Appplied Physics I Lab Manual

Applied Physics-1, Lab-1 2023
LABORATORY MANUAL
For
APPLIED PHYSICS-I LAB
First Semester
Department of Applied Sciences
Guru Tegh Bahadur Institute of Technology

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Experiment No-1
Objective: To Determine the Wavelength of Spectral Lines Using diffraction Grating.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury Lamp, Diffraction Grating, Reading Lens
Formula/Theory: The wavelength of any spectral line
(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃
λ=
𝑛
Where, (𝑎 + 𝑏) = grating element
𝜃 = angle of diffraction
𝑛 = order of spectrum
Diagram:
Transmission Grating
Angle of Diffraction (θ)
Eyepiece
Grating Table
Telescope
Slit
Collimator
Source
Procedure: Before using the spectrometer, the following adjustments are made:
1. Grating table should be leveled.
2. Telescope and collimator are adjusted for parallel rays.
3. The axis of the telescope and collimator must intersect the vertical axis of rotation of the
prism table.
4. Grating should be normal to the axis of collimator
➢ The slit is illuminated by mercury vapour vamp. The telescope is brought in a line with the
collimator and the direct image of the slit is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire.
The readings of one vernier are noted.
➢ The vernier table is firmly clamped. Now, the telescope is rotated exactly through 90°
and is fixed in this position. The grating is mounted vertically on the prism table with its
ruled surface facing the collimator. The vernier table is released and is slowly rotated till
the reflected image coincides with the vertical cross wire. The leveling screws are adjusted
so that the image is at the centre of the field of view of the telescope. The prism table is
fixed and after making fine adjustments with the tangential screw, the readings of the
vernier are noted. Now, the angle of incidence is 45°. The vernier table is then released and
rotated exactly through 45° in the proper direction so that the surface of the grating
becomes normal to the incident light. The vernier table is firmly clamped in this position.
➢ The telescope is then released and is brought to observe the direct image. On the either side
of the direct image, the diffraction spectra are seen. The telescope is turned slowly towards
the left so that the vertical cross wire coincides with the violet lines of the first order. The
reading of the vernier is taken. The vertical cross wire is then made to coincide with the
other lines on the left and the vernier reading is taken in each case. The telescope is then
moved to the right and the reading of different lines is similarly taken.
➢ The difference between the readings on the left and right on the same vernier is determined
for each line. The mean value of this difference gives 2θ-twice the angle of diffraction.
Thus the angle of diffraction θ for each spectral line is determined. The wavelength of the
green line is 546.1 x10-9 m. The number of lines per meter (N) of the grating is calculated.
Using this value of N, the wavelengths of the other prominent lines in this spectrum are
calculated.
Observations:
No. of rulings on the grating (N) = ……………
Least count of spectrometer = ……………
Order Color Spectrum On Left Side Spectrum On Right Side

of of Reading Of Telescope Reading Of Telescope 𝑎−𝑏
𝜃=
Spectrum Light 2
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading
(degree) (degree)
First Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
Calculations:
Grating element, (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 2.54 cm

𝑁
Where, 𝑁 = number of lines per inch

For first order: 𝑛 = 1

λ=
𝑛
Results: The wavelengths of various colors of mercury light with the help of plane
transmission grating are (all in Å)
Colors Observed Standard % Error

Wavelength Wavelength
Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
Precautions:
1. Rack and pinion arrangement of telescope once set for parallel rays should not be
disturbed throughout the experiment.
2. Ruled surface of grating should not be touched.
3. Ruled surface of the grating should face the telescope.
4. Set the grating normal to the incident ray.
5. While taking observations, telescope and prism table should be kept fixed.
Experiment No-2
Objective: To determine wavelength of sodium light using Newton’s ring assembly.
Apparatus: Travelling microscope, sodium lamp, Newton’s ring assembly consisting of an

