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210987
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Dianna Campbell
Bettina Fabos
Christopher Martin
Shawn Harmsen teaches courses in journalism, digital and broadcast media
production, and critical media studies at Coe College in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
Before entering academics, Harmsen worked in radio and television news for
over a decade. He did almost every job in the newsroom, from reporter,
photographer, and anchor to producer and news director. Harmsen made the
transition to scholarly work, earning an MA at the University of Northern
Iowa and a PhD at the University of Iowa. While at Iowa, he edited the
Journal of Communication Inquiry and coauthored work published in
Journalism Practice and Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly.
His research interests include the sociology of news, political reporting,
social media, and social movements.
Paul W. Jensen
Brief Contents
MEDIA EXPRESSIONS
13 Legal Controls and Freedom of Expression
14 Media Economics and the Global Marketplace
15 Social Scientific and Cultural Approaches to Media
Research
Preface
THE DIGITAL FUTURE OF MASS MEDIA HAS ARRIVED, and we’re
experiencing it firsthand. Not only has there been a fundamental change in
the ways we use and consume media, but also in the many ways that media
messages saturate our lives. As media industries continue to evolve and
converge, we want students to have the critical tools they need to understand
the media-saturated world around them. These tools, and an understanding of
the fundamentals of media studies, are exactly what we had in mind when we
wrote Media Essentials.
Media Essentials distills media industries and major concepts like digital
convergence and legal controls down to their essence. Each chapter offers
incisive historical context, frames key concepts up front, and uses pivotal
examples to tell the broader story of how different forms of media have
developed, how they work, and how they connect to us today. For example,
Chapter 5, “Sound Recording and Popular Music,” explores the roots of
sound recording, tracing its evolution from cylinders and flat disks to classic
vinyl, tape, and, eventually, a number of digital formats. The chapter goes on
to describe how popular music — first in the form of rock and roll in the
1950s — shook up American (and global) culture, and continued to do so
with folk, country, soul, punk, and hip-hop genres. It then follows the money
through an in depth section on the economics of sound recording, explaining
how digital formats of recorded music have completely upended the music
industry, leaving music fans more likely to stream music on their
smartphones than assemble a collection of music, like previous generations of
fans might have done. The chapter concludes with a discussion of music’s
role in a democratic society.
In addition to a wealth of content offered in every chapter, Media
Essentials continues to be substantially briefer than competing books.
Throughout the book, our coverage is succinct, accessible, and peppered with
memorable examples, and the book’s unique approach — distilling media
information to its core — gives instructors the space to add in personal
research or social perspectives. This fourth edition has been further
streamlined to focus on the most essential information and the most relevant
examples, and a bright, updated design with more than 80 new photos keeps
students engaged as they read.
In this fourth edition, we’ve also emphasized the importance of the
digital turn, a shift in media use and consumption resulting from the
emergence of the Internet as a mass medium. Characterized by lightning fast
Internet and ever-more-powerful personal devices, the digital turn has
enabled an array of media to converge and be easily shared, bringing both
disruption and innovation to every traditional mass media industry. A new
section in Chapter 1 introduces this crucial development right up front, and
we’ve renamed our Converging Media boxes to reflect this increased
emphasis; now called The Digital Turn Case Studies, these boxes go in depth
on timely issues related to all facets of the digital turn, with new topics that
include Fear of Missing Out (FOMO), Netflix’s predictive algorithm,
“sexting” and pornography, and using online marketing to attract a movie
audience in this digital age.
The fourth edition also includes revised and reorganized economics
sections in each industry chapter, which spotlight the latest economic
developments across the media landscape, particularly since the digital turn.
For example, Chapter 3 explores the continued impact of convergence on the
newspaper business model; Chapter 5 spotlights how making, selling, and
profiting from music has changed in this age of streaming; and Chapter 9
focuses on the five leading digital media companies that seek to control the
Internet.
Because the book also practices convergence, Media Essentials has an
online video program accessible in LaunchPad, with clips that offer students
firsthand experience with important (and attention-grabbing) media texts,
covering everything from groundbreaking films like 12 Years a Slave to
streaming TV hits like Stranger Things. Half of the suggested video clips
accompanying the text’s case studies are new to this edition. LaunchPad also
includes access to LearningCurve, an adaptive quizzing system that helps
students figure out what they know — and what material they need to review.
LaunchPad for Media Essentials can be packaged with the book at a
significant discount.
