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Contents vii

5.3 Diagonalization of Matrices 316

*5.4 Quadratic Forms, Difference Equations, and Normal Modes 329
*5.5 Linear Differential Equations (Calculus Prerequisite) 340
Chapter 5 Review Exercises 346

6 Inner Product Spaces 349

6.1 Inner Product Spaces 349
*6.2 Non-Euclidean Geometry and Special Relativity 358
*6.3 Approximation of Functions and Coding Theory 363
*6.4 Least Squares Solutions 370
Chapter 6 Review Exercises 383

Part 3 Numerical Linear Algebra 385

7 Numerical Methods 387

*7.1 Gaussian Elimination 387
*7.2 The Method of LU Decomposition 393
*7.3 Practical Difficulties in Solving Systems of Equations 400
*7.4 Iterative Methods for Solving Systems of Linear Equations 409
*7.5 Eigenvalues by Iteration and Connectivity of Networks 413
*7.6 The Singular Value Decomposition 423
Chapter 7 Review Exercises 435

8 Linear Programming 437

*8.1 A Geometrical Introduction to Linear Programming 437
*8.2 The Simplex Method 445
*8.3 Geometrical Explanation of the Simplex Method 451
Chapter 8 Review Exercises 457

Appendices 459
A Cross Product 459
B Equations of Planes and Lines in Three-Space 469
C Graphing Calculator Manual 477
C1 Reduced Echelon Form of a Matrix 477
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viii Contents

C2 Matrix Operations 478

C3 Powers of a Matrix 478
C4 Transpose of a Matrix 479
C5 Inverse of a Matrix 479
C6 Determinant of a Matrix 479
C7 Summary of Formats for Row Operations 480
D MATLAB Manual 481
D1 Entering and Displaying a Matrix (Section 1.1) 482
D2 Solving Systems of Linear Equations (Sections 1.1, 1.2,
1.7) 483
D3 Dot Product, Norm, Angle, Distance (Section 1.6) 487
D4 Matrix Operations (Sections 2.1–2.3) 488
D5 Computational Considerations (Section 2.2) 491
D6 Inverse of a Matrix (Section 2.4) 492
D7 Solving Systems of Equations Using Matrix Inverse
(Section 2.4) 493
D8 Cryptography (Section 2.4) 496
D9 Transformations Defined by Matrices
(Sections 2.5, 2.6) 497
D10 Fractals (Section 2.6) 498
D11 Leontief I/O Model (Section 2.7) 500
D12 Markov Chains (Sections 2.8, 3.5) 502
D13 Digraphs (Section 2.9) 504
D14 Determinants (Sections 3.1–3.3) 506
D15 Cramer’s Rule (Section 3.3) 507
D16 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors (Sections 3.4, 3.5) 509
D17 Linear Combinations, Dependence, Basis, Rank
(Sections 1.3, 4.2–4.5) 511
D18 Projection, Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization
(Section 4.6) 514
D19 QR Factorization (Section 4.6) 515
D20 Kernel and Range (Section 4.8) 518
D21 Inner Product, Non-Euclidean Geometry
(Sections 6.1, 6.2) 519
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Contents ix

D22 Space–Time Travel (Section 6.2) 522

D23 Pseudoinverse and Least Squares Curves (Section 6.4) 523
D24 LU Decomposition (Section 7.2) 527
D25 Condition Number of a Matrix (Section 7.3) 529
D26 Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel Iterative Methods
(Section7.4) 530
D27 Singular Value Decomposition (Section 7.6) 532
D28 The Simplex Method in Linear Programming
(Section 8.2) 535
D29 Cross Product (Appendix A) 536
D30 MATLAB Commands, Functions, and M-Files 537
D31 The Linear Algebra with Applications Toolbox M-Files 538

Answers to Selected Exercises 539

Index 589
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Preface

T
his text is an introduction to linear algebra suitable for a course usually offered at the
sophomore level. The material is arranged in three parts. Part 1 consists of what I
regard as basic material—discussions of systems of linear equations, vectors in Rn
(including the concepts of linear combination, basis, and dimension), matrices, linear trans-
formations, determinants, eigenvalues, and eigenspaces, as well as optional applications.
Part 2 builds on this material to discuss general vector spaces, such as spaces of matrices
and functions. It includes topics such as the rank/nullity theorem, inner products, and coor-
dinate representations. Part 3 completes the course with some of the important ideas and
methods in numerical linear algebra such as ill-conditioning, pivoting, LU decomposition,
and singular value decomposition.
This edition continues the tradition of earlier editions by being a flexible blend of the-
ory, important numerical techniques, and interesting applications. The book is arranged
around 29 core sections. These sections include topics that I think are essential to an intro-
ductory linear algebra course. There is then ample time for the instructor to select further
topics that give the course the desired flavor.

Ninth Edition The vector space Rn, subspaces, bases, and dimension are introduced early
(Chapter 1). These ideas are then used in a natural, gradual way to discuss such concepts
as linear transformations in Rn (Chapter 2) and eigenspaces (Chapter 3), leading to general
vector spaces (Chapter 4). The level of abstraction gradually increases as students progress
in the course, and the big jump that often exists for students in going from matrix algebra
to general vector spaces is no longer there. The first three chapters give the foundation of
the vector space Rn; they really form a fairly complete elementary minicourse for the vec-
tor space Rn. The rest of the course builds on this solid foundation.

Changes This edition is a refinement of the Eighth Edition. Certain sections have been
rewritten, others added, and new exercises have been included. One aim has been to improve
the clarity, flow, and selection of material. For example, Sections 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 on the vector
space Rn, subspaces, independence, bases, and the concept of dimension have been rewritten.
It is important that the students thoroughly master these concepts at this time and be able to look
at them from the algebraic and geometric viewpoints. They are used throughout the book.
In the previous edition I used the concept of a shear to help motivate matrix multipli-
cation. I have decided that this approach is too laborious at this time. I have decided that
“simple is best” here—master the algebraic ideas first: size of the product of two matrices,
associative property, partitioning of matrices, etc.
On the other hand, I have now discussed some more advanced topics in greater depth.
Whereas in previous editions I went the route of discussing some topics in example form,
xi
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xii Preface

I have tended to be more theoretical here. In the previous edition, diagonalization of quad-
ratic forms was discussed by means of an example in R2; here we discuss it in Rn. The prin-
cipal axes theorem is included here.
While some illustration of how linear algebra is used in calculus was presented in the pre-
vious edition (use of linear mappings to analyze certain differential equations, Section 4.9), it
was minimal. I have decided in this edition to illustrate more of the overlap between linear
algebra and calculus, seeing some of the concepts of differential equations through the eyes of
linear algebra. For example, systems of linear differential equations are solved using eigen-
values and eigenvectors. Another application of linear algebra in calculus is the use of a
Wronskian to confirm that a given set of functions is linearly independent. I believe that a
number of students either take a course in calculus concurrently with linear algebra or have
had a course in differential equations prior to linear algebra. These students should have the
opportunity to see how various areas of mathematics build on one another’s shoulders; how-
ever, calculus is not a prerequisite for the book—various calculus discussions can be omitted.

The Goals of This Text

• To provide a solid foundation in the mathematics of linear algebra.
• To introduce some of the important numerical aspects of the field.
• To discuss interesting applications so that students may know when and how to apply
linear algebra. Applications are taken from such areas as archaeology, coding theory,
demography, genetics, and relativity.

The Mathematics Linear algebra is a central subject in undergraduate mathematics. Many

important topics must be included in this course. For example, linear dependence, basis,
eigenvalues and eigenvectors, and linear transformations should be covered carefully. Not
only are such topics important in linear algebra, they are usually a prerequisite for other
courses, such as differential equations. A great deal of attention has been given in this book
to presenting the “standard” linear algebra topics.
This course is often the student’s first course in abstract mathematics. The student should
not be overwhelmed with proofs, but should nevertheless be taught how to prove theorems.
When considered instructive, proofs of theorems are provided or given as exercises. Other
proofs are given in outline form, and some have been omitted. Students should be introduced
carefully to the art of developing and writing proofs. This is at the heart of mathematics. The
student should be trained to think “mathematically.” For example, the idea of “if and only if”
is extremely important in mathematics. It arises very naturally in linear algebra.
One reason that linear algebra is an appropriate course in which to introduce abstract
mathematical thinking is that much of the material has geometrical interpretation. The stu-
dent can visualize results. Conversely, linear algebra helps develop the geometrical intu-
ition of the student. Geometry and algebra go hand-in-hand in this course. The process of
starting with known results and methods and generalizing also arises naturally. For exam-
ple, the properties of vectors in R2 and R3 are extended to Rn, and then generalized to vec-
tor spaces of matrices and functions. The use of the dot product to define the familiar angles,
magnitudes, and distances in R2 is extended to Rn. In turn, the same ideas are used with the
inner product to define angles, magnitudes, and distances in general vector spaces.