optically plane glass plate inclined at an angle of 45°, a spherometer, a convex lens of short focal
length.
Formula used: The wavelength of a monochromatic light which produces these rings is given
by:
λ=
4𝑅(𝑚 − 𝑛)
Where, 𝑅 = Radius of curvature of the surface of convex lens in contact with glass plate
𝐷𝑚= diameter of mth ring.
𝐷𝑛= diameter of nth ring
Diagram:
Procedure:
1. First of all, find the least count of the travelling microscope.
2. Now, switch on the sodium lamp.
3. Then, adjust the plane glass plate at an angle of 45° to the horizontal. (This glass plate
reflects light from the source vertically downwards and falls normally on the convex lens.
This gives a fixed pattern of concentric rings called “NEWTON’S RING”.)
4. Now, adjust the center of microscope’s objective lens piece so that its center is
tangential to the circumference of 9th dark ring on the left side of the centre.
5. The reading of main scale and vernier scale of the travelling microscope are noted.
6. The cross wire is adjusted to be tangential to the 7th, 5th, 3rd, etc on the left and 1st, 3rd, 5th,
etc on the right and readings are taken each time.
7. After getting these readings we subtract the values of right & left ,To get the value of
the diameter “D” of the ring.
8. The square of the diameter and hence 𝐷2 and 𝐷2 are found out.
𝑛 𝑚
9. Then wavelength of sodium light is calculated using above equation.
Observations: Least count of travelling microscope =

Radius of curvature of plano-convex lens (R) =
S.no. No. microscope reading Diameter D2

of L.H.S. R.H.S.
ring
MSR VSR Final MSR VSR Final
(mm) (mm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Calculations : The wavelength of sodium light is given by
λ=
4𝑅(𝑚 − 𝑛)
Result: The wavelength of sodium light by Newton's ring experiment is .......................... Å.
Precautions:
1. The lens & the glass plate should be cleaned.

2. A lens of large radius of curvature should be used. The radius of curvature of plano
convex lens should be measured accurately .
3. The point of intersection of cross wires should coincide with the center of ring
system.
4. The micrometer screw should always be moved in same direction .
5. The amount of light from the source should be adjusted for maximum visibility.
Experiment No-3
Objective: To Determine The Wavelength of Sodium light Using diffraction Grating.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, Sodium Lamp, Diffraction Grating, Reading Lens
Formula/Theory: The wavelength of sodium light
λ=
𝑛
Where, (𝑎 + 𝑏) = grating element
𝜃 = angle of diffraction
Diagram:
Transmission Grating
Angle of Diffraction (θ)
Eyepiece
Grating Table
Telescope
Slit
Collimator
Source
1. Grating table should be leveled.
2. Telescope and collimator are adjusted for parallel rays.
prism table.
4. Grating should be normal to the axis of collimator
➢ The slit is illuminated by mercury vapour vamp. The telescope is brought in a line with the
collimator and the direct image of the slit is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire.
The readings of one vernier are noted.
➢ The vernier table is firmly clamped. Now, the telescope is rotated exactly through 90°
and is fixed in this position. The grating is mounted vertically on the prism table with its
ruled surface facing the collimator. The vernier table is released and is slowly rotated till
the reflected image coincides with the vertical cross wire. The leveling screws are adjusted
so that the image is at the centre of the field of view of the telescope. The prism table is
fixed and after making fine adjustments with the tangential screw, the readings of the
vernier are noted. Now, the angle of incidence is 45°. The vernier table is then released and
rotated exactly through 45° in the proper direction so that the surface of the grating
becomes normal to the incident light. The vernier table is firmly clamped in this position.
➢ The telescope is then released and is brought to observe the direct image. On the either side
of the direct image, the diffracted image are seen. The telescope is turned slowly towards
the left so that the vertical cross wire coincides with the diffraction pattern of the first order.
The reading of the vernier is taken. The vertical cross wire is then made to coincide with
the other lines on the left and the vernier reading is taken. The telescope is then moved to
the right and the reading is similarly taken.
➢ The difference between the readings on the left and right on the same vernier is determined
for each line. The mean value of this difference gives 2θ-twice the angle of diffraction.
Thus the angle of diffraction θ for each spectral line is determined. The wavelength of the
sodium light is 589 x10-9 m. The number of lines per meter (N) of the grating is calculated.
Using this value of N, the wavelengths of the sodium light is calculated.
Observations:
No. of rulings on the grating (N) = ……………
Order Reading of
of Telescope Main Scale Reading Vernier Total |𝑎 − 𝑏|
Scale Reading 𝜃=
Spectrum 2
Reading (degree)
First Direct Image
LHS (a)
RHS (b)
Calculations:
Grating element, (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 2.54 cm

