Supri Soengkono

Geothermal Geophysicist
Wairakei Research Centre
114 Karetoto Road, Wairakei
Taupo 3377
NEW ZEALAND
Email: s.soengkono@gns.cri.nz
Phone: +64 7 374 8211 June 2010

Introduction to Geothermal Geophysics

Chapter 2: Physical Properties of Rocks

2.1. Introduction

Geophysical exploration methods can only work if there is a significant contrast of the
appropriate physical property between the exploration target and the surrounding country rocks,
or between different rock units forming geological structures associated with the exploration
target. A basic familiarity with the common physical properties of rocks is therefore necessary in
order to understand the application of various geophysical methods for exploration of geothermal
prospects.

2.2. Density

Density is the ratio between the mass and volume of rock (unit is 103 kg/m3 or kg/m3 or Mg/m3).
It is an important parameter when gravitational effects of concealed masses is interpreted. In
igneous and volcanic rocks, density generally increases with increases basicity. In sedimentary
rocks, density rises with their ageing and depth. Densities of metamorphic rocks depend on the
composition of the parent rocks and on the alteration processes to which the rocks was subjected.

Density of rocks markedly increases with the decrease of porosity. For samples of porous rocks,
one can measure wet (saturated) density and dry density, ie.

wet density: σW = mW/V , and (2.2.1)

dry density: σD = mD/V, (2.2.2)

where V is the volume of the porous rock, mD and mW are the mass of the sample when it is
completely dry and completely saturated with water, respectively.
Other mode of density is the particle (or matrix) density, ie.

particle (matrix) density: σP = mD/VP. (2.2.3)

where VP is the volume of rock matrix (VP = (1-φ)V, φ is the porosity).

The three modes of density are related by:

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 σD = (1-φ) σP (2.2.4)
σW = (1-φ) σP + φσf* (2.2.5)

where σf* is the density of the water inside pores.

Thus, from the measured values of σD and σW, one can obtain σP and φ from:

σP = σD /(1-φ), and (2.2.6)

φ = (σW - σD)/σf*. (2.2.7)

Sometimes, we come across the term of "bulk-density", which refers to the actual situation in the
field where only part of pores is saturated. It can be defined by:

σbulk = (1-φ) σP + Sφσf* (2.2.8)

where S is the saturation of the pores (S = 1.0 for fully saturated sample, S = 0 for dry sample).

Table 2.1. Particle density of common rock minerals (all values in 103 kg/m3).

quartz 1) : 2.65 amphiboles: 3.0-3.4

(amorphous, pyroxenes: 3.25-3.9
cristobalite): 2.2-2.3
feldspars: 2.55-2.65 olivine: 3.2-4.4
micas: 2.6-2.85 illite2) : 2.6-2.9
calcite1) : 2.7 smectites2) : 2-3
(aragonite): 2.95) kaolinite2) : 2.6-2.7

1) 2)
common deposition minerals; common alteration minerals.

Particle densities of common rock-forming minerals and hydrothermal alteration minerals show
only small variations (Table 2.1). Therefore, no significant density changes can be expected if
common minerals in rocks are replaced by alteration minerals. Significant changes in density of
reservoir rocks can only occur if mineral deposition takes place, and the original porosity of
reservoir rocks is high (>10%). In most cases, no significant density contrast can be expected
between reservoir rocks and the surrounding host rocks.

2.3. Intensity of magnetisation

Intensity of magnetisation (unit is A/m), or "magnetisation" for simplicity, determines the

capability of rock to create its own magnetic field. Magnetisation is a vector, ie. it has a
magnitude and a direction. Magnetisation of rocks consists of two parts: induced magnetisation

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and remanent magnetisation. Induced magnetisation (Ii) is directly proportional to the
magnetising force (H; unit is also A/m) of the earth magnetic field and to the magnetic
susceptibility k (dimensionless) of the rock, ie:

Ii = k H. (2.3.1)

Remanent magnetisation (Ir) varies within a fairly wide range, being influenced by the physical
conditions existing at the origin of the rocks, primarily by temperature. Rocks that have a
remanent magnetisation exhibit a magnetic field even in the absence of H. High remanent
magnetisation is usually found in fresh, young, volcanic rocks.

The total magnetisation (It)of the rocks is the vector sum of induced and remanent
magnetisation, ie.

It = Ii + Ir (2.3.2)

In the field, the in situ direction of intensity of magnetisation is usually given by its declination
(horizontal deviation from the geographic north, positive eastwards) and inclination (vertical
deviation from a horizontal plane, positive downwards). Ii is always in the direction of present
day earth magnetic field. The direction of Ir represents the direction of the earth magnetic field
when the rocks were formed (or deformed). The study of the remanent magnetisation is called
paleomagnetic study, since it is associated with ancient changes of the earth magnetic field.
Oriented samples are required to determine the direction of remanent magnetisation. Some
volcanic rocks have Ir with a direction opposite to the present day earth magnetic field. Such
rocks are called reversely magnetised rocks and are older than 780,000 years (the last reversal of
the earth magnetic field). Results of paleomagnetic study can often be used to construct a
magnetic stratigraphy of rocks.