Computation Although linear algebra has its abstract side, it also has its numerical side.
Students should feel comfortable with the term “algorithm” by the end of the course. The
student participates in the process of determining exactly where certain algorithms are more
efficient than others.
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Preface xiii

For those who wish to integrate the computer into the course, a MATLAB manual has
been included in Appendix D. MATLAB is the most widely used software for working with
matrices. The manual consists of 31 sections that tie into the regular course material. A brief
summary of the relevant mathematics is given at the beginning of each section. Built-in
functions of MATLAB—such as inv(A) for finding the inverse of a matrix A—are intro-
duced, and programs written in the MATLAB language also are available and can be down-
loaded from www.stetson.edu/~gwilliam/mfiles.htm. The programs include not only
computational programs such as Gauss-Jordan elimination with an all-steps option, but also
applications such as digraphs, Markov chains, and a simulated space–time voyage. Although
this manual is presented in terms of MATLAB, the ideas should be of general interest. The
exercises can be implemented on other matrix algebra software packages.
A graphing calculator also can be used in linear algebra. Calculators are available for
performing matrix computation and for computing reduced echelon forms. A calculator
manual for the course has been included in Appendix C.

Applications Linear algebra is a subject of great breadth. Its spectrum ranges from the
abstract through numerical techniques to applications. In this book I have attempted to give
the reader a glimpse of many interesting applications. These applications range from the-
oretical applications—such as the use of linear algebra in differential equations, difference
equations, and least squares analyses—to many practical applications in fields such as
archaeology, demography, electrical engineering, traffic analysis, fractal geometry, rela-
tivity, and history. All such discussions are self-contained. There should be something here
to interest everyone! I have tried to involve the reader in the applications by using exer-
cises that extend the discussions given. Students have to be trained in the art of applying
mathematics. Where better than in the linear algebra course, with its wealth of applications?
Time is always a challenge when teaching. It becomes important to tap that out-of-class
time as much as possible. A good way to do this is with group application projects. The
instructor can select those applications that are of most interest to the class.

The Flow of Material

This book contains mathematics with interesting applications integrated into the main body
of the text. My approach is to develop the mathematics first and then provide the application.
I believe that this makes for the clearest text presentation. However, some instructors may
prefer to look ahead with the class to an application and use it to motivate the mathematics.
Historically, mathematics has developed through interplay with applications. For example,
the analysis of the long-term behavior of a Markov chain model for analyzing population
movement between U.S. cities and suburbs can be used to motivate eigenvalues and eigen-
vectors. This type of approach can be very instructive but should not be overdone.

Chapter 1 Linear Equations and Vectors The reader is led from solving systems of two
linear equations to solving general systems. The Gauss-Jordan method of forward elimina-
tion is used—it is a clean, uncomplicated algorithm for the small systems encountered. (The
Gauss method that uses forward elimination to arrive at the echelon form, and then back sub-
stitution to get the reduced echelon form, can be easily substituted if preferred, based on the
discussion in Section 7.1. The examples then in fact become useful exercises for checking
mastery of the method.) Solutions in many variables lead to the vector space Rn. Concepts
of linear independence, basis, and dimension are discussed. They are illustrated within the
framework of subspaces of solutions to specific homogeneous systems. I have tried to make
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xiv Preface

this an informal introduction to these ideas, which will be followed in Chapter 4 by a more
in-depth discussion. The significance of these concepts to the large picture will then be appar-
ent right from the outset. Exercises at this stage require a brief explanation involving sim-
ple vectors. The aim is to get the students to understand the ideas without having to attempt
it through a haze of arithmetic. In the following sections, the course then becomes a natural,
beautiful buildup of ideas. The dot product leads to the concepts of angle, vector magnitude,
distance, and geometry of Rn. (This section on the dot product can be deferred to just before
Section 4.6, which is on orthonormal vectors, if desired.) The chapter closes with three
optional applications. Fitting a polynomial of degree n – 1 to n data points leads to a system
of linear equations that has a unique solution. The analyses of electrical networks and traf-
fic flow give rise to systems that have unique solutions and many solutions. The model for
traffic flow is similar to that of electrical networks, but has fewer restrictions, leading to
more freedom and thus many solutions in place of a unique solution.

Chapter 2 Matrices and Linear Transformations Matrices were used in the first chapter to
handle systems of equations. This application motivates the algebraic development of the the-
ory of matrices in this chapter. A beautiful application of matrices in archaeology that illus-
trates the usefulness of matrix multiplication, transpose, and symmetric matrices, is included
in this chapter. The reader can anticipate, for physical reasons, why the product of a matrix
and its transpose has to be symmetric and can then arrive at the result mathematically. This
is mathematics at its best! A derivation of the general result that the set of solutions to a homo-
geneous system of linear equations forms a subspace builds on the discussion of specific sys-
tems in Chapter 1. A discussion of dilations, reflections, and rotations leads to matrix
transformations and an early introduction of linear transformations on Rn. Matrix represen-
tations of linear transformations with respect to standard bases of Rn are derived and applied.
A self-contained illustration of the role of linear transformations in computer graphics is pre-
sented. The chapter closes with three optional sections on applications that should have broad
appeal. The Leontief Input-Output Model in Economics is used to analyze the interdepend-
ence of industries. (Wassily Leontief received a Nobel Prize in 1973 for his work in this area.)
A Markov chain model is used in demography and genetics, and digraphs are used in com-
munication and sociology. Instructors who cannot fit these sections into their formal class
schedule should encourage readers to browse through them. All discussions are self-con-
tained. These sections can be given as out-of-class projects or as reading assignments.

Chapter 3 Determinants and Eigenvectors Determinants and their properties are intro-
duced as quickly and painlessly as possible. Some proofs are included for the sake of com-
pleteness, but can be skipped if the instructor so desires. The chapter closes with an introduction
to eigenvalues, eigenvectors, and eigenspaces. The student will see applications in demog-
raphy and weather prediction and a discussion of the Leslie Model used for predicting births
and deaths of animals. The importance of eigenvalues to the implementation of Google is dis-
cussed. Some instructors may wish to discuss diagonalization of matrices from Section 5.3
at this time.

Chapter 4 General Vector Spaces The structure of the abstract vector space is based on
that of Rn. The concepts of subspace, linear dependence, basis, and dimension are defined
rigorously and are extended to spaces of matrices and functions. The Wronskian test (optional),
which can often reveal that a set of functions is linearly independent, is introduced. The
section on rank brings together many of the earlier concepts. The reader will see that matrix
inverse, determinant, rank, and uniqueness of solutions are all related. This chapter includes
an introduction to projections—onto one and many dimensional spaces. A discussion of
linear transformations completes the earlier introduction. Topics such as kernel, range, and
the rank/nullity theorem are presented. Linear transformations, kernel, and range are used
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Preface xv

to give the reader a geometrical picture of the sets of solutions to systems of linear equa-
tions, both homogeneous and nonhomogeneous.

Chapter 5 Coordinate Representations The reader will see that every finite dimensional
vector space is isomorphic to Rn. This implies that every such vector space is, in a mathe-
matical sense, “the same as” Rn. These isomorphisms are defined by the bases of the space.
Different bases also lead to different matrix representations of linear transformation. The
central role of eigenvalues and eigenvectors in finding diagonal representations is discussed.
These techniques are used to arrive at the normal modes of oscillating systems. This chapter
ends with an optional section on linear algebra and linear differential equations. It shows
how the concepts of eigenvalues, eigenvectors, and diagonalization play a role in solving
systems of linear differential equations.

