factor for the highest possible data rate the radio
link can carry. When the noise figure decreases, the performance gets better [4].
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑁𝐹) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝐹). (9)
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8.1.4 Noise Floor

The noise floor is the noise power at a given noise figure at a given bandwidth. You can
calculate the noise power or noise level for a receiver, amplifier or any other active
component [4].
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝐾𝑇𝐵 + 𝑁𝐹 + 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒. (10)
8.2 CASCADED NOISE
It is uncommon for stand-alone components to function; thus, you will need to use cables
to connect the base station and DAS. The number of passive cables and other parts that
make up the passive DAS that we might use adds up to the total losses from the base
station to the antenna and vice versa. You will still need to utilize a passive cable to
connect to the main unit if you rely on active DAS, which consists of amplifiers and other
active components.
This is called hybrid DAS that is known as a mixture of a large portion of passive components
and cables, with active amplifiers and distribution units. When you connect amplifiers and
passive components or cables in a system, it is called a cascaded system. Therefore, most
radiofrequency systems are built up from cascaded systems by requiring the amplifier to
amplify the signal and the noise of the preceding amplifier or passive component or cable [4].
8.2.1 The Friis Formula

We can calculate the noise factor (F) of any number of chained amplifiers or passive
components using the cascaded noise formula known as the Friis formula. The Friis
formula can be used for any number of cascaded components, from 1 to n. F1/G1 is the
noise factor and gain of stage 1, F2/G2 is the noise factor and gain of stage 2 [4].
F2 −1 F −1 Fn −1
FS = F1 + [ G1
] + [G 3×G ] +∙∙∙ [G ]. (11)
1 2 1 ×G2 ×G3 ∙∙∙G(n−1)
8.2.1.1 Calculation of Cascaded Noise

We can calculate the performance of cascaded system by Knowing the gain factor and
noise factor of the elements in it. for accommodating the noise factor and attenuation of
these losses, we need to include loss of the cables and noise figure connecting the
amplifiers in the system as stages in the cascaded system include the Passive Losses. The
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gain factor of a passive cable is of course less than zero due to the attenuation of the cable.
When a passive component or cable is one of the stages, we need to inset the noise and
factor of the cable [4].
8.2.2 Amplifier After the Cable Loss

In this case the amplifier is connected after the coax cable to reduce the attenuation of the
cable loss of the signal, as shown in Figure 8.1. we are going to analyze system
performance step by step to see if this system is efficient or not. This is a two‐stage
system. The passive cable is stage 1 and the amplifier stage 2 [4].
Figure 8.1: Cascaded system with a passive cable as first stage [4].
8.2.2.1 Example:
First step, we are going to use the Friis formula to calculate the cascaded performance of
the system: the first stage, as shown in Figure 8.1 is the coax cable; the second stage is
the active amplifier. We get cascaded noise calculations:
F2 −1
FS = F1 + [ G1
] = 1000 + [(10 − 1)/(0.001)] = 10000, (12)
We can clearly see in the formula that stage 1 is has a great effect on stage 2 by the
attenuation of stage 1, with a noise factor of 1000 and a gain factor of 0.001 [4].
8.2.2.2 Calculations of Signal level, noise Power and the SNR:

Signal Level
Given input signal − 70 𝑑𝐵𝑚,
Signal output of cable = −70 𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 30 𝑑𝐵 = −100𝑑𝐵𝑚,
Signal output of amplifier =−100 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 30 𝑑𝐵 = −70 𝑑𝐵𝑚,
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The amplifier reduces for the loss of the cable. We have restored the signal level, but what
about the signal to noise ratio? We can know it by starting calculation of the noise power
at the amplifier output. We already know that the output the signal level is −70 dBm [4].
Noise Power
Noise input power = KTB = −121 𝑑𝐵𝑚,
Noise at output cable = KTB = −121 𝑑𝐵𝑚,
Noise at input of amplifier = −121 𝑑𝐵𝑚,
Noise at output of amplifier = −121 + 10 + 30 = −81 𝑑𝐵𝑚.
SNR
SNR input=signal power-noise power = −70 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 121 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 51 𝑑𝐵,
SNR output=signal power-noise power = −70 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 81 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 11 𝑑𝐵 [4].
8.2.2.3 Conclusion: Passive Loss will Degrade the System
The stage 1 is dominant on stage 2 and has a great effect on it according to the cascaded
noise formula. In this case, the passive coax cable has the predominant role. The 30 dB
factor of the cable plays a dominant role in the cascaded noise performance, owing to the
high NF caused by the loss of the cable. to gain the best performance in a cascaded system,
we need to a gain greater than 0 dB and a low noise figure in stage 1 [4].
8.2.3 Amplifier Prior to the Cable Loss

In this case we are going to put the amplifier at the first stage1 before the coaxial cable,
which is the second stage. we are going to analyze system performance step by step [4].
Figure 8.2: Cascaded system with a passive cable after the first stage [4].
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8.2.3.1 Example:
First step, we are going to use the Friis formula to calculate the cascaded performance of
the system: The first stage in Figure 8.2 is now the amplifier, and the second stage is the
passive cable. we get the cascaded noise calculation [4]:
F2 −1
FS = F1 + [ G1
] = 1000 + [(10 − 1)/(1000] = 10.99, (13)
𝑁𝐹 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (10.99) = 10.41 𝑑𝐵. (14)
8.2.3.2 Better NF
The noise figure is enhanced approximately to 30 dB, and the first configuration with the
amplifier after the cable the NF is 40 dB. The noise figure in figure 8.2 is only 10.41 dB.
This is almost the only contribution of the 10 dB NF of the amplifier in stage 1.
It is evident in the formula that the passive cable, now stage 2, has only a minor impact
on the total NF of the system [4].
8.2.3.3 Calculations of Signal level, noise Power and the SNR:

Signal Level
Given input signal − 70 𝑑𝐵𝑚,
Signal output of cable = −70 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 30 𝑑𝐵 = −40 𝑑𝐵𝑚,
Signal output of amplifier =−100 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 30 𝑑𝐵 = −70 𝑑𝐵𝑚.
Noise Power
Noise input power at amplifier = KTB = -121 dBm ,
Noise at output power = KTB + gain + NF = -121 dBm +30 dB +10 dB=-81 dBm,
Noise at output cable = noise input cable – attenuations = - 81 dBm – 30 dB = -111 dBm.
SNR
SNR input=signal power-noise power = −70 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 121 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 51 𝑑𝐵,
SNR output=signal power-noise power = −70 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 111 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 41 𝑑𝐵 [4].
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Conclusion: Passive Loss will Degrade the System
From the two examples, we can conclude that placing the amplifier at the input of the
system will improve the link. In this example this is an improvement of 30 dB. In the
example the noise figure of the link is improved from 40 to 10.41 dB; just by moving the
amplifier to the first stage of the signal chain you gain 29.58 dB in noise figure. This will
improve the signal to noise ratio, and improve the uplink signal [4].
8.3 LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER AND REMOTE UNITS:
A small low noise amplifier is mounted close to the antenna, in order to compensate for
the loss of the feeder cable running to the base station. The LNA boosts the performance
and raises the data rate on the uplink. The UL is often the limiting factor on 3G, especially
at the higher data rates; this will impact the more demanding uplink data services like 4G
most. The LNA will improve the cell range on the uplink and obtain better performance
for the same roll‐out cost.
The exact same principle is used by some manufacturers of active DAS systems; the best
performing active DAS will have the remote unit placed close to the antenna. Inside this
remote unit is the first UL amplifier, the LNA. However, this only applies for pure active
systems; hybrid active DAS will, as with any other cascaded system, suffer on the NF
from the passive losses prior to the remote unit.
But surely be better than a full Passive DAS, depending on the balance between loss of
the passive, NF and gain of the amplifier. For DAS systems where the UL data
performance plays a major role, especially 3G and 4G systems, you need to be very
careful. Do a detailed analysis to see if the uplink data service you are designing can cope
with the NF of the DAS, passive, hybrid or active [4].
8.3.1 Uniform Performance:

The pure active DAS system in Figure 8.3 will have the same NF at each antenna.
Therefore, there will be the same uniform uplink performance throughout the DAS
system, making link budget calculation and planning easy. For hybrid systems the loss of
the passive prior to the remote unit will impact the performance of the NF and might limit
the uplink data speed [4].
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Figure 8.3: Pure active DAS with amplifiers located close to antenna [4].
8.4 NOISE CONTROL
Noise control is important, especially in cascaded systems with multiple amplifiers and
interconnecting cable. Gains must be adjusted according to noise figures and losses of all
the individual system components in order to optimize the performance of the whole
system, end to end [4].
8.4.1 Noise Load on Base Stations

When an amplifier or an active DAS injects a noise power signal on the uplink port of the
base station, it may potentially cause problems that will affect the performance of the base
station. The main issue is that the injected noise will desensitize the receiver in the base
station, limiting the performance of the uplink.
This issue needs special attention in applications where an active DAS is connected to a
macro cell, or if the base station is also serving a passive DAS. In these applications we
need to ensure that we configure the active part of the DAS with regards to gain and
attenuation to minimize the effect of the uplink degradation. To select the correct UL
attenuation in order to minimize the noise power, and the raised noise floor has additional
side effects for 2G and 3G systems [4].
8.4.2 Noise and 2G Base Stations

2G base stations will monitor the noise level in idle mode time slots to estimate any
potential interference problems from mobiles in traffic using the same frequency, in
nearby or distant cells, PIM products, etc. This enables the base station to provide
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warnings about potential interference issues that might degrade the performance.
When the noise floor on the 2G base station increases due to any external noise source,
like the active DAS, which might inject noise power on the uplink of the base station, this
will cause the BSS system to generate an ‘idle mode interference alarm’. The trigger level
for this alarm can be changed [4].
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9 CHAPTER NINE: LINK BUDGET
Link budget (LB) design is the fundamental calculation for planning any RF link between
a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx). For two-way communication, there are two link
budget calculations: uplink and downlink.
These calculations assist in determining the maximum allowable path loss (MAPL) in the
downlink and uplink paths. As a result, the attenuation, and gains of the end-to-end path
between Tx and Rx must be considered.
Furthermore, we must consider the type of distribution system in design, and various
parameters must be considered when calculating the link budget for each type, based on
these DAS parameters, the radio service requirement, and the impact of noise from
existing signal sources operating on the same frequency or channel, the link budget for
both links, uplink and downlink, must be calculated to determine the system's service
range in both directions.
Depending on the parameters affecting the links, the link budget for a specific radio
service range can be UL or DL limited.
To get a sense of the link budget calculations, consider the simplest LB calculation using
only the main parameters:
𝑅𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙(𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 𝑇𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑑𝐵𝑚) − 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑑𝐵) −

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠(𝑑𝐵) + 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (15)
Figure 9.1: sample of link budget calculation [45].