𝑁
Where, 𝑁 = number of lines per inch
For first order: 𝑛 = 1

λ=
𝑛
Result: The wavelength of sodium light using plane transmission grating is. ....................Å.
Precautions:
2. Ruled surface of grating should not be touched.
3. Ruled surface of the grating should face the telescope.
4. Set the grating normal to the incident ray.
Experiment No-4
Objective: (a) To determine the refractive index of the material of a given prism by the
spectrometer Using mercury light.
(b) To determine the dispersive power of the material of a given prism by the
spectrometer Using mercury light.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury Lamp, Prism, Spirit Level, Reading Lens
Formula/Theory: The refractive index can be calculated by the formula
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚
sin ( 2 )
µ=
𝐴
sin (2 )
Where, 𝐴 = the angle of the prism
𝛿𝑚 = angle of minimum deviation
The dispersive power of the material of prism is given by

𝜇𝑉 − 𝜇𝑅
m=
𝜇F − 1
Where, 𝜇𝑉 = the refractive index for violet color
𝜇𝑅 = the refractive index for red color
𝜇F = the refractive index for yellow color
Diagram:
1. Prism table should be leveled.
2. Telescope and collimator are adjusted for parallel rays by Schuster's method.
prism table.
Measurement of Angle of Prism
➢ Determine the least count of spectrometer.

➢ Place the prism on prism table with its refracting angle A towards the collimator and with
refracting edge at the centre. In this case some of the light falling on each face will be
reflected and can be received with the help of this telescope.
➢ The telescope is moved to one side to receive the light reflected from the face AB and cross
wires are focused on the image of the slit. The reading of vernier is taken.
➢ The telescope is moved to another side to receive the light reflected from the face AC and
cross wires are focused on the image of the slit The reading of vernier is taken.
➢ The angle through which the telescope is moved on the difference in the two positions
gives twice the refracting angle A of prism. Therefore half of this angle gives therefracting
angle of the prism.
Measurement of Angle of Minimum Deviation
➢ Place the prism so that its centre coincides with the centre of the prism table on light falls
on one of the polished face, after refraction. In this position the spectrum is obtained.
➢ The spectrum is seen through the telescope and the telescope is adjusted for minimum
deviation position for particular colour (wavelength) in following ways:
Set up the telescope at particular and rotate the prism table in one direction, of course the
telescope should move in such a way to keep the spectral line in view. By doing so a
position will come where the spectral line recede in opposite direction although the rotation
of the table is continued in the same direction. The particular position, where the spectral
line begins to recede in opposite direction is the minimum deviation position for the colour.
Note the reading of the vernier.
➢ Remove the prism and bring the telescope in the line of the collimator. See the slit
directly through the telescope and coincide the image slit with the vertical cross wire. Note
the reading of the vernier.
➢ The difference in the minimum deviation position and direct position gives the angle of
minimum deviation for the colour.
➢ The same procedure is repeated to obtain the angle of minimum deviation for other colours.
Observations:
(a) Table for the prism angle (A)
S. No. Telescope reading for reflected Telescope reading for reflected 𝑎−𝑏
𝐴=
image at first face image at second face 2
MSR VSR Total (a) MSR VSR Total (b)
(b) Table for angle of minimum deviation
Color Telescope reading for Direct Telescope reading for

of image minimum deviation position 𝛿𝑚 = 𝑎 − 𝑏
Light M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading
(a) (b)
(degree) (degree)
Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
Calculations:
The refractive index can be calculated by the formula
𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚
sin ( 2 )
µ=
𝐴
sin (2)
The dispersive power of the material of prism is given by