Chapter 6 Inner Product Spaces The axioms of inner products are presented and inner
products are used (as was the dot product earlier in Rn) to define norms of vectors, angles
between vectors, and distances in general vector spaces. These ideas are used to approxi-
mate functions by polynomials. The importance of such approximations to computer soft-
ware is discussed. I could not resist including a discussion of the use of vector space theory
to detect errors in codes. The Hamming code, whose elements are vectors over a finite field,
is introduced. The reader is also introduced to non-Euclidean geometry, leading to a self-
contained discussion of the special relativity model of space–time. Having developed the
general inner product space, the reader finds that the framework is not appropriate for the
mathematical description of space–time. The positive definite axiom is discarded, opening
up the door first for the pseudo inner product that is used in special relativity, and later for
one that describes gravity in general relativity. It is appropriate at this time to discuss the
importance of first mastering standard mathematical structures, such as inner product spaces,
and then to indicate that mathematical research often involves changing the axioms of such
standard structures. The chapter closes with a discussion of the use of a pseudoinverse to
determine least squares curves for given data.

Chapter 7 Numerical Methods This chapter on numerical methods is important to the

practitioner of linear algebra in today’s computing environment. I have included Gaussian
elimination, LU decomposition, and the Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel iterative methods. The
merits of the various methods for solving linear systems are discussed. In addition to dis-
cussing the standard topics of round-off error, pivoting, and scaling, I felt it important and
well within the scope of the course to introduce the concept of ill-conditioning. It is very
interesting to return to some of the systems of equations that have arisen earlier in the course
and find out how dependable the solutions are! The matrix of coefficients of a least squares
problem, for example, is very often a Vandermonde matrix, leading to an ill-conditioned
system. The chapter concludes with an iterative method for finding dominant eigenvalues
and eigenvectors. This discussion leads very naturally into a discussion of techniques used
by geographers to measure the relative accessibility of nodes in a network. The connectiv-
ity of the road network of Cuba is found. The chapter closes with a discussion of singular
value decomposition. This is more complete than the discussion usually given in intro-
ductory linear algebra books.

Chapter 8 Linear Programming This final chapter gives the student a brief introduction
to the ideas of linear programming. The field, developed by George Dantzig and his asso-
ciates at the U.S. Department of the Air Force in 1947, is now widely used in industry and
has its foundation in linear algebra. Problems are described by systems of linear inequali-
ties. The reader sees how small systems can be solved in a geometrical manner, but that
large systems are solved using row operations on matrices using the simplex algorithm.
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xvi Preface

Chapter Features
• Each section begins with a motivating introduction, which ties the material to previ-
ously learned topics.
• The pace of the book gradually increases. As the student matures mathematically, the
explanations gradually become more sophisticated.
• Notation is carefully developed. It is important that notation at this level be standard,
but there is some flexibility. Good notation helps understanding; poor notation clouds
the picture.
• Much attention has been given to the layout of the text. Readability is vital.
• Many carefully explained examples illustrate the concepts.
• There is an abundance of exercises. Initial exercises are usually of a computational
nature, then become more theoretical in flavor.
• Many, but not all, exercises are based on examples given in the text. It is important
that students have the maximum opportunity to develop their creative abilities.
• Review exercises at the end of each chapter have been carefully selected to give the
student an overview of material covered in that chapter.

Supplements
• Complete Solutions Manual, with detailed solutions to all exercises.
• Student Solutions Manual, available in eBook format, with complete answers to
selected exercises.
• MATLAB programs for those who wish to integrate MATLAB into the course are
available from www.stetson.edu/~gwilliam/mfiles.htm.
• WebAssign online homework and assessment with eBook.
• Test Bank
• Slides in PowerPoint format
Designated instructor’s materials are for qualified instructors only. For more information
or to request access to these resources, please visit www.jblearning.com or contact your
account representative. Jones & Bartlett Learning reserves the right to evaluate all requests.

Acknowledgments
My deepest thanks go to my friend Dennis Kletzing for sharing his many insights into the
teaching of linear algebra. A special thanks to my colleague Lisa Coulter of Stetson University
for her conversations on linear algebra and her collaboration on software development.
Some of Lisa’s M-Files appear in the MATLAB Appendix.
I am grateful to The MathWorks for their continued support for the project—
especially to my contact, Meg Vuliez.
I would also like to thank the following reviewers for their feedback:
Hongwei Chen
Christopher Newport University
Eddie Cheng
Oakland University
9781284120097_FMxx_i_xvii 27/10/17 10:37 AM Page xvii

Preface xvii

Bill Cook
Appalachian State University
Danilo Diedrichs
Wheaton College
William Donnell
University of Texas at Dallas
Kseniya Fuhrman
Milwaukee School of Engineering
Katarina Jegdic
University of Houston, Downtown
Lew Ludwig
Denison University
Jean-Marie Magnier
Springfield Technical Community College
James E. Martin
Christopher Newport University
Betsy McCall
Anne Arundel Community College
Douglas Norton
Villanova University
Jonathan Oaks
Macomb Community College
Lesley Wiglesworth
Centre College

I am as usual grateful to my wife Donna for all her mathematical and computer sup-
port. This book would not have been possible without her involvement and encouragement.
My deep thanks go to Amy Rose, Director of Vendor Management of Jones & Bartlett
Learning, who oversaw the production of this book in such an efficient, patient, and under-
standing manner. I am especially grateful to Laura Pagluica, Product Manager, for her
enthusiastic backing and encouragement. Thanks, also, to Andrea DeFronzo, Director of
Marketing, for her support and hard work. I am most grateful to Mary Menzemer, Product
Assistant of Mathematics and Computer Science, who oversaw the development of this
work. It has been a pleasure working with her. I owe much to Juna Abrams, Vendor Manager,
for her guidance and encouragement in this writing. I am very grateful to Thais Miller,
Rights & Media Specialist of Ascend Learning, who spent much careful time selecting
appropriate pictures.
9781284120097_CH01_002_067.qxd 10/25/17 6:58 AM Page 2

© nito/ShutterStock, Inc.

The Montjuïc Communications Tower, or Torre Telefónica,

was built in the center of the Olympic Park in Barcelona,
Spain, for the 1992 Olympic Games. The tower, built by
Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava, was designed to
carry coverage of the Olympic Games to broadcast sta-
tions around the world. The structure was designed to
represent an athlete holding up an Olympic torch.
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P A R T

Linear Equations,
Vectors, and Matrices 1
1 Linear Equations and Vectors
2 Matrices and Linear Transformations
3 Determinants and Eigenvectors

3
9781284120097_CH01_002_067.qxd 10/25/17 6:59 AM Page 4

© okeyphotos/Getty Images

Informally referred to as “the Gherkin,” 30 St. Mary Axe in

London, England, is located in London’s financial district.
The building employs energy-saving methods, such as
maximizing the use of natural light and ventilation, which
allow it to use half the power a similar structure would
typically consume.
9781284120097_CH01_002_067.qxd 10/25/17 6:59 AM Page 5

C H A P T E R

Linear Equations
and Vectors 1
M
athematics is, of course, a discipline in its own right. It is, however, more
than that—it is a tool used in many other fields. Linear algebra is a branch
of mathematics that plays a central role in modern mathematics, and also
is of importance to engineers and physical, social, and behavioral scientists. In this course
the reader will learn mathematics, will learn to think mathematically, and will be instructed
in the art of applying mathematics. The course is a blend of theory, numerical techniques,
and interesting applications.
When mathematics is used to solve a problem it often becomes necessary to find
a solution to a so-called system of linear equations. Historically, linear algebra developed
from studying methods for solving such equations. This chapter introduces methods for
solving systems of linear equations and looks at some of the properties of the solutions.
It is important to know not only what the solutions to a given system of equations are
but why they are the solutions. If the system describes some real-life situation, then an
understanding of the behavior of the solutions can lead to a better understanding of the
circumstances. The solutions form subsets of spaces called vector spaces. We develop
the basic algebraic structure of vector spaces. We shall discuss two applications of sys-
tems of linear equations. We shall determine currents through electrical networks and
analyze traffic flows through road networks.