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9.1 LINK BUDGET COMPONENTS
The link budget calculation components for the downlink path are explained in this
section:
Figure 9.2 Link budget components [46].
We can divide any link budget calculations into 3 parts:
• Transmitting part
• Receiving part
• Radio link
So, losses can be divided into 3 stages:
• At the transmitter
• At the receiver
• At the radio link.
9.1.1 Transmitter Losses
Tx is the base station in this case, the losses can be the passive attenuation caused by DAS
components such as cable losses and others, as well as the antenna gain.
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (16)
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9.1.2 Receiver Losses
Rx is the mobile station in this case, the losses can be attributed to passive attenuation
caused by the components, mobile noise figure, and SNR requirements.
The SNR requirements differ depending on the type of service; for example, voice and
data have different SNR requirements. This distinction is due to the various data rates
required for each service. As data rates increase, so do the SNR requirements. Such that,
for higher data rates, the RF link quality must be improved [5].
9.1.3 Radio Link Losses
There are too factors affect the losses in the radio link:
• Fading: An important part of any wireless communication design and must be

accurately modelled and predicted. There are two kinds of fading: small-scale
fading and large-scale fading (or shadowing). In a wireless system with diversity
schemes, small scale fading is frequently handled. Large scale shadowing, on the
other hand, is highly dependent on obstacle location; its modelling frequently
consists in predicting the likelihood of outage.
• Body Loss: The user will affect the MS by acting as 'clutter' between the MS and
the BS antenna. To account for this in the LB, you must include 'body loss' in the
calculation. A common number for body loss is 3 dB.
• Wall Penetration: Wall penetration losses, with each wall having different
materials and characteristics.
• Path Loss: It is the attenuation of an electromagnetic wave as it travels in a

straight line from Tx to Rx. It is determined by the frequency and distance between
Tx and Rx.
4𝜋𝑑
𝑃𝐿(𝑑𝐵) = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) (17)
λ
• Interference: The interference will raise the noise floor, increasing the signal
needed to meet the SNR. It is critical to consider this interference when
performing the LB.
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9.2 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PATH LOSS
The main goal of creating a link budget is to determine the maximum allowable path loss.
Then, by using the MAPL calculations, we can determine the service radius for the
antenna.
We will look at an example in which we will calculate the link budget and the maximum
allowable path loss for a 2G DL and UL.
9.2.1 2G DL Link Budget Calculations
Figure 9.3 illustrates the components of the basic link budget. To perform a full analysis,
we must first define some key parameters.
9.2.1.1 The Transmitting Part
• BS power (dBm): this is the generated RF power from the base station, at the
antenna connector of the output of the base station rack. In this example, the BS
transmitter BS Tx power = 40 dBm.
• Feeder loss (dB): this is the attenuation of the coax cable from the BS to the
antenna. Feeder loss = 35 dB.
• BS antenna gain (dBi): this is the antenna gain (directivity) of the BS antenna.
BS antenna gain = 2 dBi.
• EiRP (dBm): effective isotropic radiated power, it is the radiated power from the
base station antenna.
𝐸𝑖𝑅𝑃 = 𝐵𝑆 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (18)
𝐸𝑖𝑅𝑃 = 40 − 35 + 2 = 𝟕 𝒅𝑩𝒎 (19)
9.2.1.2 The Receiving Part
We must calculate the smallest amount of power that the mobile station can receive while
still meeting the SNR requirements, which means good quality.
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Thermal noise floor (dBm): depending on the operating bandwidth of the radio channel,
there will be certain thermal noise floor. This is a physical constant. At room temperature
(17°C), the thermal noise floor id defined as:
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = −174 + log (𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
So, for 2G (200 KHz) the thermal noise floor will be:
𝑑𝐵𝑚
2𝐺 = −174 + 10 log(200000 𝐻𝑧) = −𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝒅𝑩𝒎
𝐻𝑧
For 3G (3.84 Mc) its thermal noise floor will be:
𝑑𝐵𝑚
3𝐺 = −174 + 10 log(3840000 𝐻𝑧) = −𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒅𝑩𝒎
𝐻𝑧
Mobile station noise figure (dB): the amplifiers and electronics inside a receiver will
generate noise. The relative power of that noise is defined as the noise figure. This NF
together with the thermal noise floor will define the reference for the noise floor at the
MS.
MS noise floor: as an example, consider a typical 2G MS with an NF of 8 dB. To

calculate the noise floor in the MS:
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 1 𝐻𝑧 + 𝑁𝐹 + log (𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = −174 + 8 𝑑𝐵 + log(200000) = −𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝒅𝑩𝒎
𝐻𝑧
SNR requirements (dB): depend on the type of service, the voice and data have different
SNR requirement. This difference is due to the different data rates needed for each
service. As data rates increase, the SNR requirements increase. Which means that for
higher data rate, the RF link quality must be better, for 2G, SNR requirement = 9 dB.
MS antenna gain (dBi): the mobile terminal antenna has a gain that we need to include
in the LB. This antenna gain may in fact be negative! There are many measurements
available that show the gain for various types of mobiles. Some of these measurements
show mobiles with antenna gain down below −7 dBi. That is important to realize this
when doing the LB calculation, MS antenna gain = 0 dBi.
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Interference: interfering base stations transmitting on the same carrier must be

considered. The interference will add to the noise floor, increasing the signal requirement
to fulfil the SNR. It is very important to take this interference into account when doing
the LB, Interference = -120dBm.
Mobile sensitivity: interference, i.e., signals transmitting on the same frequency as the
supported service, will desensitize the receiver in the mobile. Knowing the interference
coming from other base stations using the same DL frequency, and knowing the mobile
noise figure, the mobile antenna gains, and the SNR requirement for the specific service,
we can now calculate the mobile receiver sensitivity for the specific service:
• Interference = -120dBm
• MS antenna gain = 0 dB
• Thermal Noise (2G) = -121 dBm
• MS NF = 8 dB
• Service Requirement (2G) = 9 dB
Then MS sensitivity = -103.2 dBm
9.2.1.3 In Radio Channel
Some important parameters influence the propagation of the wave from Rx to Tx. As a
result, we must include fading margins. Fading will occur in any RF environment due to
RF signal reflections and diffractions. In most indoor environments, the total fading
margin should be around 16-18 dB to achieve 95% area probability of the desired
coverage.
• Log-normal shadow fading of 10 dB
• Multipath fading of 6 dB
• Body loss of 3 dB
Then Total fading margin = 19 dB
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𝑅𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 + 𝑓𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = −10.3.2 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 19 𝑑𝐵 = −𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝒅𝑩𝒎
9.2.1.4 Maximum Allowable Path Loss
We can calculate the maximum allowable path loss now that we have determined the
transmit power at the antenna and the signal level required at the mobile to maintain the
service requirement. This is simple to calculate because it is the difference between the
transmit power and the required signal level at the receiver [5].
𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐿 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐿 = 7𝑑𝐵𝑚 − 84.2 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟐 𝒅𝑩
Figure 9.3: 2G Link Budget [4].

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9.2.2 2G UL Link Budget Calculations
We will repeat DL calculations but to the UL.
9.2.2.1 The Transmitting Part
• MS Tx power (dBm) = 33 dBm.
• MS antenna gain = 0 dBi.
• EiRP = 33 dBm.
9.2.2.2 The Receiving Part
• Thermal noise floor (dBm): depending on the operating bandwidth of the radio
channel, there will be certain thermal noise floor. This is a physical constant. At
room temperature (17°C), the thermal noise floor id defined as:
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = −174 + log (𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
So, for 2G (200 KHz) the thermal noise floor will be:
𝑑𝐵𝑚
2𝐺 = −174 + 10 log(200000 𝐻𝑧) = −𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝒅𝑩𝒎
𝐻𝑧
• Base station noise figure (dB): the amplifiers and electronics inside a receiver
will generate noise. The relative power of that noise is defined as the noise figure.
This NF together with the thermal noise floor will define the reference for the
noise floor at the BS, Base station noise figure = 3 dB.
• MS noise floor: as an example, consider a typical 2G BS with an NF of 3 dB. To

calculate the noise floor in the MS:
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 1 𝐻𝑧 + 𝑁𝐹 + log (𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 = −174 + 3 𝑑𝐵 + log(200000) = −𝟏𝟏𝟖 𝒅𝑩𝒎
𝐻𝑧
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• Passive DAS loss = 35 dB, DAS antenna gain = 2 dBi
We can calculate the UL interference ‘problem level’ at the DAS antenna = 35-3+- (121)
= -89dBm
Then Minimum power received at base station = -121dBm+3dB+35dB-2dBi=-85 dBm
9.2.2.3 In Radio Channel
Some important parameters influence the propagation of the wave from Rx to Tx. As a
result, we must include fading margins:
• Log-normal shadow fading of 10 dB
• Multipath fading of 6 dB
• Body loss of 3 dB
• 2G Service requirement = 9 dB
𝑅𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = −85 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 28 𝑑𝐵 = −𝟓𝟕 𝒅𝑩𝒎
9.2.2.4 Maximum Allowable Path Loss
𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐿 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐿 = 33 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 57 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝟗𝟎 𝒅𝑩
The maximum allowable path loss on the downlink is 91.2 dB, while the maximum
allowable path loss on the uplink is 90 dB. This link is considered to be very well balanced
and should be free of problems.
9.2.3 BALANCING THE LINK
In 2G indoor planning, the LB power is frequently limited by the DL power. However,

this must be confirmed in the LB. The UL may limit 3G/4G performance depending on
the load profile of the cell.
On the DL, we usually have a different service distance than on the UL. So, once the cell
is in service, we should try balancing the link budget, possibly with parameter adjustments
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on the cell. It makes no sense to use excessive power on any link, UL or DL, if we are
dependent on the other link, limiting the cell's service radius. Then we could switch off
the dominant link and balance the LB, limiting interference from that particular link to
adjacent cells or mobiles [17].
9.2.4 COVERAGE RADIUS
After determining the MAPL, we can use this formula to calculate the antenna's service
range in a specific environment, where PLS is the path loss slopes model that we will
discuss in the following section [5]:
𝐶𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 10(𝐴𝑃𝑙−𝑃𝑙1𝑚)/𝑃𝐿𝑠
9.3 PATH LOSS MODEL
After we explain the MAPL, we need to study the path loss that needs to be calculated.
When determining the radio coverage area of a transmitter, propagation models that
predict the mean signal strength for every given transmitter-receiver separation distance
are helpful [5].
9.3.1 Free space loss model
It’s the simplest model, the transmitter and receiver must have clear line of sight (LoS),
he receiver power decays as function of Tx-Rx separation and is given by Friis free space
equation.
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) = 32.44 + 20 log(𝐹) + 20log (𝐷)
Where: F: frequency (MHz), D: distance (Km)
When in line of sight indoors, this basic RF formula is accurate up to a distance of around
50m from the antenna. The additional clutter loss or reflections are not included in the
free space loss.
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Figure 9.4: Free space loss [4].
9.3.2 Modified indoor model.
In addition to the free space loss, we have the loss due to the environment. The main
component from the indoor environment is penetration losses through walls and floor
separations. The complete ‘model’ for indoor propagation loss could look like this:
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝑑𝐵) = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) + 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵)
This model takes losses due to walls and floors is considered, its more accurate than free
space loss model but still not entirely accurate, to create your own model, it needs
sufficient data for each building. It is straightforward to create your own model and to
calculate the free space loss and add the losses of the various walls. For example, here is
a model from Morten’s book [5].
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Figure 9.5: Indoor model calculator [4].
9.3.3 PLS model
'Path loss slopes' are a common method for determining the path loss (PLS). These PLS
are several attenuation slopes for various environment kinds and frequency ranges. On
the empirical study of a huge number of measurement samples taken in these many kinds
of situations, a generic model is built.
From measurement samples taken in various situations, the PLS is derived. It is

