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“Point/Counterpoint” sections in each chapter pres-
ent two perspectives on a controversial question relat-
ed to the field; topics include debates on the kinds of
research that should guide education (p. 19), brain-based
education (p. 40), the self-esteem movement (p. 98),
pills or skills for students with ADHD (p. 141), the best
way to teach English language learners (p. 190), track-
ing (p. 215), using rewards to encourage student learn-
ing (p. 274), what’s wrong with memorization (p. 310),
teaching critical thinking and problem solving (p. 345),
problem-based education (p. 370), teacher efficacy
(p. 409), the value of trying to make learning entertaining
(p. 450), zero tolerance (p. 493), homework (p. 525), and
holding children back (p. 569).
“Guidelines” appear throughout each chapter, pro-
viding concrete applications of theories or principles
discussed.
“Guidelines/Family and Community Partnerships”
sections offer specific guidelines for involving fami-
lies—especially relevant now, when demand for parental
involvement is at an all-time high—in the various aspects
of children’s learning.
454 C H A P T E R T W E LV E
POINT/COUNTERPOINT Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?
WHEN MANY BEGINNING teachers are asked about how to motivate students, they often mention making
learning fun. But is it necessary for learning to be fun?
Teachers should make learning fun. When I searched
“making learning fun” on Google.com, I found 10 pages of
POINT
resources and references. Clearly, there is interest in making
learning fun. Research shows that passages in texts that are
more interesting are remembered better (Schunk, Pintrich,
& Meece, 2008). For example, students who read books
that interested them spent more time reading, read more
words in the books, and felt more positively about reading
(Guthrie & Alao, 1997). Games and simulations can make
learning more fun, too.
For example, when my daughter was in the 8th grade, all the
students in her grade spent three days playing a game her teach-
ers had designed called ULTRA. Students were divided into groups
and formed their own “countries.” Each country had to choose a
name, symbol, national flower, and bird. They wrote and sang a
national anthem and elected government officials. The teachers
allocated different resources to the countries. To get all the materi-
als needed for the completion of assigned projects, the countries
had to establish trade with one another. There was a monetary
system and a stock market. Students had to work with their fel-
low citizens to complete cooperative learning assignments. Some
countries “cheated” in their trades with other nations, and this al-
lowed debate about international relations, trust, and war. Liz says
she had fun—but she also learned how to work in a group without
the teacher’s supervision and gained a deeper understanding of
world economics and international conflicts.
A highly motivating 3rd grade teacher in another study had
her class set up a post office for the whole school. Each classroom
in the school had an address and zip code. Students had jobs in
the post office, and everyone in the school used the post office
to deliver letters to students and teachers. Students designed
their own stamps and set postal rates. The teacher said that the
system “improves their creative writing without them knowing it”
(Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003, p. 254).
LA N G UA G E D EVELO PM EN T, LA N G UA G E D IVERS IT Y, A N D IM M IGR A N T E D U C AT I O N
GUIDELINES
Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for English Language Learners
Create learning activities that promote success in reading and
writing.
Examples
1. Have weekly individual conferences with younger students
and record their retelling of a story. Let students edit and
revise the dictation and read it to a partner.
2. Do interactive journals with older students—collect each
week and write back.
Make sure students have plenty of time to practice and get
careful, targeted corrections.
Examples
1. Point out privately what is correct, almost correct, and wrong
in written work.
2. Be sensitive about public oral corrections and build on what
is correct, but do not accept clearly incorrect answers.
Connect teaching to relevant knowledge from students’ lives.
Examples
1. Ask students to survey family members about favorite films—
use film characters to discuss elements of literature—plot,
point of view, etc.
2. Have students create construction firms and plan projects to
learn math concepts.
Actively involve learners.
Examples
1. Use timelines in history compared to personal timelines
based on family history.
2. Do projects in science based on animals or farming for rural
students.
L A N G U A G E D E V E L O P M E N T, L A N G U A G E D I V E R S I T Y, A N D I M M I G R ANT EDUC ATI O N
GUIDELINES FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
Welcoming All Families
Make sure communication with families is understandable.
Examples
1. Use the families’ home languages wherever possible.
2. Use oral forms of communication—phone calls or home
visits—whenever possible.
Balance positive and negative messages.
Examples
1. Send home notes or descriptions about their child’s
accomplishments or acts of kindness.
2. Explain disciplinary actions as ways of helping children
succeed.
PREFA CE vii
.
Fun can get in the way of learning. As far back as
the early 1900s, educators warned about the dangers of
COUNTERPOINT
focusing on fun in learning. None other than John Dewey,
who wrote extensively about the role of interest in learning,
cautioned that you can’t make boring lessons interesting by
mixing in fun like you can make bad chili good by adding
some spicy hot sauce. Dewey wrote, “When things have to
be made interesting, it is because interest itself is wanting.
Moreover, the phrase itself is a misnomer. The thing, the
object, is no more interesting than it was before” (Dewey,
1913, pp. 11–12).
There is a good deal of research now indicating that
adding interest by incorporating fascinating but irrelevant
details actually gets in the way of learning the important
information. These “seductive details,” as they have been
called, divert the readers’ attention from the less interest-
ing main ideas (Harp & Mayer, 1998). For example, students
who read biographies of historical figures remembered more very
interesting—but unimportant—information compared to interest-
ing main ideas (Wade, Schraw, Buxton, & Hayes, 1993).
Shannon Harp and Richard Mayer (1998) found similar
results with high school science texts. These texts added emo-
tional interest and seductive details about swimmers and golf-
ers who are injured by lightning to a lesson on the process of
lightning. They concluded that, “in the case of emotional interest
versus cognitive interest, the verdict is clear. Adjuncts aimed at
increasing emotional interest failed to improve understanding of
scientific explanations” (p. 100). The seductive details may have
disrupted students’ attempts to follow the logic of the explana-
tions and thus interfered with their comprehending the text. Harp
and Mayer conclude that “the best way to help students enjoy a
passage is to help them understand it” (p. 100).
195
Use different grouping strategies.
Examples
1. Try pairs for writing stories and practicing oral presentations.
2. Create small teams to research recent immigrant groups’
culture and language.
Provide native language support.
Examples
1. Learn and use as much of the students’ language as
possible—if they can learn, so can you.
2. Find Internet translation sources and local native speaking
volunteers.
3. Bring native language magazines and books into the classroom.
Involve family and community members.
Examples
1. Bring in storytellers, local business owners, artists,
craftspeople.
2. Create a Welcome Center for your class.
Hold high expectations for all students, and communicate
these expectations clearly.
Examples
1. Keep scrapbooks of previous students who have gone on to
careers or college.
2. Don’t accept mediocre work.
3. Be a model of respect for diversity and an enemy of bigotry.
Source: Adapted from Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (2011). Sheltered
content instruction: Teaching English learners with diverse abilities
(4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Pearson, pp. 67–77.
197
Establish systems for welcoming new families.
Examples
1. Assign more experienced “buddy” parents to communicate
with new families.
2. Connect with multilingual media in your community to make
announcements about school.
Make sure messages get through.
Examples
1. Establish telephone trees or texting networks.
2. Set the expectation that there will be a weekly note sent
home so parents can ask their children about it.
3. Establish a class newsletter or Web site and incorporate
multiple languages.
viii P REFAC E