1.1 Matrices and Systems of Linear Equations

An equation in the variables x and y that can be written in the form ax 1 by 5 c, where
a, b, and c are real constants (a and b not both zero), is called a linear equation. The graph
of such an equation is a straight line in the xy-plane. Consider the system of two linear
equations,
2x 1 y 5 5
2x 2 y 5 4

5
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6 CHAPTER 1 Linear Equations and Vectors

A pair of values of x and y that satisfies both equations is called a solution. It can be seen
by substitution that x 5 3, y 5 2 is a solution to this system. A solution to such a system
will be a point at which the graphs of the two equations intersect. The following examples,
Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3, illustrate that three possibilities can arise for such systems of
equations. There can be a unique solution, no solution, or many solutions. We use the
point/slope form y 5 mx 1 b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept, to graph these
lines.

Unique solution No solution Many solutions

x+y=5 –2x + y = 3 4x – 2y = 6
2x – y = 4 – 4x + 2y = 2 6x – 3y = 9
Write as y = –x + 5 and y = 2x – 4. Write as y = 2x + 3 and y = 2x + 1. Each equation can be written as
The lines have slopes –1 and 2, and The lines have slope 2, and y-intercepts y = 2x – 3. The graph of each
y-intercepts 5 and –4. They intersect 3 and 1. They are parallel. There is no equation is a line with slope 2
at a point, the solution. There is a unique point of intersection. No solution. and y-intercept –3. Any point
solution, x = 3, y = 2. on the line is a solution.
Many solutions.
y 2x – y = 4
x+y=5 y y

4x – 2y = 6
–2x + y = 3 – 4x + 2y = 2 6x – 3y = 9
(3, 2)

x x x

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

Our aim in this chapter is to analyze larger systems of linear equations. A linear equa-
tion in n variables x1, x2, x3, c, xn is one that can be written in the form
a1x1 1 a2x2 1 a3x3 1 c1 anxn 5 b,

where the coefficients a1, a2, c, an and b are constants. The following is an example of
a system of three linear equations.

1x1 1 1x2 1 1x3 5 22

2x1 1 3x2 1 2x3 5 23
1x1 2 1x2 2 2x3 5 26
It can be seen on substitution that x1 5 21, x2 5 1, x3 5 2 is a solution to this system.
(We arrive at this solution in Example 1 of this section.)
A linear equation in three variables corresponds to a plane in three-dimensional space.
Solutions to a system of three such equations will be points that lie on all three planes. As
for systems of two equations, there can be a unique solution, no solution, or many solu-
tions. We illustrate some of the various possibilities in Figure 1.4.
As the number of variables increases, a geometrical interpretation of such a system of
equations becomes increasingly complex. Each equation will represent a space embedded
in a larger space. Solutions will be points that lie on all the embedded spaces. While a gen-
eral geometrical way of thinking about a problem is often useful, we rely on algebraic meth-
ods for arriving at and interpreting the solution. We introduce a method for solving systems
9781284120097_CH01_002_067.qxd 10/25/17 6:59 AM Page 7

1.1 Matrices and Systems of Linear Equations 7

Unique solution

B
B

A P
P C
C
Three planes A, B, and C intersect at a single point P.
P corresponds to a unique solution.
A

No solution B
A

C C

Planes A, B, and C have no points in common.

There is no solution.
Many solutions
B ABC

A Q

P C

Three planes A, B, and C intersect Three equations represent the same

in a line PQ. Any point on the line plane. Any point on the plane is
is a solution. a solution.

Figure 1.4

of linear equations called Gauss-Jordan elimination.1 This method involves systemati-

cally eliminating variables from equations. In this section, we shall see how this method
applies to systems of equations that have a unique solution. In the following section, we
shall extend the method to more general systems of linear equations.
We shall use rectangular arrays of numbers called matrices to describe systems of lin-
ear equations. At this time we introduce the necessary terminology.
1Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) was one of the greatest mathematical scientists ever. Among his discoveries was a way

to calculate the orbits of asteroids. He taught for forty-seven years at the University of Göttingen, Germany. He made con-
tributions to many areas of mathematics, including number theory, probability, and statistics. Gauss has been described as
“not really a physicist in the sense of searching for new phenomena, but rather a mathematician who attempted to formulate
in exact mathematical terms the experimental results of others.” Gauss had a turbulent personal life, suffering financial and
political problems because of revolutions in Germany.
Wilhelm Jordan (1842–1899) taught geodesy at the Technical College of Karlsruhe, Germany. His most important work
was a handbook on geodesy that contained his research on systems of equations. Jordan was recognized as being a master
teacher and an excellent writer.
9781284120097_CH01_002_067.qxd 10/25/17 6:59 AM Page 8

8 CHAPTER 1 Linear Equations and Vectors

DEFINITION A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The numbers in the array are called the elements of the
matrix.

Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters. Examples of matrices in standard nota-
tion are
7 1 3 5 6
A5 c d, B5 £ 0 5§, C 5 £ 0 22 5§
2 3 24
7 5 21
28 3 8 9 12
Rows and Columns Matrices consist of rows and columns. Rows are labeled from the top
of the matrix, columns from the left. The following matrix has two rows and three columns.

c d
2 3 24
7 5 21
The rows are:
32 3 24 4 , 37 5 21 4
row 1 row 2

The columns are:

c d, c d, c d
2 3 24
7 5 21
column 1 column 2 column 3

Submatrix A submatrix of a given matrix is an array obtained by deleting certain rows

and columns of the matrix. For example, consider the following matrix A. The matrices P,
Q, and R are submatrices of A.
1 7 4 1 7 7
A 5 £2 0§ P 5 £2 3§ Q 5 £3§ R5 c d
1 4
3
5 22
5 1 22 5 1 1
matrix A submatrices of A

Size and Type The size of a matrix is described by specifying the number of rows and
columns in the matrix. For example, a matrix having two rows and three columns is said
to be a 2 3 3 matrix; the first number indicates the number of rows, and the second indicates
the number of columns. When the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, the
matrix is said to be a square matrix. A matrix consisting of one row is called a row matrix.
A matrix consisting of one column is a column matrix. The following matrices are of the
stated sizes and types.
2 5 7 8
c d £ 29 1§ 3 4 23 54 £3§
1 0 3
0 8
22 4 5
23 5 8 2
2 3 3 matrix 3 3 3 matrix 1 3 4 matrix 3 3 1 matrix
a square matrix a row matrix a column matrix
Location The location of an element in a matrix is described by giving the row and col-
umn in which the element lies. For example, consider the following matrix.