impossible to calculate a path loss slope by averaging over thousands of measurements
taken at various distances from the antenna [4].
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Figure 9.6: Example of a path loss slope [4].
It's vital to remember that the PLS is an average value and that there will be deviations
from it that are both positive and negative. The fading margin will cover these variances.
You can calculate the free space loss at 1 m, using the free space formula:
• 800MHz=31dB
• 950MHz=32dB
• 1850MHz=38dB
• 2150MHz=39dB
• 2600MHz=41dB
Then substitute in this formula.
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑑𝐵) = 𝑃𝐿|1𝑚 (𝑑𝐵) + 𝑃𝐿𝑆 ∗ log (𝑑)
It is very important to use the right PLS constant, according to the environment. The
model based on the PLS values from the table looks like this :
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Figure 9.7: PLS constant for different environment [4].
As we can see in Figure 9.8, the PLS curves are different from those of free space loss,
as PLS is more accurate based on real previous measurements [4].
Figure 9.8: Difference between free space loss and path loss based on PLS for dense office [4].
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9.4 DESIGN CONCIDIRATION AND REQUIREMENTS
9.4.1 2G
When we need to measure the required level for 2G, we take Broadcast Control Channel
(BCCH) as a reference, the SNR required for 2G is 9dB (i.e., the signal needs to be 9 dB
higher than the noise)
The actual design level on 2G depends on the service we are designing for, as shown in
table as bit rate increase, the maximum allowed path loss decrease, To accommodate the
better quality, the receive level must be raised. When one is really far from the serving
cell and has very poor coverage quality, one cannot reasonably expect to make a high-
quality voice call [4].
Figure 9.9: Different downlink power level requirements for each data rate in 2G/Edge [4].
9.4.2 3G
In 3G the SNR requirements are more complicated than 2G, due to fact of that 3G offers
more services than 2G, For different services there will be different demands on the
quality of the RF link. The higher the service the better RF link needs to be, Because of
this, any deterioration in the indoor DAS noise figure or attenuation is particularly
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susceptible to the greater data rates on 3G and HSPA. Therefore, we must insure the
lowest possible noise figure and attenuation of the DAS.
We must take a number of factors into account when determining the link budget for 3G
because it has a frequency reuse factor of 1, which means that all users share the same
frequency.
The reference for received signal strength is the common pilot channel (CPICH). Typical
values for the CPICH range from -90 dBm for low-interference areas to -65 dBm for high-
interference areas.
The amount of noise that will be produced by the system should be the first thing to keep
in mind. Each individual user will be considered as additional noise to the system because
they are all broadcasting on the same channel and the system allocate the same uplink and
downlink frequencies for all users. However, 3G makes use of code orthogonality to
correctly decode all signals and identify them from one another. The primary
characteristic of 3G is its tolerance against self-interference.
Figure 9.10: The effect of interference on a signal, before and after modulation using CDMA [47].
Additionally, it is important to keep in mind that as the number of users per cell increases,
so does the noise level; for example, a 50% load corresponds to a 3 dB noise increase.
This is because, in contrast to TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit. A
CDMA system's noise floor rises linearly as the number of users increases. Therefore,
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there is no absolute cap on the number of CDMA consumers. Instead, as the number of
users increases, system performance progressively declines for all users, and then
gradually improves as the number of users decreases.
Figure illustrates how 3G handles this increase in noise. Before the signal spreads, the
effect of any interference over it is much more pronounced. Interference is significantly
reduced after widening and multiplying the signal by its coding. Given that the signal can
be received at a level lower than the interference level and yet be properly decoded, this
information helps us when determining the link budget. In other words, even if the signal
experiences more noise, it will still be somewhat impervious to it. The processing gain is
what we refer to as. It is determined by dividing the chip rate by the data rate [4].
9.4.3 4G
RSRP is the standard for received signal strength in 4G. (reference signal received
power). Most mobile operators appear to have a typical design target level of -95 to -85
dBm, with -80 dBm in high-demand regions and even -75 to -70 dBm RSRP in VIP zones.
When deciding whether to switch to a new cell, the handset employs RSRP to identify
specific MIMO pathways and gauge the RF strength of neighbouring cells. Since the
frequency reuse factor for 4G is also 1, transition zones must be kept clear for handover,
and according to 4G's isolation standards, the serving cell must be 10-15 dB more
dominant than other cells.
Regarding the connection budget calculations, there is a trade-off between bandwidth and
capacity when discussing RSRP. A quick overview of 4G is required to better
comprehend this trade-off. According to LTE specifications, the carrier's total power is
split equally among several subcarriers, with each group of 12 subcarriers constituting a
resource block. The handset determines the RSRP value by calculating the linear average
of the received power of the six reference signals (RS) that are sent in each resource block
[4].
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Figure 9.11: 4G RF channel, showing the subcarriers and the physical resource blocks that
represent it, along with their frequency spacing [4].
Assuming a constant transmit power, the total number of subcarriers rises as the
bandwidth does. Increasing the bandwidth would result in a decrease in the power per
subcarrier because the total transmit power is distributed equally among all of the
subcarriers. As a result, the handset's RSRP is reduced because the reference signal is
now being monitored at a lower level. The number of subcarriers for each possible
bandwidth is displayed in the following table [4].
Figure 9.12 : Number of subcarriers for each 4G channel based on its bandwidth [4].
We can easily see that if the number of subcarriers increases, the RSRP level decreases.
In other words, although one could design two similar systems with similar output
powers, the bandwidth will be the limiting factor in terms of the coverage radius.
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Figure below provides a vivid illustration of this impact. The transmission power was
taken to be fixed. For each bandwidth, a circle represents the -85 dBm RSRP coverage
radius. We can see that the -85 dBm footprint gets smaller as the bandwidth increases
(increasing the number of subcarriers as a result). As we have shown above, different
bandwidths will have different coverage footprints in 4G (when striving for the same
RSRP level) [4].
Figure 9.13: Different coverage footprint of each channel bandwidth in 4G [4].
For the low-capacity portion of the system, we can choose to design for more coverage-
driven areas (sectors), while other cells in the same project could be more focused on
capacity with a wider bandwidth, requiring more DAS equipment to support the wider
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bandwidth and, as a result, higher power levels in the building. In a large airport like this
one, the parking lots could need to be designed for more coverage than they can handle,
and the hotspot areas in the terminal buildings might need additional bandwidth [4].
9.5 LINK BUDGET CALCULATIONS FOR

PASSIVE/ACTIVE/HYPRID DAS
9.5.1 Passive DAS
Since lossy coaxial cables are used in passive DAS, cable lengths must be considered
while calculating passive losses. Because the system will have multiple antennas, each
antenna's attenuation may vary based on the cable routes that lead to it, which could
further complicate the calculations [4].
9.5.2 Active DAS
active DAS is Transparent. Cable losses do not need to be considered because it uses
optical fibres. There will be no additional losses in the power output from the antennas.
This makes designing and implementing active DAS relatively simple. The amplifier's
power limit will be the only restriction; if the power exceeds what it can handle, distortion
may result, and other neighbouring services may experience interference [4].
9.5.3 Hybrid DAS
Since hybrid DAS combines both active and passive DAS, the link budget for hybrid
DAS will be calculated using a combination of the methodologies [4].
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10 CHAPTER TEN: DESIGNING INDOOR DAS

SOLUTIONS
Creating a well-structured and documented workflow for the task at hand is crucial,
before beginning to design the first indoor solution. We will also discuss the design tasks
of the RF planner and the team. Their main task is to make a suitable compromise between
meeting the design goals, securing the system, and designing and implementing the
system to maximize the business case. We must consider when designing the DAS
antenna system features, possibilities, and limitations in the particular building to a
maximum, to make the system applicable for practical implementation. It is important to
make sure that the indoor DAS system implemented in the building is prepared for future
traffic growth. It is a major challenge to service elevators with RF coverage and requires
special consideration [4].
10.1 THE INDOOR PLANNING PROCEDURE
Operators need a well‐structured procedure to evaluate indoor solutions' business cases

and implementation processes.
How, why, and when an indoor DAS is to be implemented; who is responsible for what
part of the process; what documents are needed; and the general workflow of the process.
There are many valid methods to use when organizing the workflow; one typical structure
could be like that shown in Figure 10.1. It shows the main parameters: input and output
of the different parts of the process.
The sales team provides an application after they get the requirements from the potential
customer to get approval to implement a dedicated solution. There must be a clearly
defined revenue goal [4].
The application should consist of:
• Business input.
• Documentation of the building.
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The RF planner uses the input from sales to provide the following output:
• Floor plans with suggested placement of antennas and equipment.

• Diagram of the DAS.
• Equipment list.
• Estimated implementation costs.
• Estimated project time [4].
Figure 10. 1: One way of structuring the indoor planning process [4].
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10.2 RF DESIGN PROCESS
10.2.1 RF measurement
RF measurements are very crucial for designing indoor coverage solutions, it's important
to know the existing coverage both inside and outside.
Figure 10. 2: Initial RF survey measurement routes [4].
Measurement (1) in Figure 10.2: determine the outdoor level and the servicing cells which
can be useful to calculate the isolation of the building. In this way, you can estimate the
desired target level for the indoor system.
Measurement (2&3) in Figure 10.2: serves the purpose of obtaining an RF baseline of the
existing coverage levels present in the building [4].
When designing 2G, the indoor system should preferably exceed the signal level of any
outdoor macro cells present in the building by 6–10 dB. This will ensure that the indoor
cell is dominant and prevent the mobiles from handing over to the outside macro network.
For 3G designs, these measurements are also very important. Based on the
measurements you should try to design the indoor system to be 10–15 dB more powerful,
to avoid extensive soft handover zones. It is important to minimize the soft handover
zones in the building [4].
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10.2.2 Measurements of the existing coverage level

Measurements of existing coverage, penetration losses, and verification measurements
are crucial parts of the RF design. These measurements provide the RF designer with
valuable information to be used for the design and optimization of the indoor solution by
using channel scans.
You should always consider performing channel scans on the same floors preferably
close to the windows, A channel scan can be performed by most measurement tools using
a test mobile, The purpose of this channel scan is to find unexpected neighbors and
establish the baseline for the noise level on the radio channel [4].
10.2.3 Measurements types

a. Calibrated Measurement Tools
When conducting these RF reference measurements, it is very important to use a

calibrated transmitter and receiver‐calibrated test mobile, A test mobile is similar to a
standard mobile, but it has been calibrated and enabled with special measurement
software which enables the user to perform detailed measurements on the network [4].
b. Log and Save the Measurements
It is important to use a test mobile that can save the RF measurements on a connected
PC. In addition to the propriety data format that enables the user to save the results in a
file for post-processing within the software package that comes with the test mobile [4].
10.2.4 Post implementation measurements

After implementation, you will also need to perform a measurement to document the
‘as‐built’ system. This will also help you to find any antennas in the system not
performing as expected. You will need to measure all floors on all levels of the building.
You can perform on an indoor coverage system is to stand below each antenna in the
building, and averaging out about 20 s of samples, just using the display of the phone.
Note this result on the floor plan as a reference for checking the radiated power from the
antennas, using the free space loss formula to estimate if all antennas are performing as
expected [4].
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10.3 DESIGNING THE OPTIMUM INDOOR SOLUTIONS
The optimum indoor solution exists only in theory. All implemented indoor solutions
will to some extent be a compromise. It is the main task of the indoor RF planner and the
team implementing the indoor solutions to make a suitable compromise between meeting
the design goals, securing the system for the future, and designing and implementing the
system to maximize the business case [4].
10.3.1 Only use a visible antenna
Hiding the antennas above the ceiling is forbidden, as this may affect the performance
of the system.
As we don’t know what is hidden above the ceiling tiles: fire sprinklers, heating systems,
or electrical wiring. you have no post-installation control of objects close to the antenna
after the installation of the indoor system has been completed.
If you are forced to accept the installation of antennas above the ceiling or behind walls,
be sure to note in the design document and contract that the performance of the system is
‘best effort’ and not guaranteed due to installation restraints [4].
10.3.2 Common mistakes while designing indoor solutions
Dimensioning Coverage on Downlink Only
It is a fact that 2G indoor systems are mostly downlink‐limited, so the most focus is on
the downlink. However, it is important not to forget the uplink part of the design,
especially on 3G/4G [4].
Not Accounting for Coax Loss
We have to take into our consideration the shear length of the coax cable to avoid passive
losses in the system.
The passive losses in the DAS have a big impact on the uplink and downlink
performance of the system. It is very important to use realistic distances on the cable
part of the passive system, to be able to calculate the link budget correctly. It is
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recommended to have a safety margin on the coax losses, by adding 10% to the length
of the individual cables [4].
Not Accounting for the Total Cost of the Project
We have to be more aware of the total cost of indoor DAS as skipping this crucial part
is considered a common mistake while designing indoor solutions .
Total costs such as:

o DAS costs.
o Installation costs.
o Maintenance costs.
o Planning costs [4].
10.3.3 Planning the antenna locations
Antennas Inter-distances:
Systems, where several radio services are sharing the same antenna installation, could be
2G and 3G on the same DAS.
There might be some difference in the service range between the two systems, using the
same DAS antenna. An example of service ranges from different mobile services could
be: 2G DL = 28m, 2G UL = 78m, 3G DL = 23m, 3G UL = 21m.
So, assuming that we are focusing on 3G UL, designers will put antennas with inter
distance =21m.
If we need to improve the coverage, we will double the inter-distance to enhance the
coverage, but it is not a good solution as the inter‐antenna distance has to be shorter than
twice the service radius to achieve coherent coverage [4].
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Figure 10. 3: Antennas need to be placed with a certain coverage overlap [4].
Adapt the Antenna Placements to Reality:
In reality, we will never have a uniform loss in all directions from the antenna.
In real buildings, the antennas will typically serve many types of areas such as open office
space, dense office areas, dense areas, and heavy dense areas.
Therefore, we must adapt the antenna locations to these specific environments while
applying the link budget.
This means that we will have a shorter range from the antenna towards the denser areas,
whereas you will have a longer range in the more open directions (as shown in Figure
10.4).
As a denser area corresponds to high system capacity and corresponds to high power loss
so to support good coverage for those users and the reduction of the power loss, we have
to put the antenna closer to them.
On the other hand, open area has low power loss and few users so it will not be harmful
to put the antennas far from them [4].
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Figure 10. 4: The coverage from a typical indoor antenna will be uneven [4].
10.3.4 The corridor Effect