High induced magnetisation of rocks is always due to the presence of strongly magnetic minerals
such as magnetite, titanomagnetite, haematite and pyrrhotite (but not pyrite). Such magnetic
minerals are common in fresh volcanic rocks. The remanent magnetisation is not only
determined by the content of magnetic minerals, but also by the orientations of magnetic
domains of the minerals associated with physical processes during the formation of the rocks.
The ratio between the magnitudes of Ir and Ii is called the Koenigsberger ratio (Q), ie.

Q=|Ir|/|Ii|. (2.3.3)

In general, large value of Q (>>1) is found on solid volcanic rocks containing small grains of
magnetic minerals (eg. basalts), indicating that they were formed in a quick chilling process.

Representative values for magnetisation of unaltered young volcanic rocks in the Taupo
Volcanic Zone in NZ are listed in Table 2.2.

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 Table 2.2. Total magnetisation of normally magnetised volcanic
rocks in the Taupo Volcanic Zone.

rock type range of mean total

magnetisation (A/m)
tuff, pumice,
breccias, etc. <0.5 - 1
welded ignimbrites 1.7 - 2.4
rhyolite lavas 2.3 - 2.7
andesites 3.0 - 4.0

The magnetisation of rocks is affected by temperature. In general, an increase of temperature

will cause a decrease in magnetisation of rocks and beyond a critical temperature called the
Curie point (~580°C for magnetite) the magnetisation disappears. However, the relationship
between temperature and magnetisation is not linear and for a temperature-range between room
temperature (~20°C) to reservoir temperature (~300°C), the reduction of magnetisation is small
(≤15%), see Fig. 2.1. Hence, the temperature of geothermal reservoirs does not cause significant
magnetisation contrast.

1.0
~ 0.97

0.8 ~ 0.83

0.6
I/Io
0.4

0.2
~ 20 deg.C ~300 deg.C

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

T/Tc
Figure 2.1. Effect of temperature on intensity of magnetisation I. Io is intensity of magnetisation at T = 0°K
(= -273°C); Tc is the Curie point temperature (~580°C for magnetite). (Modified from Carmichael,
1982).

The process that can cause a significant magnetisation contrast is the interaction between
mineralised thermal waters and reservoir rocks. Thermal waters containing significant amount of
sulphide can alter magnetite (the main magnetic mineral in the volcanic rocks) into pyrite (a non-

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magnetic mineral), and thus destroying the magnetisation of the reservoir rocks. Such a
hydrothermal demagnetisation can only occur if the reservoir is hosted by volcanic rocks (why?).
Magnetic surveying can be used to detect such a hydrothermally demagnetised reservoir rocks in
volcanic terrain.

2.4. Electrical resistivity

Electrical resistivity (unit is ohm-m, or Ω-m), or "resistivity" for simplicity, determines the
resistance of rock to the flow of electrical current (the opposite is the conductivity which
determines how easy it is for electrical current to flow through the rocks). Most of the rock-
forming minerals, with the exception of clay minerals, have a high resistivity. In the absence of
clay minerals, the resistivity of rocks depends mainly on their porosity, water saturation and
mineralisation of the pore water. The resistivity of such "clean" rocks saturated with water can
often be assessed using an empirical formula known as the Archie's Law:

ρrock = a ρw φ-n, (2.4.1)

where a≈1, n≈1.5, ρw is the resistivity of electrolyte (water), and φ is porosity. The Archie's Law
is a power law of porosity dependence which implies that (almost) all electrical conduction in
the rock occurs through the electrolyte (water) in the pores. The ratio of ρrock/ρw, called the
"formation factor", is often used to estimate porosity from results of DC- resistivity surveys to
investigate sandstone aquifers of cold ground water.

1000

Archie's Law

typical
100 non-geothermal
rocks
ρrock
ρW
hydrothermally
altered rocks

10

1
0.01 0.10 1.00
φ
Figure2. 2. Archie's Law: plot of "formation factor" against porosity.

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For rocks containing small amount of clay minerals, the Archie's Law is only valid if the
porosity is large (>20%). If the porosity is small (<10%), the actual resistivity of such rocks is
lower than that predicted by the Archie's Law. This lower value of resistivity is caused by
electrical conductions along the clay surface (interface between clay and water) and through the
clay. Clay minerals are common products of hydrothermal alteration process. Hence, most of
hydrothermally altered rocks contain a significant amount of clay and their resistivity is much
lower than that predicted by the Archie's Law (G. Risk, pers. comm., 1981) (see Fig. 2.2). For
such rocks, it also becomes very difficult to estimate porosity using the "formation factor".