c d
2 3 24
7 5 21
The element 7 is in row 2, column 1. We say that it is in location (2, 1).
Another random document with
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 At this time Porter’s brigade occupied a line considerably in
advance of that first occupied by the left wing of the rebels. The
battery was pouring its withering fire into the batteries and columns
of the enemy wherever they exposed themselves. The cavalry were
engaged in feeling the left flank of the enemy’s position, in doing
which some important captures were made, one by Sergeant Socks,
of the Second Dragoons, of a General George Stewart, of Baltimore.
The cavalry also did brave service.
General Tyler’s division was engaged with the enemy’s right. The
Twenty-Seventh was resting on the edge of the woods in the centre,
covered by a hill upon which lay the Eleventh and Fifth
Massachusetts, occasionally delivering a scattering fire. The
Fourteenth was moving to the right flank, the Eighth had lost its
organization, the marines were moving up in fine style in the rear of
the Fourteenth, and Captain Arnold was occupying a height in the
middle ground with his battery. At this juncture there was a
temporary lull in the firing from the rebels, who appeared only now
and then on the heights in irregular masses, but to serve as marks for
Griffin’s guns. The prestige of success had thus far attended the
efforts of the inexperienced but gallant Union troops. The lines of the
enemy had been forcibly shifted nearly a mile to their left and rear.
The flags of eight regiments, though borne somewhat wearily, now
pointed toward the hill from which disordered masses of the rebels
had been seen hastily retiring.
Rickett’s battery, together with Griffith’s battery, on the side of the
hill, had been objects of the special attention of the enemy, who had
succeeded in disabling Rickett’s battery, and then attempted to take
it. Three times was he repulsed by different corps in succession, and
driven back, and the guns taken by hand, the horses being killed, and
pulled away. The third time the repulse seemed to be final, for he was
driven entirely from the hill, and so far beyond it as not to be in
sight. He had before this been driven nearly a mile and a half, and
was beyond the Warrenton road, which was entirely in Federal
possession, from the Stone Bridge westward. The engineers were just
completing the removal of the abatis across the road, to allow
reinforcements (Schenck’s brigade and Ayers’ battery) to join in. The
enemy was evidently disheartened and broken.
 But at this moment, when everything pointed to a speedy victory,
orders came through Major Barry of the Fifth artillery, for Griffin’s
battery to move from the hill upon which the house stood, to the top
of a hill on the right, with the “Fire Zouaves” and marines, while the
Fourteenth entered the skirt of wood on their right, to protect that
flank, and a column, composed of the Twenty-seventh New York,
Eleventh and Fifth Massachusetts, Second Minnesota, and Sixty-
Ninth New York, moved up toward the left batteries. It had taken
position, but before the flanking supports had reached theirs, a
murderous fire of musketry and rifles opened at pistol range, cutting
down every cannonier, and a large number of horses. The fire came
from some infantry of the enemy, which had been mistaken for
Union forces; an officer in the field having stated that it was a
regiment sent by Colonel Heintzelman to support the batteries.
As soon as the Zouaves came up, they were led forward against an
Alabama regiment, partly concealed in a clump of small pines in an
old field.
After a severe fire they broke, and the greatest portion of them fell
to the rear, keeping up a desultory firing over the heads of their
comrades in front; at the same moment they were charged by a
company of rebel cavalry on their rear, who came by a road through
two strips of woods on the extreme right. The fire of the Zouaves
dispersed them. The discomfiture of this cavalry was completed by a
fire from Captain Colburn’s company of United States cavalry, which
killed and wounded several men. Colonel Farnham, with some of his
officers and men, behaved gallantly, and many of his men did good
service as skirmishers later in the day. General Heintzelman then led
up the Minnesota regiment, which was also repulsed, but retired in
tolerably good order. It did good service in the woods on the right
flank, and was among the last to retire, moving off the field with the
Third United States infantry. Next was led forward the First
Michigan, which was also repulsed, and retired in considerable
confusion. They were rallied, and helped to hold the woods on the
right. The Brooklyn Fourteenth then appeared on the ground,
coming forward in gallant style. They were led forward to the left,
where the Alabama regiment had been posted in the early part of the
action, but had now disappeared, and soon came in sight of the line
of the enemy drawn up beyond the clump of trees. Soon after the
firing commenced, the regiment broke and retired. It was useless to
attempt a rally. The want of discipline in these regiments was so
great that the most of the men would run from fifty to several
hundred yards in the rear, and continue to fire, compelling those in
front to retreat.
During this time Rickett’s battery had been captured and retaken
three times by Heintzelman’s forces, but was finally lost, most of the
horses having been killed—Captain Ricketts being wounded, and
First Lieutenant D. Ramsay killed. Lieutenant Kirby behaved
gallantly, and succeeded in carrying off one caisson. Before this time,
heavy reinforcements of the enemy were distinctly seen approaching
by two roads, extending and outflanking Heintzelman on the right.
General Howard’s brigade came on the field at this time, having been
detained by the General as a reserve. It took post on a hill on
Heintzelman’s right and rear, and for some time gallantly held the
enemy in check. One company of cavalry attached to Heintzelman’s
division, was joined, during the engagement, by the cavalry of
Colonel Hunter’s division, under the command of Major Palmer.
Colonel W. B. Franklin commanded the first brigade of
Heintzelman’s division. A portion of that brigade rendered
distinguished service, and received official commendation from the
commanding general.
General Tyler, who kept his position at the Stone Bridge, to
menace that point, and at the proper moment to carry it and unite
with the turning column, had sent forward the right wing of his
command to co-operate with Hunter as soon as he was discovered
making his way on the flank.
Two brigades (Sherman’s and Keyes’) of that division had passed
the Run. Colonel Sherman joined himself to the divisions of Hunter
and Heintzelman, and was soon engaged in the hottest part of the
action.
The famous Irish regiment, 1,600 strong, who have had so much of
the hard digging to perform, claimed the honor of a share in the hard
fighting, and led the van of Tyler’s attack, followed by the Seventy-
ninth (Highlanders), and Thirteenth New York, and the Second
Wisconsin.
 It was a brave sight—that rush of the Sixty-ninth into the death-
struggle—with such cheers as proved a hearty love of the work before
them! With a quick step at first, and then a double-quick, and at last
a run, they dashed forward and along the edge of the extended forest.
Coats and knapsacks were thrown to either side, that nothing might
impede their work. It was certain that no guns would slip from the
hands of those determined fellows, even if dying agonies were
needed to close them with a firmer grasp. As the line swept along,
Meagher galloped toward the head, crying, “Come on, boys! you’ve
got your chance at last!”

BRILLIANT CHARGE ON A REBEL BATTERY.