Placing an antenna in the corridor is a typical location and it gives a lot of merits:
o There will be easy installation access to cable conduits in the corridors of the
building, which will save implementation costs.
o We can use the corridor to distribute the signal from the antenna; there is typically
a line of sight throughout the corridor.
We must make sure while designing to put the antennas in the proper location inside the
corridor to get the maximum benefit of the corridor effect and minimize the Handover
zones [4].
10.3.5 Fire cells inside the building
Most buildings are divided into several fire zones.These zones within the building are
separated both vertically and horizontally using heavy walls and metal doors.
The heavy materials used to construct these firewalls or cells will typically also attenuate
the RF signal significantly when it needs to pass between these ‘fire zones.
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In reality, there must always be a minimum of one antenna inside each of these cells, or
else the firewalls will attenuate the RF signal by 30–40 dB or maybe even more [4].
10.3.6 Indoor antenna performance
The behavior and quality of the indoor antenna have major impacts on the performance
of the indoor DAS system.
May antennas have no gain, when the antenna consists of no active elements. No power
to the antenna is supplied besides the feed RF signal. But they have directivity and
efficiency.
In practice, the term ‘gain’ refers to the fact that the power in the main beam direction
will be higher compared with an isotopic omni antenna.The manufacturer refers to
Antenna gain as the relative difference in performance compared with the isotopic omni
antenna.
The name dBi (the ‘i’ stands for isotopic) is used as a measure for stating the gain of an
antenna [4].
Sometimes the antenna gain is stated in dBd, where the reference is a dipole antenna. The
relative difference between dBi and dBd is 2.1 dB.
Therefore, the typical omni antenna we use inside buildings will have a ‘gain’ value stated
in the data sheet (directivity) of 2.14 dBi, because this is a 1/2 λ Omni directional antenna,
as shown in Figure 10.5.
This principle is shown in Figure 10.6, where it is clear that the perfect theoretical omni
antenna distributes the signal equally in all directions and forms a perfect sphere.
Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the RF power transmitted in the main lobe
of the antenna, the direction of the antenna where the radiated RF power field is most
concentrated, giving maximum field strength of RF power [4].
EIRP= (RF power from the RF source) – (loss in the system) + (directivity of the antenna)
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The radiation and directivity of any antenna installed inside a building will be affected by
the actual installation and the surrounding environment. Objects inside the building will
attenuate, reflect and diffract the radio waves radiated from the antenna [4].
Figure 10. 5: Isotopic omni antenna directivity vs. directivity of a 1/2 λ dipole antenna [4].
Figure 10. 6: Example of horizontal and vertical directivity plots of omni and directional antennas
[4].
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In a large open hall, the antenna radiation pattern from the omni antenna might look like
that in Figure 10.7. In this example three different Omni directional antennas are plotted:
the isotopic omni, a medium gain omni, and an omnidirectional antenna with +7 dBi gain.
The ‘low‐gain’ antenna is more sensitive below the antenna, and the high‐gain antenna is
more sensitive to the sides and will give less coverage in the large area underneath the
antenna.
The radiation pattern of the antennas will be influenced by the size and shape of the room
in which the antenna is installed due to reflections from the walls [4].
Figure 10. 7: Omni antennas with different gains (directivity) in a large open space [4].
It often makes a lot of sense to use a ‘directional’ antenna at the end of a long corridor as
it will cover the corridor. The directivity of the directional antennas could help us ‘steer’
the RF coverage concentration towards a specific area of the building.
As you can see in Figure 10.8, there will still be RF signal levels after passing the 90°,
but the RF power level will just be less than 3 dB compared with the main lope, and
typically it will get lower and lower the more you move away from the main direction of
the antenna. You can also see in Figure 10.8 the ‘back lobe’, even minor ‘side lobes’
where the RF power peaks lightly again. The size of the ‘back lobe’ is important when
using directional antennas to isolate cells from each other [4].
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Figure 10. 8: Horizontal/vertical directivity plots of a indoor DAS antenna [4].
10.3.7 The ‘Corner Office Problem’
When designing a typical office building, it can be tempting to install a central antenna
on a small office floor (as shown in Figure 10.9).We must be careful as this approach has
a potential problem: lack of dominance in office corners.
To solve this problem, the signal is split into more antennas.
This strategy will provide a more uniform signal and better data services on 2G, 3G, and
4G [4].
Figure 10. 9: The same building was implemented using two different strategies [4].
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10.3.8 Interleaving antennas in‐between floors

In this example from Figure 10.10: We will put two antennas on every floor, and by
using offset of the antenna placement on adjacent floors, we can interleave the coverage
from the antennas in between the floors.
Figure 10. 10: Often it is possible to interleave the layout of the antennas [4].
One antenna on one floor will leak signals to the adjacent floors above and below, and
vice versa. The result of applying this method is that the antennas will also be servicing
the adjacent floors. After analyzing these measurement results, it is highly recommended
to add an extra margin to the design, to be on the safe side [4].
Figure 10. 11: The results of the interleaving coverage [4].
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10.3.9 Planning for full indoor coverage
The standard term for full mobile coverage indoors is often referred to as ‘98%
coverage’ defined at a given RF level. It is very important to specify whether the 98% is
specified as area or time, or a combination.
This input should preferably be a floor plan with clear markings of where the coverage
is important. This simple input can help in making a perfect ‘100%‐covered’ design, at a
reasonable cost [4].
10.4 INDOOR DESIGN STRATEGY
This section covers how to use all measurement results and link budget calculations to
implement the final design and place the antennas in the building [4].
10.4.1 Hotspot Planning Inside Buildings
The term ‘hotspot’ stands for a place of high traffic density of mobile users, needing
special attention in terms of coverage, quality, capacity, and data rates. These hotspots
can generate most of the cell's traffic. Indoor hotspots are often places where people sit
down and use their computers, tablets, and phones for extended periods of time. Examples
of indoor hotspots with high traffic density and high requirements for data speed
performance could be the food court in a shopping mall, the press area in a sports arena,
and executive and meeting areas in a corporate building. It is highly recommended to
place antennas in these areas. We should use the hotspot areas as the base for the antenna
placements and aligning the placement of the remaining antennas accordingly [4].
3G/4G Can Easily Compete with Wi‐Fi
Most probably the hotspot areas in indoor buildings are already covered by Wi-Fi service
that is why implementing 2G/3G/4G indoor DAS in these areas by mobile operator could
be a real competitor to Wi-Fi service.
In Reality, the ADSL backhaul from the Wi-Fi access point to the internet will limit the
speed servicing the user, not the radio speed on the air interface. As a result, the speed is
frequently lower than 1Mbps. Also, mobile data services are easier to utilise. In the
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neighbourhood Wi-Fi hotspot, there is no need for specific charging, and all mobile data
roaming charges are paid through the regular billing process. The user will also have
complete mobility thanks to the mobile 2G, 3G, and 4G data service [4].
Where are the ‘HotSpots’ in the Building?
Before starting your design and in order to assure efficient RF (Radio Frequency) design
you must determine where the hotspot areas are in the building, areas that require the best
data services and highest capacity. Use the hotspots in the building as the base stat point
when you decide the location of the DAS antennas and focus the locations most of all on
the hotspots.
If we received for example this simple design in figure 10.12 with only details about the
rooms outlines and their locations and been informed that this is a typical office
environment and that we need to provide –75dBm in most of the area, The design we
produce ‘prediction plot’ based on these inputs is shown in Figure 10.13, and appears as
a solid design. We do comply with –75 dBm in most of the area, save for a few spots in
the hallway and a few spots inside the rooms at the corners [4].
Figure 10. 12: Floor plan with no detailed information [4].
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Figure 10. 13: Floor plan with ‘prediction plot’ of the downlink [4].
Know the Building You Are Designing
If we had received a more detailed design of the same floor plan including the hotspot
areas like in figure 10.14, we would have discovered that these rooms are the conference
areas of the building and that the users of the building are highly reliant on wireless
services for their training and presentations. Several VIP areas and meeting rooms are
also on this floor – areas where the key decision‐makers are located, using the latest
wireless services and devices.
We would produce a design like in figure 10.15 with focusing antennas on hotspot areas
and making sure that both the CEO and CIO had excellent service simply by adding one
more antenna and focusing all the antennas on the hotspot areas [4].
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Figure 10. 14: Version of the floor plan contains actual information [4].
Figure 10. 15: Floor plan with the DAS design [4].
Power and Capacity Optimization with ‘Hotspot Planning’
The gain behind having the antennas near the hotspot areas ensures the most efficient
utilization of the network resources, thus increasing the capacity of the cell. It also ensures
that most mobiles will transmit less power to reach the DAS. This improves the
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interference scenario of neighbouring cells both inside the building and possibly in the
surrounding macro network, thereby increasing the overall network performance and
capacity in the area [4].
10.4.2 Special Design Considerations
Besides the general considerations of antenna deployments for different building, there
must be some special considerations according to the nature of the building, If we took a
shopping mall as an example here are some considerations that must be followed [4]:
• All shops must have glass interfaces facing the internal streets of the mall to assure
zero attenuation (no wall attenuation) from the street into the shops.
• During peak shopping periods, such as during sales, capacity loads might be
extremely high.
• Divide the system into more sectors in the future to prepare it for capacity
upgrades.
• Keep in mind the parking lot, which is frequently below ground level, and don't
overlook the HO zone's overlap with the outside network where customers
approach and exit the mall.
• To reduce interference, try to keep antennas away from the PA speaker system.
Figure 10. 16: Antenna placements in a shopping mall [4].
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Placing the Indoor Antennas
The actual antenna placements in shopping mall are given in figure 10.16
1. All the first placements of DAS antennas, marked ‘1’ on the floor plan, are placed
in hotspot areas for example, the food court, internet cafes, and sitting areas.
2. The ‘cost-cutting’ antennas, marked ‘2’ on the floor plan, are the antennas that
will maximize the coverage per antenna. By using the ‘corridor effect’, you can
maximize the coverage of each of these antennas. You place these antennas in all
the intersections of the internal streets of the mall so that the coverage will be
spread in the directions of the internal streets.
3. Isolate the building, by the placement of the antennas marked ‘3’. These antennas
will often be directional antennas pointing towards the centre of the building. This
will isolate the building from even very close outdoor sites.
4. "Filling the gaps" between the antennas that were recently positioned will be the
final antenna placement, by the placement of antennas marked ‘4’ [4].
10.5 HANDOVER CONSIDERATIONS INSIDE BUILDINGS
We should focus on well-defined and controlled HO zones to avoid ‘ping-pong’ HO on