The resistivity of mineralised geothermal waters in high-temperature liquid dominated systems

usually lies between 1 and 10-2 Ω-m. The resistivity of such electrolyte solutions depends on the
mineral content of the liquid and the temperature. For a given mineral content, the resistivity of
the electrolyte solution at different temperatures can be assessed, for temperature up to 250°C,
from:

ρw,T≈ ρo/[1 +α(T-20°C)] (2.4.2)

where ρo is the resistivity of the solution at 20°C and α=0.025. For example, the resistivity at 20°
C of 300 mg/kg and 3000 mg/kg NaCl solutions are 19.5 and 2.2 Ω-m, respectively. Hence, the
resistivity at 200°C of 300 mg/kg and 3000 mg/kg NaCl solutions would be about 3.5 and 0.4 Ω-
m, respectively.

Increase of temperature also reduces the resistivity of rock matrix containing clay minerals. For
example, resistivity measurement data of a hydrothermally altered core from the Kawerau
geothermal field in NZ (main alteration mineral is illite) indicate that the resistivity decreases
from about 14 Ω-m at 20°C to about 4 Ω-m at 100°C.

In general, the resistivity of rocks increases if the rocks is de-saturated. In geothermal reservoirs,
"de-saturation" of rocks is mainly caused by the presence of vapour. Hence, for two-phase
reservoirs, the resistivity increases with the increase of vapour saturation.

In summary, the resistivity of porous rocks are determined by various parameters. Any increase
in value of the parameters listed below will reduce the resistivity of volcanic porous rocks:
- porosity,
- clay minerals content in rock matrix (intensity of hydrothermal alteration),
- temperature,
- mineral content (salinity) of water in the pores,
- saturation of water in the pores.
Hence, in liquid-dominated geothermal systems hosted by volcanic rocks, the resistivity of
reservoir rocks can be significantly reduced (often by more than an order of magnitude), and
therefore the reservoir can often be detected by DC-resistivity surveying and electromagnetic
measurements (MT, CSAMT, TDEM, etc). However, such a reduction of resistivity might not
occur in geothermal reservoirs hosted by sedimentary rocks which often already have a low
resistivity when they are unaltered, because of their content of non-geothermal clay minerals.
Such reservoirs in sedimentary setting cannot be detected using DC-resistivity surveys or

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electromagnetic measurements. Sea water (high salinity) intrusions can also reduce the resistivity
of rock formations, causing a complication in the electrical resistivity exploration of geothermal
reservoirs located along a coastal area.

2.5. Thermal properties

The physical rock property determining a steady state heat transfer by conduction is the thermal
conductivity (λ; unit is W/m°C or W/mK). Thermal conductivity of rocks is required in the
measurements of terrestrial heat flow. To describe a transient (time variable) heat transfer by
conduction, another physical property, the thermal diffusivity (α, unit is m2/s), is required. Both
thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity are used in the analysis of shallow temperature
surveys.

For an idealised homogeneous rock of zero porosity, a simple relationship exists between
thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, thermal capacity (c, unit is kJ/kg°C or kJ/kgK), and
density (σ, unit 103 kg/m3), ie

λ = α σ c. (2.5.1)

Mean values of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of some rocks and minerals with
their porosity almost zero are listed in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Means of λ and α for dry rocks and minerals with very
low or zero porosity (at 20°C)
λ[W/m°C] α[10-6 m2/s]
basalts: 2 - 2.5 0.5 - 1
rhyolite: 2 - 2.5
olivine: 3-4 1 - 1.5
limestones: 3 0.5 - 1
schists: 3.5
quartzite: 5-7

Since the thermal conductivity of air is very small, the thermal conductivity of a dry porous rock
(λD) is always less than the particle (matrix) thermal conductivity (λP). For homogeneous rocks,
one can write:

λD = a λP(1-φ)n; (2.5.2)

where the constants a and n are affected by the geometry of pores, ie. they would differs between
rocks with significant joint porosity and rocks with regular interstitial porosity. In case of dry
limestone for which λP = 3 W/°C, for example, a≈1, n≈4. Hence, for φ = 0.1, λD is 2 W/°C,
which agrees with observed data.

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The thermal conductivity of saturated porous rocks can be assessed by:

λW = b λP(1-φ)m + φλf; (2.5.3)

where λf is the thermal conductivity of water inside the pores, b≈1, and m≈2. λW is always
greater than λD. Hence, heat flow values computed using λD (thermal conductivity measurements
are usually made on dry cores) are always too low.