𝜇𝑉 − 𝜇𝑅
m=
𝜇F − 1
Results: (a) The refractive index of material of prism for various colors of mercury light
Colors Observed Standard % Error
Refractive Refractive
index index
Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
(b) Dispersive power of the material of the prism is .....................
Precautions:
2. Slit should be as narrow as possible.
4. The position of minimum deviation should be found accurately.
Experiment No-5
Objective: To plot a graph between the distance of knife edge from center of gravity and time
period of a compound pendulum (Bar pendulum). From the graph, find:
1. Acceleration due to gravity

2. Radius of gyration k of the bar
Apparatus: Bar pendulum, stop watch, knife edges, meter scale.
Formula/ Theory:
A bar pendulum is a type of compound pendulum consisting of uniform rectangular bar about 1
meter long with holes drilled along its length equal distances from each other. The center lies on
the straight line passing through the center of gravity of the pendulum. A sharp knife edge is
attached to some heavy frame provided with leveling screws to make the knife edge horizontal.
The bar can be suspended from any hole with the help of knife edge.
The principal is based on interchangeability of the centers of suspension and oscillation. For a
point of suspension, there is another point on other side of the center of gravity called as center
of oscillation about which the time period is almost there are two other such points. The distance
between center of oscillation and center of suspension is known as the length of equivalent
length of simple pendulum. Knowing the distance time of period of compound pendulum is
𝑙1 + 𝑙2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
Hence 𝑔 can be calculated as

(𝑙1+𝑙2)
𝑔 = 4𝜋2 cm/s2
𝑇2
and Radius of gyration 𝑘 as
𝑘 = √𝑙1𝑙2
For bar pendulum the graph between T and l follows the nature as;
A B C D E
P Q R
l C.G. l
(a) PQ=QR= k and time at Q is Tmin

(𝐴𝐶+𝐶𝐸) (𝐵𝐶+𝐶𝐷)
(b) 𝑙1 = and 𝑙2 =
2 2
Diagram:
Procedure:
1. On the compound pendulum side A is marked on one side and side B on the other side.
2. The knife edges are placed in the first hole on either side parallel to each other and make
them tight. Ensure that the sharp edge is pointing towards the center of gravity.
3. The pendulum is suspended from the knife edge on the side A so that the knife edge is
perpendicular to the edge of the slot and the pendulum is hanging parallel to the wall. The
pendulum is set into vibration with small amplitude of 50 and is allowed to make free
vibrations so that these become regular.
4. One is counted when the pendulum is passing through the same position in the same
direction and so on. The time taken for n vibrations is noted. Time for one oscillation is
calculated. The distance between center of gravity and knife edge is measured.
5. Now the bar pendulum is suspended on the knife edge on side B and observations are
repeated.
6. The observations with knife edges in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. holes on either side of center
of gravity is repeated.
7. A graph is plotted between the distance of knife edge from center of gravity (with C.G. at
x = 0 cm) taken along the x-axis and corresponding time period T taken along y-axis.
8. If a horizontal line ABCDE is drawn. It cuts graph in points A, B and D, E about which
the time period is same. The points A and D or B and E lie on opposite sides of the center
of gravity at unequal distances such that the time period about these points is the same.
Hence, one of these corresponds to the center of gravity at unequal distances such that the
time period about these points is the same. Hence, one of these corresponds to the ‘center
of suspension ‘and the other corresponds to the ‘center of oscillation’.
9. The distances AD or BE gives the length of equivalent simple pendulum L. if T
corresponds to the time period , then
𝑙1 + 𝑙2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
Observations: Length of bar pendulum:

Least count of stop watch:
Least count of meter scale:
Number of oscillation (n):
S .No. Side A Side B

Distance Time for n Time period for Distance from Time for n Time period
from C.G oscillation one oscillation C.G (cm) oscillation for one
(cm) ‘t’ (sec) T= t/n(sec) ‘t’ (sec) oscillation
T=t/n(Sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Calculations: (a) Length of equivalent simple pendulum
S. No. Length from graph

1. (𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸)
𝑙1 =
2
2. (𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷)
𝑙2 =
2
Mean T =
The 𝑔 can be calculated as

(𝑙1+𝑙2) cm/s2
𝑔 = 4𝜋2
𝑇2
and Radius of gyration 𝑘 as
𝑘 = √𝑙1𝑙2
Result: The value of acceleration due to gravity g from the graph is found to
be
% error =
The value of radius of gyration k from the graph is found to be
Precautions:
1. The knife edge should be horizontal and the bar pendulum parallel to wall.
2. Amplitude should be small.
3. The bar pendulum should vibrate only in vertical plane.
4. Curves on the graph should be drawn smoothly.
Experiment No-6
Objective: To Determine the Wavelength of He-Ne Laser using transmission diffraction
Grating.
Apparatus: Laser source, Diffraction Grating with its mount, millimeter graph sheet.
Formula/Theory: The wavelength of any spectral line
sin 𝜃
λ=
𝑛𝑁
Where, 𝜃 = angle of diffraction
N = number of lines per meter on the grating
Diagram:
Procedure:
➢ Laser source , grating and screen are mounted so as to be in a line.
➢ Diffraction pattern as spots will be visible on the screen.
➢ The brightest spot in the central maxima, on both sides of which are other spots of
diminishing intensity corresponding to different orders of diffraction.
Observations:
Number of lines per meter on the grating (N) = ……………
If y be the distance between nth order maxima and the central maxima, then
𝑦
sin 𝜃 = degree
𝑥
Where x is the distance between screen and grating. Copy diffraction spots on the trace paper
from the screen. From this, measure y. The other way is to use millimeter graph on screen which
will directly give the value of y in mm.
S. No. No. of Order of x in mm y in mm 𝑦

lines on maxima sin 𝜃 =
grating 𝑥
per mm
1 1
100
2 2
3 1
300
4 2
5 1
600
6 2
Calculations: Find wavelength for different sets and take mean.

sin 𝜃
λ=
𝑛𝑁
Results: The wavelengths of He-Ne laser with the help of plane transmission grating is
Precautions:
6. Never look directly into laser.
7. Less the number of lines in the grating, more is the number of maxima to be seen.
8. Before switching ON the laser source, align the system properly.
9. The laser should be operated at conveniently lower power level by using neutral density
filter such that direct visual measurements are possible.
Experiment No-7
Objective: To Determine the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fibre.
Apparatus: Laser source, optical fibre, two optical fibre chucks, screen with graph sheet.
Formula/Theory: The numerical aperture of an optical fibre is given by
N.A. = sin 𝜃0 = √(𝜇2 − 𝜇2)