2G and extensive soft HO zones on 3G and degraded 4G performance. Good DAS design
and good isolation of the indoor system will insure well-defined handover zones to the
outdoor macro network. You still have to deal with signal leaking inside the building like
in the rooftop site on the neighboring building for example.
We may take the advantage of the natural isolation provided by the building to separate
the different sectors or cells, by using the floor separations as the handover border, or the
fire separation zones inside the building Typically these fire zones will be divided by
heavy walls with high RF isolation, which are perfect for giving a well‐defined handover
zone [4].
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10.5.1 Indoor 2G Handover Planning
Figure 10. 17: The typical 2G handover scenario in a building [4].
In order to optimize the implemented DAS solution, handover control parameters must
be tuned, As shown in figure 5.3 here is a 2G multicell indoor system with a total of five
cells, Well‐defined handover zones between the internal cells in the building are a must,
and in this case the primary handover between the internal cells are done via cell‐5, which
also serves the elevator, so no handovers will occur when using the elevator, In case cell-
5 is fill there are defined handovers to the internal adjacent cells.
The reason behind the good isolation to the outside macro network is that to prevent those
mobiles in the topmost part of the building from making handovers to distant macro sites
via nearby macro sites, the mobile might end up connected to a distant macro cell that has
no neighbour relations back to the indoor cell and by analogy dropped calls when users
move from windows back to the centre of the building [4].
Special cell offset parameters can be used to control the mobile device in 2G idle mode.
Even if surrounding macro sites are leaking high-level signal within the structure, you
must ensure that the mobile will camp on the interior cell. In practise, you utilise a
combination of the mobile's (RxLevAccessMin), which in this case in Figure 10.17 is set
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to 90dBm, and the lowest permitted Rx access level. Once the cell is received more
powerfully than 90 dBm, the mobile will then add 40 dB to the evaluation of the cell by
applying a cell offset (C2) of, for instance, 40 dB. As a result, the mobile determines that
the cell's reception level is 90 + 40 = 50 dBm. This is quite helpful for keeping phones on
the indoor cell in idle mode.
It is recommended to define an emergency ‘one-way’ connection back to the indoor cell

from nearby outdoor cells, in case of extreme traffic situations where the indoor cell might
be congested, it can be a good idea to have traffic‐ controlled HO to the nearby macro
site, in order to unload the indoor cell and avoid capacity blocking of calls [4].
Handover Zone to the Macro Network
It is important to have a well-defined transit handover zone around the main entrance and
the entrance of the parking area, cells covering this transit zone should have normal HO
connections to the outdoor cells. For 2G applications, it is advised to take precautions to
prevent indoor systems from picking up any outdoor traffic from nearby outdoor mobile
users. To ensure that the handover occurs right within the building, the handover
parameter needs to be adjusted [4].
10.5.2 Indoor 3G Handover Planning
As 3G uses the same frequency, therefore there is not a large margin for tuning the 3G
handover and only good radio planning will do the job so the mobiles has to be in soft
HO as soon as it is able to decode more cells. If not, the adjacent cells will
cause interference.
As shown in figure 10.18 a 3G multicell system with total of 5 cells. To reduce the soft
handover load, the internal cells of the building must have clearly defined handover
zones; in this case, the primary cell 5 serves as the internal handover point. As the only
cell serving the elevator, Cell 5 also prevents soft handovers in the elevator [4].
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Figure 10. 18: The typical 3G soft handover scenario in a building [4].
You must also be sure to define handovers to the internal adjacent cells [4].
The handover zone to the outdoor network
As mentioned in 2G, of course we need here also a transit area at the entrance of the
building additionally, it may be a good idea to place the HO outside the building's
entrance when using 3G or 4G. This is because, if the HO takes place within the structure,
it is likely that the mobile will be using a high transmit power in order to connect to the
outdoor cell. The indoor cell's capacity will be reduced as a result of the high-power
mobile's "noise," which will increase the noise level there. This might be a significant
problem when developing high-capacity interior solutions with numerous users at the
building's or mall's entry [4].
10.5.3 Handover Zone Size
Considering the handover zone size, we must take the speed of the traffic into account.
Furthermore, you need to make sure that you include a safety margin. and you must ensure
that the coverage design remains constant throughout the entirety of the handover zone.
Once you are below design level, issues with handover retries are the last thing you want
to run into. That will undoubtedly lead to avoidance of dropped calls [4].
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Example on Handover zone size

▪ If you use a HO time of 4s as an example, you can evaluate the size of the
needed HO zone. If a car moves at 30km/h out of the underground parking
area (8.33m/s), you will need a HO zone of 33m.
▪ The problem here that we took the minimum HO zone, we must consider a
safety margin to provide the mobile enough time to perform cell decoding,
measurement, evaluation and handover execution of both cells at the same
time [4].
10.6 ELEVATOR COVERAGE
It is a real challenge to be able to provide good RF coverage inside elevators. AS most of

elevators lift-cars are made of metal which provide high RF attenuation, which makes the
challenge harder is the speed of the elevator especially in very high buildings, Yet users
expect good voice and data coverage everywhere including elevators. Many solutions
exist to provide mobile coverage in elevator. It was shown that the best mobile
performance is achieved if the RF design is done so that there will only be one dominant
cell covering the elevators throughout the building, thereby avoiding handovers inside the
lift In small to medium‐sized buildings it might be preferable not to have a dedicated cell
for the elevator only, but to use one of the existing cells in the building. In that case it is
recommended to use the topmost cell in the building to service the elevator shaft as well
as the indoor area [4].
10.6.1 Coverage Elevator Solutions
1. Placing Antennas close to the elevator shaft
The most used design when covering elevators is to place antennas close to the
elevator shaft on each floor, preferably in the lift lobby with the antenna 1–2m
from the lift door. The handover zone must be designed just outside the lift shaft,
in order to avoid handovers inside the lift‐car when moving at high speed as shown
in figure 10.19 [4].
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Figure 10. 19: The typical way to provide elevator coverage [4].
2. Antenna Inside the Shaft
In this solution The antenna is positioned in the lift shaft as in Figure 10.20, often
at the top, though it is also feasible to have the antenna at the bottom and beam
upwards. Depending on penetration losses inside the lift vehicle and building
height, a bidirectional antenna located in the middle of the shaft may occasionally
be considered. A combination of these antenna positions may be taken into
account for larger structures [4].
Figure 10. 20: Two options for covering the elevator [4].
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3. Repeater In the Lift-Car
You might also think about mounting an RF repeater on the lift car, which would
use a small internal antenna in addition to an exterior antenna on top of the vehicle.
This can be a decent option if used in conjunction with the shaft antenna set up at
the top of the shaft, but you must be careful with the repeater's gain settings [4].
4. DAS Antennas in The Lift-Car
As part of the active DAS, it is now possible to put an antenna inside a moving
lift car. Like all the other antennas, this one will be connected to the building's
active DAS system. However, adopting pure active DAS is the only method that
makes this alternative viable. The remote antenna unit that services the antenna is
connected by thin cabling to the active DAS. Typically, this line will be CAT5
(LAN cables) or CATV (cable TV cable), which are the same kind of cables that
are already being used to manage, communicate, and install CCTV in the lift or
car [4].
5. Passive Repeaters in Elevators
Mounting two antennas back‐to‐back just connected via the cable, one antenna on
top of the lift car the other inside the lift. Using a passive repeater solution is
possible for small to medium‐sized buildings for servicing the elevator. Where
Total link loss = total free space loss + cable loss + antenna gain. This could be
shown in figure 10.21 [4].
Figure 10. 21: Two antennas ‘back-to-back’ might work as a passive repeater [4].
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10.6.2 Control the Elevator HO Zone
The best performance is achieved if the HO zone can be placed outside the elevator. This
can only be achieved if we make sure that the same cell is covering the elevator from top
to bottom. Often this cell will be one of the existing cells in the building (the topmost
cell).
Successful handovers require some degree of coverage overlap between the two cells. In
the event that you are covering a lift shaft without any antennas installed, the RF signal
has to overcome both the penetration loss into the lift car and the penetration loss through
the floor separation in order to provide cell overlap for the handover to be successful. The
elevator only uses antennas in the elevator lobby for the various floors. Therefore, when
planning this form of elevator coverage for multicell structures, the elevator's speed is a
crucial factor to consider. For the handover to be successful, the two cells must overlap
[4].
Elevator HO Zone Size

It's crucial to pay attention to the HO zone's size. When constructing interior solutions,
there are common instances, such as building elevators and vehicles travelling to and
from a parking space inside the building, where the speed of the users has a significant
impact on the size of the HO zone. For 2G, it is advised to provide a minimum of three
to four seconds for decoding, measurement evaluation, and signalling for the handover.
You must build in a safety margin for at least one handover retry to deal with extreme
situations if there are a lot of mobile devices [4].
Challenges with Elevator Repeaters for Large Shafts

Although we now understand some of the fundamentals of developing passive repeaters
for elevator shafts, there are still certain design-related difficulties, particularly for large
structures and solutions for elevator coverage. In this section, we'll try to cover some of
the most frequent issues and concerns while also suggesting some solutions for some of
them [4].
The Passive Repeater for Large Elevator Shafts
Using fundamental RF connection calculations lead us to the conclusion that by

"stacking" this use of a passive elevator repeater system, we may employ this strategy to
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provide coverage for even huge elevator solutions in taller buildings. In elevator cars that
operate over greater distances than what can be serviced from a single antenna in the
shaft, this will assist us to provide adequate RF service. The idea is shown in Figure 10.22,
and it is based on the idea of supplying the elevator shaft with many donor antennas from
both above and below the lift car to service the passive elevator repeater in the elevator
car [4].
Figure 10. 22: Passive Repeater System for larger elevator shafts [4].
• Receiver Blocking
What if the elevator car is extremely close to the donor antenna inside the shaft? Would
that provide a problem? At first glance, this seems to present no issues because the
network's power control will make sure to shut off both the base station and the mobile
device and guarantee that we don't block the link with an excessively strong signal. This
is especially important for 3G and 4G because any receiver blocking on the base station
or mobile device could potentially worsen the system's service, but owing to power
control, this is avoided [4].
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11 CHAPTER ELEVEN: MULTIOPERATOR SYSTEMS
In most regions, there is more than one operator or service provider. In addition to that,
each or all operators use different bands or mobile systems (2G, 3G, 4G, etc..). That is
why for an indoor DAS system, there might arise a need for the different operators and
bands to share the implemented system. This is the case for large public areas such as
communal centers, malls, airports, and tunnels.
This is also more economic as it saves on overhead and costs to use one DAS system for
all operators. This process is not easy or simple as there are several obstacles that will be
discussed. But the principle of active DAS where, the Uplink (UL) and Downlink (DL)
are separated at the interface, and the low power level at the input (usually less than 10
dBm) will ease the process and the design of the combiner; the combiner design is one of
the reasons why passive is not used. Active DAS also offers improved performance on
date services as well as ease of installation and supervision [4].
11.1 MULTIOPERATOR COMPATIBILITY
There are several crucial RF parameters that need to be considered at the design of the
DAS system. They are [4]:
- Rx/Tx Isolation
- Return Loss
- Inter-band Isolation
- Passive Inter-modulation
11.1.1 Rx/Tx Isolation
The receiver and transmitter signals from each base station must be isolated in accordance
with the specification of the bass station. This issue is less prominent when using a
combined Tx/Rx port and an internal duplex filter is used. But caution needs to be taken
as a downlink signal from one base station must not reach the receiver port of any other
base station. The main unit of an active DAS need the uplink and downlink signals to
separated, it is preferable to use the RX diversity port for the uplink from the DAS to the
base station. And use the combined Tx/Rx port for the downlink only. This is done to
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ease the design of the combiner and provide a strong isolation between the uplink and
downlink signals.
A Typical Rx/Tx isolation requirement is 25-30 dB, this ay vary form one base station to
another [4].
11.1.2 Return Loss
The power that is reflected back from the DAS combiner system. To avoid a VSWR
alarm, the reflected power should be below the trigger value. The trigger values is the
difference between the transmitted signal and the reflected signal (Typically > 10 dB)
[4].
11.1.3 Inter-band Isolation
This is the isolation between the used bands (2G, 3G and 4G). It is important that the
bands remain isolated so that the receiver at the base station is not de-sensitized [4].
11.1.4 Passive Inter-modulation
PIM is a type of inter-modulation distortion (IMD), it is causes by non-linearity of some