Learning tools help students master the material. Each chapter opens with
an outline highlighting what topics will be covered, while The Digital Turn
and Media Literacy Case Study boxes address relevant topics in greater detail
and help students think critically about them. Finally, each chapter concludes
with Chapter Essentials, a useful study guide that helps students review
material and prepares them for quizzes and exams.
Print and media that converge with LaunchPad. LaunchPad for Media
Essentials, Fourth Edition, Macmillan Learning’s online course space, meets
students where they love to be – online. Available to be purchased on its own
or packaged with the text at a significant discount, LaunchPad for the fourth
edition includes the following new features:
A brand new digital timeline feature will help students dive into the
history of mass communication and see how one event or advancement led
to the next.
Media Literacy Practice activities, which encourage students to apply
and practice their media literacy skills, have gone digital. An online
activity is included for each chapter.
Half of the video clips accompanying the text’s case studies are new to
this edition, and the clips throughout the text are now divided into two
distinct types:
Web Clips, which suggest an easily accessible third-party video clip
and provide a related discussion question; links are included in
LaunchPad
LaunchPad video quizzes, where students can view a video directly
on LaunchPad, respond to accompanying critical thinking questions,
and have their answers recorded in the gradebook.
We’ve included clips from movies, TV shows, online sources, and other
media texts like Stranger Things, Black-ish, and Spotlight, in addition to
insightful interviews with media experts and newsmakers. For a complete list
of available clips, see the inside back cover.
A more streamlined text with an updated design. The text has been further
streamlined to focus on the most essential information and the most relevant
examples, and a bright, updated design with more than 80 new photos keeps
students engaged and energized as they read.
New chapter openers bring students into the stories of the media with
current and attention-grabbing coverage of recent events, including hashtag
activism, the popularity of young-adult fiction, Stranger Things and
streaming TV, Let’s Play gaming videos, WikiLeaks, Snapchat marketing,
and President Trump’s relationship with the media.
New and expanded coverage includes developments during and after the
2016 presidential election; a fully updated look at the evolution of the
Internet, including the development of commercialization, social media,
and the Semantic Web; and more robust coverage of social media and
mobile advertising.
Cutting edge examples discuss Spotlight, Fun Home, Chance the Rapper,
Nintendo Switch, Black-ish, Deadpool, and DJ Khaled among others.
Fully updated figures, tables, and graphs incorporate the latest in industry
data.
Student Resources
A variety of e-book formats are available for use on computers, tablets, and
e-readers, featuring portability, customization options, and affordable prices.
For more information, visit macmillanlearning.com/ebooks.
Media Career Guide: Preparing for Jobs in the 21st Century, Eleventh
Edition
Sherri Hope Culver; ISBN 978-1-319-12646-9
Practical, student-friendly, and revised to address recent statistics on the job
market, this guide includes a comprehensive directory of media jobs,
practical tips, and career guidance for students considering a major in the
media industries. The Media Career Guide can also be packaged at a
significant discount with the print text. An electronic version comes
integrated in LaunchPad for Media Essentials.
Instructor Resources
Lecture Slides
Slide presentations to help guide each chapter’s lecture are available for
download.
Test Bank
Available formatted for Windows and Mac, the Test Bank includes multiple
choice, fill-in-the-blank, and essay questions for every chapter in Media
Essentials.
Acknowledgments
We wish every textbook author could have the kind of experience we’ve had
while working on Media Essentials and would like to thank everyone at
Bedford/St. Martin’s who supported this project through its editions and
stages, including Vice President Edwin Hill, Senior Program Director Erika
Gutierrez, Senior Development Manager Susan McLaughlin, Marketing
Manager Kayti Corfield, and Senior Editor Christina Lembo, who helped us
develop this edition. We also appreciate the tireless work of Senior Content
Project Manager Kerri Cardone, who kept the book on schedule while
making sure all details were in place; Senior Workflow Manager Jennifer
Wetzel; Senior Media Editor Tom Kane; and Editorial Assistant Kathy
McInerney. We are also grateful to our research assistant, Susan Coffin. We
extend particular and heartfelt thanks to our collaborator and contributor
Shawn Harmsen, for all of his invaluable ideas, expertise, and excellent
writing, as well as past contributor Jimmie Reeves, particularly for his
knowledge in the world of digital gaming.