Thermal conductivity is reduced by temperature increase. As a "rule of thumb", one can assume
that, for common rock types, λP decreases by about 30% for a temperature increase from ~20°C
(room temperature) to about 250°C.

2.6. Seismic velocity

Seismic velocity determines how fast is a seismic wave travels through the rocks. There are two
main modes of seismic body waves travelling through rocks, the compressional wave (or
primary wave) and the shear wave. The velocity (unit is m/s) of these two seismic body waves
are given by:

compressional wave: vp = [(k+(4/3)µ)/ρ]1/2, (2.6.1)

shear wave: vs = [µ/ρ]1/2, (2.6.2)

where k is the bulk modulus (the ratio between (hydrostatic) pressure and the volume change;
unit is N/m2 = kg/s2m), µ is the shear modulus (the ratio between shear stress and shear strain;
unit is N/m2), and ρ is the density of rock (unit is kg/m2; note here the different symbol (ρ) used
for density). The elastic parameters k, µ, and ρ are related to Young's modulus E (the ratio
between compressional stress and linear strain; unit is N/m2) and Poisson's ratio σ (the ratio
between compressional strain and contraction strain; dimensionless):

E = 2 µ (1+ σ), (2.6.3)

σ = (3k-2µ)/2(3k+µ) = (vp2 - 2vs2)/2(vp2 - vs2). (2.6.4)

For many rocks, σ≈0.25, hence 3vs2 ≈ vp2.

In dry porous rocks the bulk modulus decreases; the decrease is a non-linear function of porosity.
The shear modulus in dry rock porous rocks is practically the same as that of the non-porous
rocks. If one denotes the bulk modulus of rock matrix by kP and the bulk modulus of the dry
porous rock by kD, then the relationship between kD and kP can be approximated by:

kD ≈ a kP (1-φ)n, (2.6.5)

where a ≈ 0.75, and n ≈ 4.6. If the rock is saturated with water, the bulk modulus of the saturated
rock kW increases to:

kW ≈ kP[(kD + R)/(kP +R)]. (2.6.6)

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The parameter R is given by:

R = kf [(kP - kD)/φ(kP - kf)], (2.6.7)

where kf is the bulk modulus of water, which is significantly reduced by increase of temperature
(saturation pressure), ie. from 0.22x1010 N/m2 at 20°C (1 bar) down to 0.055x1010 N/m2 at 280°C
(65 bars). Because of reduction of kf by increase of temperature, the seismic velocities of
saturated reservoir rocks are less than the velocities in the same but colder rocks outside.

The presence of even a small fraction of vapour in the pores can significantly reduce the
effective bulk modulus, causing a decrease in vp. The relationship between vp and vapour
fraction is rather complex; theoretical studies have shown that for some rhyolitic rocks in New
Zealand, the velocity can decrease by almost 10% if the 2-phase fluid contain 1% of vapour
(mass fraction) at 30 bars pressure.

Another parameter that can be significant in the seismic exploration of geothermal reservoirs is
the attenuation of the seismic waves, which represent reduction of amplitude (seismic energy) as
the seismic wave passes through the rocks. The attenuation of vp increases inside a 2-phase
reservoir, which can show up with a lower reflection signals.

References

Bussian, A.E. (1983): Electrical conductance in a porous medium. Geophysics vol 48, 1258-
1268.
Caldwell, G; Pearson, G.; Zayadi, H. (1986): Resistivity of rocks in geothermal systems: a
laboratory study. Proceedings 8th NZ Geothermal Workshop 1986, Univ of Auckland, 227-
231.
Carmichael, R.S. (1982): Magnetic properties of minerals and Rocks. In: Charmichael R.S.
(Ed.); Handbook of physical properties of rocks, vol II, CRC Press Inc, 229-287.
Deer, W.A.; Howie, R.A; Zussman, J. (1978): An introduction to rock forming minerals.
Longman, London, 528 pp.
Dobrin, M.B. (1976): Introduction to geophysical prospecting (3rd Ed.), McGraww Hill, 630 pp.
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layers in the Broadlands-Ohaaki Field (New Zealand). Proccedings 11th NZ Geothermal
Workshop 1989, Univ of Auckland, pp 45-49.
Keller, G.V.; Frischknecht, F.C. (1966): Electrical methods in geophysical prospecting.
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Lawton, D.C. and Hochstein, M.P. (1980): Physical properties of titanomagnetite sands.
Geophysics 45(3), 394-402.
Robertson, D.J.: A paleomagnetic study of Rangitoto Island, Auckland, New Zealand. NZ
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Touloukian, Y.S. and Ho, C.Y. (1981): Physical properties of rocks and minerals (Volume 11-2).
McGraw Hill / Cindas data series on material properties. McGraw Hill, New York, 548 pp.