passive devices (connectors, coax cable, attenuator, etc..). It is generated when two
signals are mixed and produce an unwanted harmonic signal product. The reason why
passive components cause PIM is the junctions between dissimilar materials inside the
component. An example of this is when a cooper and aluminium are connected. Overtime
galvanic correction occurs causing a non-linear connection which increase the likelihood
of PIM. The problem with PIM is that once it occurs, it can’t be removed by any filter.
The only solution is to solve the root problem and prevent it form happening [4].
The higher the speed and RF power the more PIM is impactful and the need for high
linearity components. The following figure (11-1) shows the impact of PIM, as the
bandwidth of generated PIM increases with higher order PIM. This cause a major concern
for wideband carriers, as PIM could be generated by 3G carriers that interfere with 4G
carriers.
PIM is a huge concern at the ends with high power, the ‘hot’ end of the DAS. These are
mostly the RF components that are close to the base station as: the point of interface
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(POI), the remote unit (RU), remote radio head (RRH), attenuators, connectors, cables,
etc [4].
Figure 11.1: PIM generated from 2 frequencies [4].
PIM is a huge issue for multi-frequency high power systems as it degrades the
performance, lowers the data speeds, and may drop the user’s calls. This degradation may
appear to be related to specific hours or days of the week. What causes this phenomenon
is the fact that PIM is directly affected by traffic and high radio frequency (RF) power
density. This may cause a negative loop where due to the high traffic, several users will
lose their coverage or drop their calls. However, due to the dropped calls, the overall RF
power density lowers causing the PIM level to decrease. Now the users start to re-connect
and consequently, increase the RF density again and repeat the loop. This viscous loop
can only stop when the overall user traffic decreases.
PIM will also negatively affect the modulation accuracy and the error vector magnitude
(EVM), so even if it did go as far as drop calls it will still reduce the total throughput of
the system and prevent the use of high modulation rate as 64QAM [4].
11.1.5 Passive Inter-modulation Power
In figure (11-2) we can see the relation between the RF power and the PIM. It is clear that
the rate on PIM increase is larger than the input power but as long as the PIM is below
the noise floor (-117 dBm), it will not impact the signal. But as the RF power rises above
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38 dBm, the PIM power becomes greater than the noise floor and star impacting the signal
[4].
Figure 11.2: PIM power vs. input power [4].
11.1.6 Components that Minimize PIM
RF connectors play a vital role in the

generation of PIM, in figure (10-3) we can
see the performance impact of different RF
connectors. It can be seen how much the
PIM varies between the types of
connectors. It can be as high as -60 dBm
and as low as -140 dBm. This why at the
hot end of the DAS, where the most power
is generated, a low high quality low PIM
Figure 11.3: PIM performance vs connector types [4].
connector like the sliver plated DIN 7/16
should be used [4].
Coax cables also impact the performance and PIM level, as flexible and braided cables
are a concern. But heavier cables with solid shielding are more robust. And from this, the
heavier cables should be used at the hot end of the DAS [4].
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Attenuators, which are typically made of carbon, have terrible PIM performance because
of their construction. They are constructed by many carbon particles tightly packed
together to get the right value of attenuation; this is the equivalent of having many small
junctions between resistors. This causes them to struggle to have a linear performance. A
low PIM attenuator as the cable absorber should be used at the hot end of the DAS [4].
In order to test PIM levels, a high-precision RF equipment is need as well as deep RF

knowledge. A way to test it is to feed a dual carrier signal to a system and trace the inter-
modulation products to see the PIM and inter-modulation distortion (IDM). To further
ensure their existence, one could drop the input RF levels and if there was a non-linear
drop in the unwanted products, than it is evidence for PIM/IDM [4].
11.2 THE COMBINER SYSTEM
There are many different methods and ways to combine operators and bands into the same
DAS system. They could be constructed from discrete broadband components or cavity
filter combiners [4].
Figure 11.5: 3-operator combiner using Figure 11.4: 3-operator cavity combiner [4].
discreet components [4].
The discrete components combiner is ideal for low power signals. While the cavity
combiner has better performance and is more suited for high power, it must have high
isolation and low PIM. In both cases, high quality components must be used [4].
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11.3 INTER-MODULATION DISTORTION
IMD is the result of two or more signals mixing in a nonlinear component wither active
or passive which generates other signals as a result. IMD is caused by amplifier not
operating in their linear mode. This is why it is important to stay within the specified
operating range of the amplifier.
There are 3 types of Inter-modulation distortion:
- Receiver produced IMD: the result of transmitted signals mixing at the receiver’s
RF amplifier.
- Transmitter produced IMD: the result of the transmitted signals mixing the
transmitter’s nonlinear components.
- Passive IMD: which is PIM that was already discussed.
To summarize, these are some standards that when implemented, minimize the PIM:
- All passive components must fulfil a minimum specification of −155dBc at 2 ×

20W.
- Cable absorbers should be used as terminations.
- The 7/16 type of connectors should be used.
- All connectors should be tightened according to the specifications, using the

correct torque and tools.
- Low PIM cables should be used, with all connectors fully soldered.
- It is vital to maintain disciplined fitting of connectors to the cable, craftsmanship,

use of correct tool and all metal cleaned before fitting the connector.
- Tools, cables, and connectors that match and are from the same manufacture
should be used [4].
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11.3.1 Inter-modulation Distortion Products
The generated frequencies from IMD can

be mathematical calculation of the
nonlinear circuits as shown in figure (10-6).
The inter-modulation products are
classified by their order as second-order,
third-order, etc.
The generated frequencies are either the

sum or the difference of the inter-
modulated frequencies. The main concern
for indoor DAS is the IM3 product:
2𝑓1 + 𝑓2 , 2𝑓1 − 𝑓2
The products of second, fourth or sixth

order have little to no impact as the resulted
frequencies are attenuated by the filters at
Figure 11.6: IMD components and results [4].
the base station [4].
Figure 11.7: Second and third order IMD products [4].
11.4 CO-EXISTENCE ISSUES FOR 2G/3G
When deploying different RF systems and frequency with the same DAS, you need to
make sure that one system will not degrade its own performance or that of the other
systems [4].
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11.4.1 Spurious Emissions
The spurious emissions from 2G transmitter are a major source of co-existence problems.
A high-quality pass band filter is recommended is when combing 2G and 3G bands.
Spurious emissions from 2G are restricted in the 3G uplink band (1920 – 1980 MHz) to
maximum of −96 dBm measured in 100 kHz bandwidth. Any multioperator DAS system
needs to be designed to minimize the impact of spurious emissions.
3G is noise-limited; meaning any noise increase on the uplink of the 3G will severally
impact the performance. High noise will offset admission control, the increase will
collapse the cell and cause the admission control to block for any traffic [4].
Figure 11.8: Spurious emission from a transmitter [4].
11.4.2 Combined DAS for 2G and 3G
When combining 2G-900 and 3G, the second harmonic from 2G-900 might fall into the
uplink band of 3G.
Figure 11.9: Second-order IMD from 2G-900 hitting 3G UL [4].
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When combining 2G-1800 and 3G, the third harmonic of 1800-2G might fall into the
uplink of the 3G [4].
Figure 11.10: Third-order IMD from 2G-1800 hitting 3G uplink [4].
As well as the used 2G and 3G band should account for this issue to minimize it and shift
their operating frequencies. Meaning the 2G-1800 frequencies should be planed so that
even when IMD of third-order occurs, it does not impact the uplink band of 3G. But this
solution is challenging when multiple operators share the same DAS, so coordination
between them is required. Another way to solve the issue, is to increase the power of the
3G band so that the third harmonic appears as just another noise [4].
11.5 CO-EXISTENCE ISSUES FOR 3G/3G
For a multioperation indoor DAS, it is likely that the operators need to adjust their active
channels active on the same DAS. But because of the limited selectivity of filters, power
may leak between the adjacent channels [4].
11.5.1 Adjacent Channel Interference Power Ratio (ACIR)
This is main issue when multiple operators use the 3G ban. The channel suppression must
be better that -33 dBm, but that may not always be enough. A user standing beside an
antenna while being serviced by
different operator, is likely to cause
ACIR to the antenna. The opposite is
true when another operator will
impact a user’s signal when they are
close to the other operator’s antenna
Figure 11.11: Channel allocation on 3G [4].
[4].
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11.5.2 ACIR problem, with Indoor DAS
ACIR becomes a major concern inside a building when multiple operators use adjacent
frequencies and separate DAS systems. The problem is shown in figures (10-12) and (10-
13). Two different DAS systems one for OPR1 and another for OPR2. When viewing the
figure, it is clear that ACIR is more prominent when a user is close to an antenna of
another operator and has a low signal from their serving cell.
Although there are many potential ACIR problems in many buildings, the problem
becomes evident when the operators deploy more channels. This is because most 3G
operators have 2 or 3 channels allocated. They deploy 3G (r99) traffic on the first carrier,
HSPA on the second, and mostly leave the third channel, which is adjacent to the other
operator, for future upgrades. Only when they need to use the third channel ACIR shows
up [4].
Figure 11.12: Typical channel usage of 2 operators [4].
Figure 11.13: ACIR in a building when 2 operators use different DAS systems [4].
11.5.3 Solving ACIR
The best and most practical solution for ACIR is for all the operators to share the same
DAS system and antenna locations. Roll-out inside the building needs to be coordinated
between them.
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Using the same DAS also adds the benefit to avoiding ACIR, as the wanted and unwanted
signal tracks will have the same level and if they share the same antennas, they will have
same relative difference in level in the building on both UL and DL.
Another solution is offsetting the adjust channels all together, but this solution is not
practical due to high demands and limitation of allocated bands [4].
Figure 11.14: No ACIR with 2 operators on the same DAS system

[4].
11.6 MULTIOPERATOR AGREEMENT
The multioperator agreement (MOA) is a binding document between the different

operators that define all the paraments, interfaces and issues regarding a shared DAS
system. It must also contain clear definitions of all aspects of the project as technical,
logistical, installation and legal aspects.
Ideally, a (MOA) should be a universal document that can be used for all future projects
and constantly be adapted and updated. It is best practice to sign an MOA before any
work starts in a shared system [4].
11.6.1 The Parties Involved

- The building owner and architect of the building.
- The local IT consultant or personnel responsible for the site.
- Radio planners from all operators.
- Co‐location managers from all operators.
- Site hunters.
- Transmission planners.
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- Parameter optimizers.
- Equipment procurement departments.
- Commissioning teams.
- Contractors and installers.
- Optimizing team.
- Operations and maintenance team [4].
11.6.2 The Covered Aspects

- RF design levels – UL and DL level and quality or BER levels.
- Data service levels – DL and UL speeds 3G/4G.
- Noise levels – UL noise power and DL noise level.
- Delay – maximum allowable delay of the system, end to end.
- Differentiated design goals – special design levels in specific areas.
- Link budgets – complete link budget for all services, all bands must be
documented.
- General design guidelines – other, non‐RF design parameters.
- Performance merits of the used DAS components – PIM specifications, power
rating and type approvals.
- Handover zones – HO zone size and traffic speed, and 2G/3G or 4G zones.
- Capacity – number of channels needed for voice and data requirements.
- Maximum downlink transmit power at the DAS antenna – to avoid near–far
problems, especially on 3G and 4G [4].
11.6.3 Co-existence Parameter

- RF interface specification – type of connectors, power levels and isolation
between bands and between operators.
- Inter‐modulation optimization – frequency restrictions, spurious emissions, and
ETSI and other requirements.
- Public radiation safety guidelines (EMR) – WHO/ICNIRP and local limits.
- Co‐existence issues with other equipment – EMC and RFI compliance.
- Leakage from the building [4].
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11.6.4 Future of the Indoor DAS