1 2
Where, 𝜃0 = maximum acceptance angle
𝜇1 = refractive index of core
𝜇2 = refractive index of cladding
In a short length of optical fibre, ideally a ray entering at an angle 𝜃i at the input end comes out
at the same angle 𝜃i from the output end. Therefore the emerging rays from the output end of the
fibre will also appear as a cone of semi angle 𝜃i. It is then simpler to make measurements on this
end of the fibre to determine the numerical aperture of the fibre.
If the emerging rays from the output end of the optical fibre make a spot of diameter 'd ' on a
screen kept at a distance ' L' from the output end of the fibre, then as it is obvious from the
figure.
𝑑
sin 𝜃0 =
√𝑑2 + 4𝐿2
Diagram:
Procedure:
➢ Arrange the laser source, the microscopic objective, the input and output end of the
optical fibre at the same horizontal level with the help of stands.
➢ Switch ON the laser or make the light passing through the objective and optical fibre fall
on the screen.
➢ Place the screen at some distance from the output end of the fibre. A circular spot is
formed on the screen.
➢ Measure the distance L between the output end of the optical fibre and screen. Also put
marks for the diameter ' d' of the spot on the screen and measure it.
➢ Repeat the above procedure for different values of L and measure the corresponding
diameter of the spot formed.
➢ Calculate the numerical aperture for each value of L and take the mean.
Observations:
Distance 'L' in cm Diameter 'd' in cm
S. No. 𝑑
N.A. =
√𝑑2 + 4𝐿2
1
2
Calculations: Calculate numerical aperture of optical fibre as

𝑑
N.A. =
√𝑑2 + 4𝐿2
Results: The numerical aperture for the given optical fibre is
Precautions:
1. The end of the fibre should be clean.
2. The input end of the optical fibre should be kept close to microscopic objective.
3. The laser source should be kept close to the microscopic objective.
4. The screen should be held vertically.
5. The optical fibre must be connected through optic fibre checks to avoid any leakage.
Experiment No-8
Objective: To Determine the Specific Rotation of sugar solution with the help of Half Shade
Polarimeter.
Apparatus: Polarimeter with a sensitive detecting device, sodium light, flask, beaker, sugar and
distilled water
Formula/Theory: The specific rotation of sugar solution is given by
𝜃𝑉
S=
𝑙𝑚
Where, V = Volume of the solution
𝜃 = rotation produced in degree
𝑙 = length of the tube in decimeter
𝑚 = mass of the sugar dissolved
Diagram:
Figure: Experimental setup for determination of specific rotation

Procedure:
1. Fill the polarimeter tube with water minimizing the air gap and place it in proper position.
2. The slit is illuminated by sodium light and focus the eye-piece such the field of view is sharp
and unequal illuminated columns are seen in the two halves of the field of view.
3. The analyzer is rotated till the two positions or colors change into homogeneous color.
4. Take measurement on circular and vernier scales. Rotate the analyzer about 1800 for same color
and take the measurement again.
5. Prepare the sugar solution of known concentration (10 gm in 100 ml of distilled water). Fill the
polarimeter tube with sugar solution, repeat the above procedure and note down the
measurements in similar way.
6. The difference in the observations taken in distilled water and in sugar solution is the angle of
rotation for one concentration.
7. Repeat the experiment by changing concentration of sugar solution and take atleast three sets
of readings.
Observations:
Room temperature = ……………0C
Length of the tube (l) = ……………dm
Mass of the sugar dissolved (m) =……………..gm
Volume of the solution (V) =…………..…cc
Least count of the vernier =……………...0
(a) Observation table for water
S.No Analyzer’s reading for Ist Position Analyzer’s reading for IInd Position
Clockwise Anticlockwise Mean Clockwise Anticlockwise Mean
MS VS T(𝒂) MS VS T(𝒂′ ) 𝒂 + 𝒂′ MS VS T(𝒃) MS VS T(𝒃′ ) 𝒃 + 𝒃′
𝟐 𝟐
1.
2.
3.
Mean A Mean B
(b) Observation table for sugar solution

S.No Analyzer’s reading for Ist Position Analyzer’s reading for IInd Position
Clockwise Anticlockwise Mean Clockwise Anticlockwise Mean
MS VS T(𝒄) MS VS T(𝒄 ) 𝒄 + 𝒄 MS VS T(𝒅) MS VS T(𝒅 ) 𝒅 + 𝒅′
′ ′ ′
𝟐 𝟐
1.
2.
3.
Mean C Mean D
Calculations: According to the analyzer’s reading