Sherman’s brigade thus moved forward for half a mile, describing

quite one-fourth of a circle on the right, Colonel Quimby’s regiment
in front, the other regiments following in line of battle—the
Wisconsin Second, New York Seventy-ninth, and New York Sixty-
ninth in succession. Quimby’s regiment advanced steadily up the hill
and opened fire on the enemy, who had made a stand. The regiment
continued advancing as the enemy gave way, till the head of his
column reached the point where Rickett’s battery had been cut up.
The other regiments followed under a fearful cannonading. At the
point where the road crossed the ridge to the left, the ground was
swept by a fire of artillery, rifles, and musketry. Regiment after
regiment were driven from it, following the Zouaves and a battalion
of marines.
When the Wisconsin Second was abreast of the enemy, it was
ordered to leave the roadway and attack him. This regiment
ascended the hill, was met with a sharp fire, returned it gallantly, and
advanced, delivering its fire. But the response was terrific, and the
regiment fled in confusion toward the road. It rallied again, passed
the brow of the hill a second time, and was again repulsed in
disorder. By this time the New York Seventy-ninth had closed up. It
was impossible to get a good view of the ground. In it there was one
battery of artillery, which poured an incessant fire upon the
advancing column, and the ground was irregular, with small clusters
of pines, which afforded shelter to the enemy. The fire of rifles and
musketry grew hotter and hotter. The Seventy-ninth, headed by
Colonel Cameron, charged across the hill, and for a short time the
contest was terrible. They rallied several times under fire, but finally
broke and gained the cover of the hill.
This left the field open to the New York Sixty-ninth, Colonel
Corcoran, who, in his turn, led his regiment over the crest, and had
in full open view the ground so severely contested. The firing was
terrific, the roar of cannon, musketry, and rifles, incessant. The
enemy was here in immense force. The Sixty-ninth held the ground
for some time with desperate courage, but finally fell back in
disorder.
At this time Quimby’s regiment occupied another ridge to the left,
overlooking the same field, fiercely engaged. Colonel Keyes, from
Tyler’s division, had formed in line with Sherman’s brigade, and
came into conflict on its right with the enemy’s cavalry and infantry,
which he drove back. The further march of the brigade was arrested
by a severe fire of artillery and infantry, sheltered by Robinson’s
house, standing on the heights above the road leading to Bull Run.
The charge was here ordered, and the Second Maine and Third
Connecticut regiments pressed forward to the top of the hill, reached
the buildings which were held by the enemy, drove them out, and for
a moment had them in possession. At this point, finding the brigade
under the fire of a strong force behind breastworks, the order was
given to march by the left flank, with a view to turn the battery which
the enemy had placed on the hill below the point at which the
Warrenton turnpike crosses Bull Run. The march was conducted for
a considerable distance below the Stone Bridge, causing the enemy to
retire, and giving Captain Alexander an opportunity to pass the
bridge, cut out the abatis which had been placed there, and prepare
the way for Schenck’s brigade and the two batteries to pass over.
Before this movement could be made on the enemy’s battery, it was
placed in a new position; but Colonel Keyes carried his brigade, by a
flank movement, around the base of the hill, and was on the point of
ascending it in time to get at the battery, when he discovered that the
troops were on the retreat, and that, unless a rapid movement to the
rear was made, he would be cut off. At this moment, the abatis near
the Stone Bridge had been cleared away by Captain Alexander, of the
engineers, and Schenck’s brigade (the third of Tyler’s division) was
about to pass over and join Keyes.
But one rash movement had decided the day—that movement the
last change of position given to Griffin’s battery, throwing it helpless
into a murderous fire, which no protecting force could encounter.
When the Zouaves broke on that fatal hill, the Union cause for that
day wavered. When hordes of fresh troops poured in upon the Union
battalions, beating back as brave regiments as ever trod the battle-
field, one after another, overwhelming them with numbers, and
driving them headlong into utter confusion, the battle was lost; and
after this any description of it must be wild and turbulent as the
scene itself—in no other way can a true picture of the tumultuous
fighting and more tumultuous retreat be truly given.
 THE CLIMAX AND THE RETREAT.
We have described the battle of Manassas, Stone Bridge, or Bull
Run, as it is variously called, in its plain details, giving each
regiment, so far as possible, its share in the glorious fight; for up to
mid-day and after, no braver fighting was ever done than the Union
troops performed on that 21st of July. Now a wilder, more difficult,
and very painful effort taxes the pen. The heat, turmoil and terrible
storm of death rolls up in a tumultuous picture—troops in masses—
stormy action—the confused rush of men—all these things have no
detail, but hurl the writer forward, excited and unrestrained as the
scene to be described.
At high noon the battle raged in its widest circumference. The
batteries on the distant hills began to pour their volleys on the Union
troops with terrible effect. Carlisle’s and Sherman’s batteries
answered with tremendous emphasis, while the great 32-pounder
hurled its iron thunderbolts first into one of the enemy’s defences,
then into another, tearing up everything as they went. The noise of
the cannonading grew deafening, and kept up one incessant roll.
Compared to it the sharp volleys of riflemen were like the rattle of
hail amid the loud bursts of a thunder tempest. The people of
Centreville, Fairfax, Alexandria, and even Washington, heard the
fearful reverberations, and trembled at the sound.
Five powerful batteries were in operation at once, joined to the
hiss and hurtle of twenty thousand small arms! No wonder the sky
turned black, impaled with death-smoke—no wonder the sun shone
fierce and red upon the pools of warm human blood that began to
gather around those batteries, where the slain were lying in heaps
and winrows!
Still amid this roar and carnage, the Federal forces were making
sure headway, and driving the enemy before them. Except one
brigade of Tyler’s division, the entire force of eighteen thousand men
was in fierce action. As the Union forces pressed upon the enemy,
approaching each moment to the completion of their plan of battle,
the rebels grew desperate. The batteries on the western hills poured
forth their iron tempest with accumulated fury. The Union guns
answered them with fiercer thunder. The roar of the cannonading
was deafening, drowning the volleys of riflemen, and sweeping off in
one overpowering sound the rattle and crash of musketry. The
clamor of the guns was appalling—the rush and tumult of action
more appalling still. The whole valley was like a vast volcano, boiling
over with dust and smoke. Through this turbid atmosphere
battalions charged each other and batteries poured their hot breath
on the air, making it denser than before. Now and then the dust
would roll away from the plain, and the smoke float off from the
hills, revealing a dash of cavalry across some open space, or a charge
of infantry up to a fortified point where the struggle, success, or
repulse, was lost or vaguely seen through volumes of rolling smoke—
columns of ruddy dust trailed after the infantry, broken now and
then by the fiery track of a battery masked in foliage. A sullen report,
and horrid gaps appeared in what a moment before was a living wall
of men. A curl of blue vapor rose gracefully from the trees, and it was
only the dead bodies blackening the ground that made the sight so
awful.
But the fight gathered fiercest on the westward hill, from which the
booming thunder rolled in long incessant peals. Its sides swarmed
with armed men, changing positions, charging and retreating.
Curtains of smoke, swayed by the wind, revealed the horses around a
battery, rearing, plunging and falling headlong, dozens together, in
one hideous death. Then in mercy the smoke drifted over the hill
again. The enemy were giving ground at every point. The
Mississippians had fled in dismay from the batteries, and desperately
taken to the field in wavering columns. Other regiments were
actually fleeing before the Union troops, but they were generally
moving with sullen steadiness to the rear. The entire line which
arrayed itself against Tyler in the morning had been relinquished,
except one fortified elevation. Still their peculiar mode of warfare
was kept up. Masked batteries were constantly opening in
unexpected places, leaving heaps of slain in the track of their fiery