- Future upgrades – more sectors, capacity, how and when new services are added
to the DAS, 3G, 4G, etc.
- Connecting new operators to the DAS in the future – legal issues and headroom
in the link budget.
- Disconnecting from the DAS – how this is handled if an operator wants to
disconnect.
- Discontinuing the DAS – how this is handled when the DAS has to be removed
[4].
11.6.5 Logistics
- Responsibility matrix – all parties included.
- Selection of DAS system – vendor and supplier, and request for quotation (RFQ)
process.
- Selection and certification of installers – education, tool requirements and
certification.
- Legal agreement and contracts – between operators, between operators and
building owner, between operators and installer or DAS supplier, on who owns
the DAS and insurance issues.
- Documentation – specify function, in‐ and output of all documents,
documentation control and tracing updates, and design and as‐built
documentation.
- Installation guidelines – building code and fire retardants.
- Implementation plan.
- Acceptance testing and measurements – pass or levels, test method specification
and operations.
- Be sure to define how and who takes care of maintenance of the DAS in the future
– site access, alarm monitoring, spare parts, operation and maintenance service
level agreement [4].
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12 CHAPTER TWELVE: IBWAVE
12.1 ABOUT IBWAVE SOFTWARE:
iBwave Design Enterprise is the most efficient method for delivering all of your wireless
network projects because it is the most powerful software for designing large and complex
in-building wireless networks. iBwave Design Enterprise is a user-friendly tool for all
your in-building RF projects. It supports multiple technologies, multiple buildings,
advanced capacity simulations for increasing network densification, automatic link
budget calculations, error checking, and a customizable database of over 35,000 parts and
growing.
Figure 12. 1: iBwave Software [48].
12.2 IMPLEMENTATION STAGES:
There are some stages that must be taken into consideration in order to implement the
design.
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1st stage: The layout of the designs must be taken from the customer, with the description
of each material of the building, it can be given as image, pdf or AutoCAD file.
Figure 12. 2: Example of given layout.
2nd stage: Based on the nature of the building, we will determine the type of DAS which
will be used whether it is passive, active or hybrid.
Figure 12. 3: Active DAS Vs Passive DAS [49].
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3rd stage: Being aware of the KPI’s which are given by the clients such as:
• The aim of the design is focused on coverage or system capacity or both.

• minimum received power.
• maximum number of antennas.
• number of operators allowed in the desired regions.
• mobile generations allowed in the desired regions.
• Signal to noise and interference ratio.
Figure 12. 4: Example of given KPI.
4th stage 3D-design: After taking the material of the layouts from the customer we have
to draw it on the iBwave tool because those materials will affect the coverage, hence we
have to adapt our design based on the materials that are used in the layout, as each material
has its own losses so that the effect of every material must be considered accurately in the
3D design.
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Figure 12. 5: Example of 3D layout.
5th stage: Antennas will be put in the most efficient place to reach the target of the
customer, moreover the band that is used in the layout will affect the number of antennas
that will be used, as increasing the bands corresponds more antennas to compensate the
losses of the high band. Based on the KPI’s that has been given from the customer, it will
be determined whether omni-directional or directional antenna to fit to the design.
6th stage: This stage will focus on the components of DAS that will be used such as
splitters, couplers and combiners, and focus on their sorts too, after that we will connect
all the system together by using compatible type of cables.
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Figure 12. 6: Different components of DAS [50].
Final stage: Finally, this is the stage of the prediction in-order to check even if the output
met the customer requirement or not.
Figure 12. 7: Prediction of Office Design.

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13 CHAPTER THERTEEN: KEY VENUES
13.1 DESIGN INTRODUCTION:
13.1.1 Why Designing?

As we have multiple mobile systems with several generations, we need to distribute them
all inside the building to create a redundant and resilient network infrastructure that can
continue to function even if one or more network technologies fail. This can help ensure
that critical applications and services remain available even during a network outage.
Diverse user requirements: Different users have different requirements in terms of
network speed, capacity, and coverage. For example, some users may require high-speed
connections for video streaming and gaming, while others may need a reliable connection
for business applications. By using a combination of Wi-Fi, cellular, and other network
technologies, indoor planners can ensure that all users have access to the network
resources they need.
13.2 STEPS:
After the customer’s contact, we should have a layout architectural plan as an AutoCAD
file or an Image with high quality, including the material used for designing, length and
width of building, the technology used, the band used, the minimum number of antennas,
and if there are any requirements in antenna allocation, the number of operators and
antennas, and the minimum coverage to achieve.
We can have a look at those steps at following Designs.
13.2.1 OFFICE:
13.2.1.1 Requirements
• Number of operators: 2 (Vodafone & Etisalat).
• Power of each BTS: 20 dBm.
• Band: UMTS (2100 MHz).
• Door length: 3 feet.
• The table below shows the corresponding colors for each material.
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13.2.1.2 Office 3D:
Figure 13. 1: Office 3D
13.2.1.3 Design Plan

The design plan figure below shows us the number of antennas used and their corresponding powers, and
also couplers and bands used for each BTS.
Figure 13. 2: Office Design Plan.
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For the figure above we can see that as we don’t have multiple floors, we used dummy load to close the
second port of 3D coupler.
13.2.1.4 Design with Coverage

Finally, the beginning of the design by allocating antennas to get best coverage and highest performance
for the office and this displayed in figure 13.4: Office Design Coverage.
Figure 13. 3: Office Design with Coverage.
13.2.2 Hospital
13.2.2.1 Requirements
• Technology: CDMA
• Band: UMTS (2100 MHz)
• Operators: 2 (Vodafone & Etisalat)
• Material colors as shown above.
• Width: 208.2 feet and Height: 80.14 feet.
• Number of Antennas: 10-15.
13.2.2.2 Hospital 3D
After knowing the material used for the hospital, we will draw 3D Layout Plan as seen in
figure below.
167
Figure 13. 4: Hospital 3D Layout Plan.
• Material Colour Code:
168
13.2.2.3 Design Plan
This stage helps us to know how many antennas, couplers, and splitters we used to make
all the design and this could be seen in figure 13.7 Hospital Design Plan.
Figure 13. 5: Hospital Design Plan.
13.2.2.4 Design with Coverage
In this stage we could see the coverage in the building as shown in figure below.
169
Figure 13. 6: Hospital Design with coverage.
13.2.3 Sidi Gaber Station:

Sidi Gaber railway station is one of the oldest train stations in Egypt and it is one of two
main railway stations in Alexandria.
Figure 13. 7: Sidi Gaber Station.
170
13.2.3.1 Requirements and Challenges:

1. Number of Floors: 2.
2. Length: 270 m.
3. Width: 33 m.
4. Floor Height: 4 m.
5. Signal Level: -75 dBm.
6. System Type: UMTS.
7. Number of Operators: 1
8. BTS Power = 42dB.
9. Passive System.
10. Coverage Probability: 95%.
11. Continuous Coverage for lifts.
12. Having a minimum cost design.
13. The Design should cover the whole building including lifts and bathrooms.
14. Risers only in the electrical room.
13.2.3.2 3D Drawing:
We have several materials used as shown in table below. Each colour represents one
material.
• First Floor:
Here we could see that the outer part is all of heavy concrete, all rooms with brick walls,
glass only used for sliding doors for electrical stairs.
• Second Floor:
•
Figure 13. 8: Sidi Gaber Station Floor 1 3D Layout Plan.
171
• Second Floor:
Figure 13. 9: Sidi Gaber Station Floor 2 3D Layout Plan.
• Material Colours:
Color Material
Elevator
Glass
Heavy Concrete
Single Brick
13.2.3.3 Antenna Allocation and Prediction Area

In this stage, we allocate antennas to get the most efficient coverage needed.
• First Floor:
We here separate the photo into two parts to see components clearly.
172
Figure 13. 10: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 1 divided.
Figure 13. 11: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 1.
173
• Second Floor:
Figure 13. 12: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 2 divided.
Figure 13. 13: Sidi Gaber Prediction area Floor 2.
Comment: Here in this design, we can see that the upper and down part is the same as
they have the same height above the earth which is 4.4 so we didn’t cover it on the second
floor but we got its prediction as it’s important to get over all coverage for this area.
174
13.2.3.4 Design Plan:

Here we are showing the antennas used and the power of each antenna, showing
couplers and splitters.
• First Floor:
Figure 13. 14: Sidi Gaber Design Plan Floor 1.
175
• Second Floor:
Figure 13. 15: Sidi Gaber Design Plan Floor 2.
176
14 CHAPTER FOURTEEN: HIGH RISE BUILDING
14.1 VENUE DISCRIPTION
The next major venue and the largest by scale is a

29-floor high rise building, with 3 basement levels.
We will only cover the third basement level and
exclude floor 16 due the limitation of the used
software. The upcoming pages will discuss how we
covered the building in accordance with the
required KPI, and the number of operators and
bands used.
Figure 14. 2: The high-rise building.
Figure 14.1: The high rise building.
Figure 14. 1: The facade of the building.
177
14.1.1 Venue Drawings
Figure 14. 3: Floor 16 of the building.
All the floors of the building share a similar design, the differences are in the dry wall
placement to suit the offices used
Figure by Floor
14.2: it. The
16 middle section of all floors is identical and is
of the building.
made of heavy concrete. It contains critical spaces such as the elevators shafts, emergency
escape stairs, electrical room and bathrooms.
By using the given clutter profiles, we were able to accurately draw the layouts in the
software.
Figure 14. 4: Clutter profile of floors 1 to 15 and Clutter profile of floors 17 to 29 respectively.
178
14.1.2 Sector Plan

The building is split into 2 sectors, sector 1 includes the 3
basement levels, ground floor, and floors 1 to 15. While sector
2 is from floor 17 to 29. Each sector contains its own BTS to
cover it. The bands that are used are: GSM 900 MHz and 1800
MHz with 4 carries for each band, and UTMS 2100 MHz with
3 carries.
14.1.3 KPI and Required Coverage

GSM Figure 14. 5: Sectors of
The required KPI was a 95% probability for signal coverage to the high rise.
be better than -75 dBm for the 900 MHz band. And better than
-85 dBm for the 1800 MHz band.
UTMS
This happens to the limiting band of the design, the KPI required was a 95%
probability of signal coverage to be better than -85 dBm.
There were requirements for the power difference between the outside cells
and the indoor ones to be more than 10 dB for the GSM bands. And for the
UTMS to be more than 5 dB. This is done to guarantee that the user inside
the building will get a higher service quality, especially near windows.
Figure 14. 6:
This, however, was not considered in our design due to the limitations of Power legend.
the used version of iBwave.
Figure 14. 7: The power per channel for GSM and UMTS respectively.
Figure 14.4: The power per channel for Figure 14.3: The power per channel for
GSM. 179 UTMS.
14.2 HIGH RISE BUILDING IMPLMNTATION
As mentioned before, sector 1 contains a total of 18 floors. But the basement levels 1 and
2 were not required to be covered. That leaves us with B3, Ground Floor, and F1 to F15
to be covered in sector 1. Floor 7 was chosen to be the location of the BTSs and combiner
as it lies in the middle of the sector.
For sector 2, the BTSs were placed on floor 23.
2 operators exist in the venue, where each has 3

operating bands.
14.2.1 Desing Plan

The Ericsson KRF 201 329 combiner was used to
connect the 4 operators. The KRF has 4 outputs,
meaning for 16 floors of sector 1, each port will cover
4 floors. And for sector 2, 3 port will cover 3 floors
and the raming will cover 4 floors.
Figure 14. 8: Port

distribution of sector 1.
Figure 14. 9:
Ericsson KRF 201
329.
Figure 14. 10: Sector 1 BTSs.
180
In order to uniformly distribute the powers for each floor, each port is connected to a
series of couplers and splitters. For example, port A connects B3, G, F1 & F2. F2 is the
closest floor to F7 and that’s why the first coupler is there. That coupler is 8 dB where its
tap port distributes the power to the antennas of F2 and the through ports connects to the
next coupler. The second coupler is a 6 dB at F1 and similarly to the pervious floor, the
tap port connects the antennas of F1, and the through connects to the next coupler at the
ground floor. The last coupler could be a splitter that connects G and B3, but due to the
small coverage area and low antenna count of the ground floor, a coupler was used to
redirect more power to basement 3.
Figure 14. 11: Port A couplers.
The same structure or distribution is used for the remaining ports.
181
14.3 HIGH RISE BUILDING SECTOR 1
Figure 14. 12: Sector 1 Design Plan.
182
Port Floor Power Couplers Splitters Ant. Lowest Highest Power Mean
In Ant. Power Ant. Power Difference Power
(dBm) 6 8 10 (dBm) (dBm) (dBm)
B3 25.40 1 2 1 2 7 14.02 15.66 1.64 14.77
G 21.99 1 0 0 3 4 16.27 17.59 1.32 17.04