We also want to thank the many fine and thoughtful reviewers who
contributed ideas to earlier editions of Media Essentials: Aje-Ori Agbese,
University of Texas Pan American; Julie Andsager, University of Iowa; Vince
Benigni, College of Charleston; Michael Bowman, Arkansas State
University; Scott Brown, California State University, Northridge; Ted Carlin,
Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania; Cheryl Casey, Champlain
College; Jerome D. DeNuccio, Graceland University; Barbara Eisenstock,
California State University, Northridge; Jennifer Fleming, California State
University–Long Beach; Doug Ferguson, College of Charleston; David Flex,
College of DuPage; Katie Foss, Middle Tennessee State University;
Nathaniel Frederick, Winthrop University; Peter Galarneau Jr., West Virginia
Wesleyan College; Mary-Lou Galician, Arizona State University; Neil
Goldstein, Montgomery Country Community College; August Grant,
University of South Carolina; Jennifer Greer, University of Alabama; Jodie
Hallsten, Illinois State University; Allison Hartcock, Butler University; Kirk
Hazlett, Curry College; Amani E. Ismail, California State University,
Northridge; Kate Joeckel, Bellevue University; Sharon Mazzarella, James
Madison University; Daniel G. McDonald, Ohio State University; Gary
Metzker, California State University–Long Beach; James E. Mueller,
University of North Texas; Robert M. Ogles, Purdue University; Ileana
Oroza, University of Miami; Lawrence Overlan, Wentworth Institute of
Technology; Daniel A. Panici, University of Southern Maine; Kenneth Payne,
Western Kentucky University; Zengjun Peng, St. Cloud State University;
Samantha Phillips, University of Miami; Selene Phillips, University of
Louisville; David Pierson, University of Southern Maine; Jennifer Proffitt,
Florida State University; D. Matthew Ramsey, Salve Regina University;
Arthur A. Raney, Florida State University; Chadwick Lee Roberts,
University of North Carolina, Wilmington; Steve H. Sohn, University of
Louisville; Martin David Sommerness, Northern Arizona University; Mark
Steensland, Pennsylvania State–Erie; Carl Sessions Stepp, University of
Maryland; Melvin Sunin, Pennsylvania State–Erie; Mike Trice, Florida
Southern College; Matthew Turner, Radford University; Richard West,
University of Texas at San Antonio; Mark J. P. Wolf, Concordia University
Wisconsin; and Yanjun Zhao, Morrisville State College.
We’d also like to thank the excellent reviewers who gave us feedback as
we prepared the fourth edition: Barbara Barnett, University of Kansas; Ted
Carlin, Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania; Cheryl Casey, Champlain
College; Don Diefenbach, University of North Carolina at Asheville; Scott
Dunn, Radford University; Barbara Eisenstock, California State University,
Northridge; Doug Ferguson, College of Charleston; Harvey Jassem,
University of Hartford; Kate Joeckel, Bellevue University; Steven Keeler,
Cayuga Community College; Jodi Hallsten Lyczak, Illinois State University;
Mark Raduziner, Johnson County Community College; D. Matthew Ramsey,
Salve Regina University; Martin David Sommerness, Northern Arizona
University; Jeff South, Virginia Commonwealth University; Andris
Straumanis, University of Wisconsin - River Falls; Erin Szabo, College of St.
Benedict/St. John’s University; and Matthew Turner, Radford University.
Special thanks from Richard Campbell: I am grateful to all my former
students at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Mount Mary College,
the University of Michigan, and Middle Tennessee State University, as well
as to my current students at Miami University. Some of my students have
contributed directly to this text, and thousands have endured my courses over
the years — and made them better. My all-time favorite former students,
Chris Martin and Bettina Fabos, are coauthors, as well as the creators of our
book’s Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank. I am grateful for all their work,
ideas, and energy.
Special thanks from Christopher Martin and Bettina Fabos: We would
like to thank Richard Campbell, with whom it is a delight working on this
project, as well as Shawn Harmsen, one of Bettina’s former students. We also
appreciate the great devotion, creativity, and talent that everyone at
Bedford/St. Martin’s brings to the book. We would like to thank reviewers
and our own journalism and media students for their input and for creating a
community of sorts around the theme of critical perspectives on the media.
Most of all, we’d like to thank our daughters, Olivia and Sabine, who bring
us joy and laughter every day, and a sense of mission to better understand the
world of media in which they live.
Contents
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
BRIEF CONTENTS
PREFACE
Critiquing Media
Evaluating Cultural and Social Scientific Research
Conducting Our Own Critiques
Benefits of a Critical Perspective
CHAPTER ESSENTIALS
3
Newspapers to Digital Frontiers: Journalism’s
Journey
The Early History of American Journalism
Colonial Newspapers and the Partisan Press
The Penny Press: Becoming a Mass Medium
Yellow Journalism
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.