hail.
On the uplands whole regiments, seen from the distance, seemed
to drive against or drift by each other, leaving beautiful curls and
clouds of smoke behind; but under this smoke lay so many dead
bodies that the soul grew faint in counting them.
Through all this the Federal troops progressed toward a union of
their attacking columns. Tyler had already spoken to McDowell, and
the two forces were drawing nearer and nearer together. Victory
appeared so certain that nothing but a junction of the two columns
was wanting to a glorious result, and this now seemed inevitable.
The clamor of the artillery was checked for a little time on both
sides. Red-handed death cannot rush panting on the track forever.
Black-mouthed guns will get too foul for belching fire, and the
swarthy men who feed them must have breathing time. As the fight
flagged, and the men paused to draw breath, their terrible suffering
was apparent in the parched lips that had tasted water but once
through all that hot day, and the bloodshot eyes with which each
man seemed to beseech his comrade for drink which no one had to
give. Still, with dry lips and throats full of dust, they talked over a
thousand details of valor performed on the field. They spoke sadly of
the loss of brave Cameron, the wounding of Hunter, the fall of
Haggerty and Slocum, the doubtful fate of noble young Wilcox. They
discussed the impetuous dash and resolute stand of the Irishmen,
the murderous shock sustained by the Rhode Island regiments, how
the Hignlanders had done justice to their own warlike traditions, and
the Connecticut Third had crowned its State with honors. They told
how Heintzelman had stooped down from his war-horse to have his
wounded wrist bound up, refusing to dismount—of the intrepid
Burnside, and of Sprague, the patriotic young Governor, who led on
the forces his generosity had raised, to one victorious charge after
another, till with his own hands he spiked the Rhode Island guns
when compelled to leave them to the enemy.
So tranquil was the field during this short period of rest, that the
soldiers who had foreborne to throw their rations away in the march,
unslung their haversacks and sat down upon the grass to share the
contents with their less prudent companions; those who had been
fortunate enough to pick up the enemy’s haversacks, cast off in
retreat, added their contents to the scanty store.
While a few thus snatched a mouthful of food, others climbed up
the tall trees and took a triumphant view of the vast battle-field their
valor had conquered. The scene of carnage which it presented was
awful. Dead and dying men heaped together on the red earth,
crippled horses struggling desperately in their death-throes,
wounded men lying helplessly on the grass to which they had been
dragged from under the hoofs of the war-chargers—all this grouped
where the angry waves of battle had rolled down the beautiful valley,
with its back-ground of mountains, looking immovable and grandly
tranquil against the sky, was a picture which no man who saw it will
ever forget.
The army, far advanced within the enemy’s defensive lines,
believing itself victorious, was thus falling into quiet. The great
struggle of the contending forces, each to outflank the other, had
ceased. The prestige of success belonged to the Union, whose stars
and stripes shone out triumphantly as the smoke which had engulfed
the combatants rolled away.
All at once those in the tree-tops saw a commotion in the far
distance. Columns of troops were moving toward them with flashing
bayonets, and Southern banners, unfurling the stars and bars to the
sun. On they came—rank after rank, column after column, one
continuous stream of armed men, pouring down upon the battle-
field with bursts of music and wild shouts of enthusiasm.
It was Johnston’s reinforcements, marching up from the railroad.
On they rushed, fresh, vigorous, and burning with ardor, through
masses of wounded soldiers that lay by the road. The infantry broke
from the double-quick to a swift run—the cavalry rode in on a sharp
gallop—the artillery wagons were encircled with men eager to get
their ordnance in place against the thrice-exhausted Union troops. In
a continuous stream these columns swarmed into the woods, the
greater force centering around the hill about which the storm of
battle had raged fiercest.
In an instant the whole battle commenced again. The officers
sprang to their guns, anxious but not appalled. The men fell into
rank ready for a new onset, tired as they were.
Then it was that Griffin’s battery changed position, and the Fire
Zouaves coming up under a terrible fire, broke and scattered down
the hill-side, but rallied again in broken masses to rescue Rickett’s
battery, dragging the guns off with their own hands from amid the
pile of dying horses that lay around them. Then it was that the Sixty-
ninth and Seventy-ninth New York swept through the meadows from
the north across the road, and charged up the hill with such daring
courage, resisting the shock of battle fifteen minutes, and breaking
only when mortal valor could withstand the storm of bullets no
longer.
Then the bold Connecticut regiments charged up the hill.
Thousands of the impetuous enemy fell upon them, but in spite of all
they planted the star-spangled banner and sent its folds sweeping
out from the crest of the hill. Not till this was done, and a long last
shout sent ringing after the banner, were these heroic regiments
driven from their position. But beaten back at last, they retired step
by step, fighting as they went.
Then the Zouaves broke into the fight once more, scattered on the
ground, some prostrate on their faces, others with limbs huddled
together as if dead—while many stood with their eyes to the sun,
waiting the onset of the Black Horse cavalry that came galloping
upon them from the woods. A few of these eccentric warriors were
making a feint of defending themselves while the cavalry stood
hesitating on the margin of the wood, but the rest seemed to have
been cut down by the sweep of some deadly cannonade, and lay in
the grass like a flock of partridge shot down in full flight.
Out from the woody cover the Black Hawks thundered on, their
arms flashing and the jetty necks of their horses flinging off the
sunshine. The handful of Zouaves now flocked together in front of
their prostrate comrades, seeming doubtful whether to fight or flee.
On the black chargers came, champing the bit and tossing their
heads angrily, the riders ready to trample the scattered Zouaves
under hoof, as too easy a conquest for their flashing swords. A
sudden, sharp ringing yell, and the dead Zouaves sprang to life,
confronting the horsemen in a wall of bristling steel. A sharp volley—
the horses reared, plunged, and ran back upon each other, some
falling dead with quivering limbs as the fatal bullets rent their vitals,
and gushes of blood crimsoned their coal-black chests; others
staggering from a dozen wounds, rushed madly through the broken
ranks of the terrified cavalry.
Before the chargers could again be brought into line, the Zouaves
flung away their rifles, and sprang like tigers upon them. Seizing
them by the bit, they wound themselves up over their arched necks—
a flash of bowie-knives gleamed like chain-lightning across the ranks,
and many a wild black horse plunged on riderless with burning eyes,
streaming mane, and ringing empty stirrups, headlong through the
already half-disorganized ranks, and scouring over the battle-field,
scattering dismay as they went.
A last struggle now ensued, with desperate men and broken forces
—then a retreat, so wild, so impetuous and reckless, that all
organization was given up. Regiments lost their officers, broke,
mingled into others, and rushed across the field a headlong torrent,
which no human power could arrest. On they went, plunging through
the sea of carnage that surrounded the hill—the surging, angry
broken waves of a brave army hurrying tumultuously from what had
been a victorious field but an hour before.
Down from the hills, broken into frightened masses, pallid, reeling
with exhaustion, they swept onward like a whirlwind, bearing the
protesting officers with them, or trampling them under foot; for
human life was nothing to them in that hot, mad race. The contagion
of retreat spread like a prairie fire, from one point of the battle-field
to another, scattering the army in wild confusion.
Still it was not quite a panic; two regiments, the Seventy-first New
York and Second Rhode Island, kept their ranks in all this confusion,
and were led in order from the field, over the road they had passed in
the morning. Other regiments were led off in a wild, scattered way,
but most of the great army was broken up, battalions and regiments
surging together, and dashing through each other, till they became
one mighty scene of confusion.
 THE ENEMY LARGELY REINFORCED—DESPERATE
FIGHTING OF THE UNION TROOPS AGAINST SUPERIOR
NUMBERS.