Port A
F1 24.24 3 9 1 2 6 15.15 17.15 2.00 15.90
F2 24.28 2 3 0 3 8 14.33 15.76 1.43 14.96
F3 25.92 2 2 0 3 8 15.55 17.52 1.97 16.57
F4 26.17 3 1 0 4 8 16.02 18.08 2.06 16.79

Port B
F5 25.72 4 1 0 2 7 15.20 17.20 2.00 16.26
F6 25.79 2 4 0 3 9 14.53 16.63 2.11 15.43
F7 26.33 3 2 0 4 9 15.12 17.24 2.12 16.46
F8 26.61 2 2 0 3 8 16.27 17.99 1.72 17.24

Port C
F9 27.11 3 1 0 3 7 16.29 18.39 2.1 17.66
F10 26.21 1 1 2 1 6 16.16 17.54 1.38 16.73
F11 24.75 2 1 0 3 6 16.21 18.02 1.81 17.44
F12 24.84 3 0 0 3 6 16.06 18.18 2.12 17.23

Port D
F14 25.58 3 0 0 3 6 16.56 18.33 1.77 17.56
F15 25.22 3 0 0 3 7 15.85 18.02 2.17 16.74
Figure 14. 13: Components and powers of sector 1.
The lowest antenna in sector 1 has a power of 14.02 at the basement, but the second lowest
is 14.33 at floor 2. The highest antenna power is 18.39 at floor 9. Making the antenna
power difference through the sector 4.06 dBm.
Color Material Type

Glass
Heavy Concreate
Dry Wall
Elevator
Heavy Wood
Single Brick
Figure 14. 14: Material color codes.
183
14.3.1 Sector 1 Port A
Figure 14. 16: Basement 3 - 3D.
Basement 3
Figure 14. 15: Basement 3 - Desing Plan.
184
Figure 14. 18: Basement 3 - GSM 900.
Figure 14. 17: Basement 3 - GSM 1800.
185
Figure 14. 19: Basement 3- UMTS 2100.
Ground Floor:
Figure 14. 20: Ground Floor - 3D.
186
Figure 14. 21: Ground Floor- Design Plan.
Figure 14. 22: Ground Floor- GSM 900.
187
Figure 14. 23: Ground Floor - GSM 1800.
Figure 14. 24: Ground Floor - UTMS 2100.
188
Floor 1:
Figure 14. 25: Floor 1- 3D.
Figure 14. 26: Floor 1- Desing Plan.
189
Figure 14. 27: Floor 1 - GSM 900.
Figure 14. 28: Floor 1 - GSM 1800.
190
Figure 14. 29: Floor 1 - UMTS 2100.
Floor 2
Figure 14. 30: Floor 2-3D.
191
Figure 14. 31: Floor 2-Design Plan.
Figure 14. 32: Floor 2-GSM 900.
192
Figure 14. 34: Floor 2-UMTS 2100.
193
14.3.2 Sector 1 Port B
Floor 3
194
195
Floor 4
196
197
198
Floor 5
199
200
Floor 6:

201
202
203
14.3.3 Sector 1 Port C
Floor 7
204
205
Floor 8
Figure 14. 60: Floo8-3D.
206
207
208
Floor 9
209
210
Floor 10
211
212
213
14.3.4 Sector 1 Port D
Floor 11
214
215
Floor 12
216
217
218
Floor 14
219
220
Floor 15
221
222
223
14.4 HIGH RISE BUILDING SECTOR 2
Table 14.2: Summery of component used and powers:
Floor Number Number Number Maximum Minimum Ant. Power

Port Number of of of Power Power Difference
Antennas Couplers Splitters (dBm) (dBm) (dBm)
17 8 4 3 18.24 16.27 1.97
Port A 18 6 2 4 18.68 17.25 1.43
19 8 5 3 17.96 16.71 1.25
20 9 5 3 16.37 15.67 0.7

Port B
21 8 0 8 18.05 16.39 1.66
22 6 3 3 17.66 16.60 1.06
23 8 5 3 18.31 15.75 2.56
24 8 5 3 17.80 15.50 2.3

Port C
25 10 6 4 18.69 16.55 2.14
26 9 4 4 18.22 16.18 2.04
27 7 4 3 17.23 15.62 1.61
Port D 28 8 3 5 17.03 15.07 1.96
29 8 4 3 20.56 18.70 1.86
224
Figure 14. 95: All Design Plan.
225
14.4.1 Floor 17
[1] Floor 17 3D:
[2] Floor 17 design plan:
226
[3] Floor 17 coverage:
GSM 900:
Figure 14. 98: Floor 17- GSM 900.
GSM 1800:

227
UMTS 2100:
Figure 14. 100: Floor 17- UMTS 2100.
14.4.2 Floor 18
[1] Floor 18 3D:
228
GSM 900:
229
GSM 1800:
UMTS 2100:
230
14.4.3 Floor 19
[1] Floor 19 3D:
231
GSM 900:
GSM 1800:

232
UMTS 2100:
Figure 14.110: Floor 19- UMTS 2100.
14.4.4 Floor 20
[1] Floor 20 3D:
233
GSM 900:
234
GSM 1800:
UMTS:
235
14.4.5 Floor 21
[1] Floor 21 3D:
Figure 14.115: Floor 21-3D.
Figure 14.116: Floor 21-Design Plan.
236
GSM 900:
Figure 14.117: Floor 21- GSM 900.
GSM 1800:
237
UMTS 2100:
14.4.6 Floor 22
[1] Floor 22 3D:

238
GSM 900:
239
GSM 1800:
UMTS 2100:
240
14.4.7 Floor 23
[1] Floor 23 3D:
241
GSM 900:
GSM 1800:
242
UMTS 2100:
14.4.8 Floor 24
[1] Floor 24 3D:
243
GSM 900:

244
GSM 1800:
UMTS 2100:
245
14.4.9 Floor 25
[1] Floor 25 3D:
Figure 14. 135: Floor 25- 3D.
Figure 14. 136: Floor 25- Design Plan.
246
GSM 900:
Figure 14.137: Floor 25-GSM 900.
GSM 1800:
247
UMTS 2100:
14.4.10 Floor 26
[1] Floor 26 3D:
248
GSM 900:

249
GSM 1800:
UMTS 2100:
250
14.4.11 Floor 27
[1] Floor 27 3D:
251
GSM 900:
Figure 14.147: Floor 27-GSM 900.
GSM 1800:
252
UMTS 2100:
14.4.12 Floor 28
[1] Floor 28 3D:
253
GSM 900:
254
GSM 1800:
UMTS 2100:
255
14.4.13 Floor 29
[1] Floor 29 3D:
256
GSM 900:
GSM 1800:

257
UMTS 2100:
258
15 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we have seen a brief overview of the mobile generations, starting with 2G
and ending with 4G, along with the distinctions and benefits and drawbacks of each
generation in comparison to its forerunners. Additionally, we have covered the various
mobile communication antenna types, when to utilise each one, and important technical
details like gain and directivity.
We have thoroughly discussed why it is impractical to rely on outdoor macro sites for
indoor coverage and why an indoor solution is necessary to amplify the signal and
improve reception quality to improve voice calls and internet quality after mentioning the
requirements for building indoor solutions. The differences between active, passive, and
hybrid DAS solutions were then discussed, along with the benefits and drawbacks of each
and the components required for each. A number of obstacles must be addressed with any
DAS solution, one of which being noise. In our research, we've described different noise
parameters, how to compute them, and how each part of our system contributes to noise
production. Given that we are unable to entirely eradicate it, we have observed We have
seen ways to lessen its impact on our system and enhance the quality of the signal that
end customers get.
The link budget calculation, which takes into account the various losses in the system that
the signal will have to endure from the transmitter to the receiver as well as accounts for
other losses in the path in-between them, is one of the most crucial calculations when
designing our indoor systems. These losses may be brought on by system noise from any
component, body loss from the number of people on the floor, or path loss from the
distance between the transmitter and receiver—even if there is no impediment in the way.
The signal will be weakened by any additional clutter, as expected. Given that it is
impossible to develop a system for 2G, we have also discussed the design considerations
for each generation. the same way we'd develop a different system for 4G voice calls and
high-speed internet.
The iBwave programme aided us in the indoor design of the venues, as evidenced in the
report mentioned above. Additionally, it makes it simple to import any common type of
floor plan. These floor plans are then scaled and linked to materials in a database to
259
correspond to the true type, size, and structure of the building. Using reference points, all
of the floors are aligned with one another. Additionally, it aids in determining cable length
and forecasting signal strength and coverage. Additionally, iBwave shortens the time
required for manual field labour and increases cost savings.
260
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Heterogeneous Networks Design and

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Nurhan Ahmed Sakr

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Mostafa Mohamed Sayed

Ehab Khaled Elsayed

Nour El-Deen Amin Ibrahim Fouad

Hager Ahmed Mohamed

Mariam Hany Wadie

Habiba Mohamed Foudah

Date: 4, July 2023.

3.4 RAKE RECIEVER............................................................................................................. 42

7.2.8 Filters: .............................................................................................................................. 82

9.2.2 2G UL Link Budget Calculations .................................................................................. 107

11.4.1 Spurious Emissions ........................................................................................................ 154

Figure 2. 1: FDMA [5]. .............................................................................................................................. 18

Figure 6. 2: Orthogonality affects the efficiency of the 3G RF channel [4]. .............................................. 71

Figure 14. 19: Basement 3- UMTS 2100. ................................................................................................ 186

Figure 14. 78: Floor 11-GSM 1800. ......................................................................................................... 215

Figure 14. 138: Floor 25-GSM 1800. ....................................................................................................... 247

ACRONYM Definition of Acronym

GSM global system for mobile communication

SMS SMS short message services

TDMA Time division multiple access

FDMA Frequency division multiple access.

FDD Frequency duplexing division

FDM Frequency division multiplexing

TDM Time division multiplexing.

BSS Business Support System

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access

DAS Distributed Antenna System

HRU Hybrid remote unit

IS-95 Interim Standard 95

LNA Low Noise Amplifier

PIM Product Information Management

S/N Signal-to-Noise Ratio

SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio

TIA Telecommunications Industry Association

PN Pseudo-random Noise sequence

PIM Passive Inter-modulation

IMD Inter-modulation Distortion

MOA Multioperator Agreement

MAPL Maximum Allowable Path Loss

1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 GSM (2G)

1.2 UTRA (3G)

3G is the third generation of wireless mobile telecommunications technology. It offers

An antenna is a metallic structure that captures and/or transmits radio electromagnetic

1.5 INDOOR BUILDING SOLUTION

1.6 DISTRIBUTED ANTENNA SYSTEMS

1.9 LINK BUDGET

1.10 DESIGNING INDOOR DAS SOLUTIONS

1.11 MULTIOERATOR SYSTEM

2 CHAPTER TWO: GSM (2G)

2.1 2G ACCESS TECHNIQUE

Figure 2. 1: FDMA [5].

Figure 2. 2: TDMA [6].

Figure 2. 3: TDMA/FDMA [5].

2.1.1 GSM up/downlink bands

• Carrier separation =200KHz = carrier bandwidth + guard bandwidth