• For I position, rotation produced by sugar solution, 𝜃1 = 𝐶 − 𝐴
• For II position, rotation produced by sugar solution, 𝜃2 = 𝐷 − 𝐵
Thus, mean rotation produced by sugar solution,

𝜃1 + 𝜃2
𝜃=
2
The specific rotation of sugar solution is,
𝜃𝑉
𝑆 = 𝑙𝑚 =……….. degree/cc/dm
Results: The specific rotation of sugar solution is …………….. degree/cc/dm.
Precautions:
1. There should not be any air bubble in the polarimeter tube and the polarimeter tube along with
its caps should be thoroughly cleaned.
2. Caps must be put on tube tightly without undue strain.
3. Water used should be pure/distilled.
4. Sugar must be dust free.
5. Before filling the tube, it should be rinsed with the solution to be filled.
6. Reading should be taken over a dark position because equal brightness position is not
extinguished.
7. Temperature and wavelength of light used must be noted accurately.

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Applied Physics-1, Lab-1 2023

Department of Applied Sciences

Guru Tegh Bahadur Institute of Technology

Formula/Theory: The wavelength of any spectral line

Least count of spectrometer = ……………

Order Color Spectrum On Left Side Spectrum On Right Side

Grating element, (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 2.54 cm

Where, 𝑁 = number of lines per inch

For first order: 𝑛 = 1

Colors Observed Standard % Error

Apparatus: Travelling microscope, sodium lamp, Newton’s ring assembly consisting of an

𝐷𝑚= diameter of mth ring.

𝐷𝑛= diameter of nth ring

9. Then wavelength of sodium light is calculated using above equation.

Observations: Least count of travelling microscope =

S.no. No. microscope reading Diameter D2

Calculations : The wavelength of sodium light is given by

Result: The wavelength of sodium light by Newton's ring experiment is .......................... Å.

1. The lens & the glass plate should be cleaned.

Formula/Theory: The wavelength of sodium light

Least count of spectrometer = ……………

Grating element, (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 2.54 cm

Where, 𝑁 = number of lines per inch

For first order: 𝑛 = 1

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury Lamp, Prism, Spirit Level, Reading Lens

Formula/Theory: The refractive index can be calculated by the formula

Where, 𝐴 = the angle of the prism

𝛿𝑚 = angle of minimum deviation

The dispersive power of the material of prism is given by

Where, 𝜇𝑉 = the refractive index for violet color

𝜇𝑅 = the refractive index for red color

𝜇F = the refractive index for yellow color

Measurement of Angle of Prism

➢ Determine the least count of spectrometer.

Measurement of Angle of Minimum Deviation

(a) Table for the prism angle (A)

(b) Table for angle of minimum deviation

Color Telescope reading for Direct Telescope reading for

The dispersive power of the material of prism is given by

(b) Dispersive power of the material of the prism is .....................

1. Acceleration due to gravity

Apparatus: Bar pendulum, stop watch, knife edges, meter scale.

Hence 𝑔 can be calculated as

and Radius of gyration 𝑘 as

(a) PQ=QR= k and time at Q is Tmin

Observations: Length of bar pendulum:

S .No. Side A Side B

Calculations: (a) Length of equivalent simple pendulum

S. No. Length from graph

The 𝑔 can be calculated as

and Radius of gyration 𝑘 as

The value of radius of gyration k from the graph is found to be

Formula/Theory: The wavelength of any spectral line

N = number of lines per meter on the grating

S. No. No. of Order of x in mm y in mm 𝑦

Calculations: Find wavelength for different sets and take mean.

Formula/Theory: The numerical aperture of an optical fibre is given by

N.A. = sin 𝜃0 = √(𝜇2 − 𝜇2)

Where, 𝜃0 = maximum acceptance angle

𝜇1 = refractive index of core

𝜇2 = refractive index of cladding

Calculations: Calculate numerical aperture of optical fibre as

Results: The numerical aperture for the given optical fibre is