The enemy pursued them in a broken, hesitating way, like men

astonished at their own success; wanting confidence, they did not
venture in force to follow the retreating army, but captured many of
the scattered bands dispersed over the wide field of conflict. One
detachment of cavalry charged on a helpless crowd of wounded, who
were gathered near a hospital building; when a handful of
unorganized men, mostly civilians, seized upon the first weapons at
hand, and repelled it bravely.
Up to this time Schenck’s brigade had kept its position at Stone
Bridge. Captain Alexander, with his sappers and miners, had just cut
through the abatis by the side of the mined bridge, that Schenck
might lead his forces after those of Sherman and Keyes, when the
torrent of retreat rolled toward him; his protecting battery was taken,
and a force of cavalry and infantry came pouring into the road at the
very spot where the battle of the morning commenced.
The first battery attacked that day had been silenced, but not
taken; and there, in the woods which protected it, four hundred
South Carolinians had been concealed during the entire battle, to
swarm out now and fall upon the Union infantry in this most critical
moment. A sudden swoop of cavalry completed that unhappy day’s
work. The Union infantry broke ranks, and plunging into the woods
fled up the hill. A crowd of ambulances and army wagons had
concentrated close to this spot, and civilians, led to the field by
curiosity, blocked up the ground. The panic which had swept the
battle-field seized on them. Kellogg of Michigan, Washburne of
Illinois, and it is said, Lovejoy of Illinois, flung themselves in the
midst of the fugitives, and entreated them to make a stand. Ely, of
New York, was taken prisoner in a rash effort to restore confidence to
the panic-stricken masses of men. But the maddened crowd plunged
on. The teamsters urged their frightened horses into a headlong rush
for the road; everything and everybody, brave or craven, were swept
forward by the irresistible human torrent. It was a stampede which
no power could check or resist. From the branch road the trains
attached to Hunter’s division had caught the contagion, and rushed
into the staggering masses, creating fresh dismay and wilder
confusion.
It was a frightful scene, more terrible by far than the horrors of the
battle-field. Broken regiments, without leaders, filled the road, the
open fields, and skirted the fences, in one wild panic. Army wagons,
sutler’s teams and artillery caissons rushed together, running each
other down, and leaving the wrecks upon the road. Hacks were
crushed between heavy wagon wheels and their occupants flung to
the ground. Horses, wild with fright and maddened with wounds,
galloped fiercely through the crowd, rearing and plunging when the
worn-out fugitives attempted to seize them and save themselves from
the destruction that was threatened at every step.
Wounded men, who had found strength to stagger off the battle-
field, fell by the wayside, begging piteously to be taken up. Now and
then a kind fellow would mount a wounded soldier behind him, and
give the horse he had caught a double load; most of the poor fellows
were brought forward in this way. Sometimes a wounded man would
be picked up by two passing companions, and carried tenderly
forward—for the sweet impulses of humanity were not all lost in that
wild retreat.
Then came the artillery—for much was saved—thundering through
the panic-stricken crowd, crushing everything as it went, dragged
recklessly along by horses wild as the men that urged them on.
Rifles, bayonets, pistols, blankets, haversacks and knapsacks were
flung singly or in heaps along the way. Devoured by intense thirst,
black with powder, famished and halting, these stricken men
plunged into the fields, searching for water. If a muddy pool
presented itself, they staggered to its brink with a pitiful laugh, and
lying down on their faces, drank greedily, then arose with tears in
their eyes, thanking God for the great luxury.
As they passed by the few houses on the road, women—God bless
them!—would come out, some with curt, but genuine hospitality,
others with tears streaming down their cheeks, and gave drink and
food to the wounded men as they halted by. Those who fell upon the
wayside were taken in and tended kindly till the next day. Boys came
from the wells, bearing pailsful of water, which their little sisters
distributed to the jaded men in their own tin cups.
But this panic, like all others, was of brief duration. When the
fugitives reached Centreville, they found Blenker’s brigade stretched
across the road ready to guard the retreat. Some of the fugitives
rallied and formed into line, but they had flung away their arms, and
the highway from Stone Bridge to Centreville was literally covered
with these cast-off weapons and munitions of war, hurled from the
army wagons by reckless teamsters. In places the road was blocked
up by the wagons themselves, from which the drivers had cut their
teams loose and fled on the relieved horses.
Blenker, of Miles’ division, whose duty up to this time had been
one of inaction at Centreville, now did good service at his important
post. With three regiments he kept the road, expecting every moment
to be assailed by an overpowering and victorious enemy, eager to
complete his fatal work. As the darkness increased, the peril of his
position became imminent. At eleven o’clock the attack came upon
the advance company of Colonel Stahel’s rifles, from a body of the
enemy’s cavalry, which was, however, driven back, and did not
return. At this time Richardson and Davies were both in Centreville
with their brigades, which composed the entire left wing, all well
organized and under perfect command. These troops were put under
the command of Colonel Davies, who led them off the field—
Blenker’s brigade being the last to leave the town it had done so
much to protect.
 The cause of this stupendous stampede no one ever has or can
explain. Cowardice it certainly was not. Those men had fought too
bravely, and suffered too patiently for that charge to be brought
against them. They were in fact victorious soldiers, for the rout of a
single half hour, disastrous as it proved, should have no power to
blot out the deeds of heroism that had marked the entire day. Was it
excitement, acting on an exhausted frame?
Let those answer who bore the flag of our Union through the long
hours of that July day, carried it under the hot sun through the fierce
fight, the dust and smoke and carnage, when the sky was one mosaic
of flame, and the earth groaned under the vibrations of artillery.
They had marched twelve miles fasting, and with but one draught of
water; marched without pause straight on to the battle field, and for
nearly five hours fought bravely as men ever fought on earth. Many
who had food found no time to eat it till the battle was at its close,
but in the rash eagerness for the field, these men, new to the
necessities of war, had flung their rations away, restive under the
weight. They had started not far from midnight, from camps in a
tumult of preparation, and therefore lacked sleep as well as food.
To all this was added THIRST—that hot, withering thirst, which
burns like lava in the throat, and drives a man mad with craving.
Panting for drink, their parched lips were blackened with
gunpowder; and exhausted nature, when she clamored for food, was
answered by the bitter saltness of cartridges ground between the
soldiers’ teeth.
Think of these men, famished, sleepless, drinkless, after fighting
through the fiery noon of a hot day, suddenly overwhelmed in the
midst of a positive victory—called upon to fight another battle, while
every breath came pantingly, from thirst, and every nerve quivered
with the overtax of its natural strength. Think of them under the
hoofs of the Black Horse cavalry, and swept down by the very
batteries that had been their protection. Think of all this, and if men
of military standing can condemn them, war is a cruel master, and
warriors hard critics.
It is very easy for civilians, who sit in luxurious parlors and sip cool
ices under the protection of the old flag, to sneer at this panic of Bull
Run, but many a brave man—braver than their critics, or they would
not have been in the ranks—was found even in the midst of that
stampede.
What if all along the road were the marks of hurried flight—
abandoned teams, dead horses, wasted ammunition, coats, blankets?
Were there not dead and dying men there also? brave and hardy
spirits, noble, generous souls, crushed beneath the iron hoof of war—
sacrificed and dying bravely in retreat, as they had fought in the
advance?
Never on this earth did the proud old American valor burn fiercer
or swell higher than on that day and field. And a reproach to the
heroes who left the impress of bravery, and gave up their lives on
that red valley, should never come from any true American heart.
 THE BATTLE ON THE LEFT WING.
On the morning of the 21st, according to McDowell’s plan of battle,
the left wing, composed of Colonel Miles’ division, was stationed at
Centreville and at Blackburn’s Ford, the scene of Tyler’s disaster on
the 18th. Thus during the heat and struggle of that awful day the
greater portion of the left wing was six miles from the centre of
action. But notwithstanding, no better service was rendered to the
country on that day than that of this comparatively small handful of
men. The first brigade of this command, under Colonel Blenker,
occupied the heights of Centreville.
The second brigade, under Colonel Thomas A. Davies, of New
York, and Richardson’s brigade, were ordered by Colonel Miles to
take position before the batteries at Blackburn’s Ford, near the
battle-ground of the 18th, to make demonstrations of attack. In
pursuance of General McDowell’s order, Colonel Davies, being
ranking officer, took command of Richardson’s brigade.
On his route from Centreville in the morning, when about half way
to Blackburn’s Ford, Colonel Davies, while conversing with the guide
who rode by him, saw a country road, apparently little used, leading
through the woods to the left. “That road,” said the guide, a fine,
intelligent fellow, “will give position farther left and nearer the
enemy, for it runs directly to Beauregard’s headquarters.”
Colonel Davies, who had graduated at West Point and served in
the Mexican war, was prompt to recognize the importance of a point
which might enable the enemy to move upon his rear. He ordered a
halt, and detailed the Thirty-first New York regiment, Colonel Pratt,
and the Thirty-second, Colonel Mathewson, with a detachment of
artillery, to guard the road at its junction, and deployed another
regiment with a section of artillery on the road, which was shaded
and hedged in on both sides by a heavy growth of timber.
This duty performed, the troops continued their march. Davies
took his position in a wheat field with what was left of his brigade,
leaving Richardson to make his own arrangements to defend the
position in front of the enemy’s batteries at Blackburn’s Ford, the
battle-ground of the 18th. Richardson posted his command in this
place, on the road from Centreville heights to Blackburn’s Ford.
The wheat field which Davies occupied contained a hill which
overlooked a ravine, thickly wooded, on the opposite slope. On this
hill Hunt’s battery, commanded by Lieutenant Edwards, was placed,
having been exchanged from force of circumstances for Green’s
battery, which belonged to Davies’ command, but was now with
Richardson. The battery was supported by Davies’ own regiment, the
Sixteenth New York, and the Eighteenth, Colonel Jackson. This hill
commanded a broad view of the country on every side. The battle-
ground of the right wing, six miles off, was in full sight. Opposite his
position, across the stream, was the road which led from Bull Run to
Manassas, and also to Beauregard’s extreme right. Parallel with the
river to his extreme left, it was plainly traced, except where groves
and clumps of trees concealed it. This road, with all the high grounds
sloping from Manassas, covered with broken ridges, rich pasture
lands and splendid groves, lay before the men as they placed their
battery.
On their rear the Centreville road stretched along a beautiful tract
of country, hidden by a waving sea of luxuriant foliage. Indeed all the
converging roads that threaded the vast battle-field were plainly
visible from that point.
Posted in this commanding position, Davies opened his
demonstration with two twenty-pound rifle guns from Hunt’s
battery. The first shot hurled a shell into Beauregard’s headquarters,
which sent the rebels scattering in every direction. Richardson also
commenced firing across the Run, producing the desired effect of
keeping the enemy at their defences in the neighborhood.
At ten o’clock Colonel Miles visited the command. Finding the two
regiments and artillery posted at the country road, he ordered the
regiments to move forward one-fourth of a mile, and the artillery to
join Davies’ command, leaving the road exposed. He then sent two
companies to reconnoitre the enemy’s position. They had a skirmish
on the stream, at Blackburn’s Ford, and came back with little
damage.
The moment Miles rode back to Centreville, Davies ordered out his
brigade pioneer corps, all sturdy lumbermen of the North, with
orders to fell trees and block up the country road thus left exposed.
 For two hours these sturdy men swung their axes among the heavy
timber, answering the distant roar of the battle-field with a wild,
crashing music, that broke with a new and more startling expression
of war through the familiar roll of cannon. With sharp, crashing
groans, the great trees were hurled to the earth, locked their
splintered and broken boughs across the road, and covered it with
mangled foliage, forming a barricade one-fourth of a mile long,
impassable as a thousand cactus hedges. The roar of cannon afar off,
and the batteries belching iron close by, failed to drown the groaning
rush of these forest monarchs; and when the near guns were silent
for a little time, as often happened, the almost human shiver of a
tree, in its last poise before it rushed downward with a wail in all its
leaves and branches, conveyed an idea of death more thrilling than
any noise that battle-field had to give. At twelve o’clock, just after the
pioneers had returned to position, a body of the enemy came down
this road from Bull Run, intending to march on Centreville and take
Miles’ division in the rear. Clouds of red dust rising from the trees
betrayed them just as they had discovered the barricade, and a storm
of shell and shrapnel hastened their backward march.
About this time the road on the other side of Bull Run was one
cloud of flying dust. It was Johnston’s forces, a close line, going up to
snatch victory from the brave army at Stone Bridge. The advance of
these forces became visible at first in tiny curls of dust rising from
the woods. Then it swelled into clouds, through which jaded horses
and tired men seemed struggling onward in a continued stream.
At this time the distant cannonading became louder and more
continuous; the far-off woods rolled up vast volumes of smoke, and
where the battle raged, a black canopy hung suspended in mid-air.
How those brave men, chained to their post by inevitable military
law, panted to plunge into that hot contest! The inaction forced upon
them when a struggle of life and death was going on in the distance,
was worse than torture. They suspected the character of those troops
moving forward in the red cloud, and followed them with eager,
burning eyes. But they soon had work of their own to do!
The firing on the right slackened between three and four o’clock,
growing fainter and fainter. About five, Colonel Davies received a
line from Richardson, saying: “The army is in full retreat;” but the
line was written in the haste and agitation of bad news, and was