“Teachers’ Casebook” sections present students with

m
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Reaching and Teaching Every
Student
realistic classroom scenarios at the beginning of each
WHAT WOULD YOU DO?
You have started a new job in a high school in your hometown. When you were in
school, the students were fairly homogeneous—White, working to middle class, chapter and ask “What Would You Do?”—giving students
and English speaking. There was a “special education” class for students who had
serious learning or developmental problems. But in the classes you are teaching,
the opportunity to apply all the important topics of the
you find a wide range of reading levels, family incomes, and learning problems. chapter to these scenarios via application questions.
Two of your students are virtually ready for college, whereas several others can
barely read the texts—and their writing is impossible to decipher. Reading English Students may then compare their responses to those of
texts is a challenge for some of your ELL students, although they seem to speak
English with little trouble.
veteran teachers appearing at the end of each chapter.
CRITICAL THINKING
• How would you differentiate instruction for these very dissimilar students?
• Do different philosophies of teaching provide different answers to this question?
• How will you grade work if you have successfully differentiated instruction?

Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems

“Reaching Every Student” sections present ideas for
Students with severe behavior problems provide some of the most difficult challenges for
teachers. Two studies show how applied behavioral principles can be useful in helping
assessing, teaching, and motivating ALL of the students in
these students.
Lea Theodore and her colleagues (2001) worked with the teacher of five adolescent
males who were diagnosed as having severe emotional disorders. A short list of clear
today’s inclusive classrooms.
rules was established (e.g., use no obscene words, comply with the teacher’s requests
within five seconds, make no verbal putdowns). The rules were written on index cards
taped to each student’s desk. The teacher had a checklist on his desk with each student’s
name to note any rule breaking. This checklist was easily observable, so students could
monitor their own and each other’s performance. At the end of the 45-minute period,
a student chose a “criterion” from a jar. The possible criteria were: performance of the
whole group, student with the highest score, student with the lowest score, the average
of all students, or a random single student. If the student or students selected to be the
criterion had five checks or fewer for rule-breaking, then the whole class got a reward,
also chosen randomly from a jar. The possible rewards were things like a power drink,
a bag of chips, a candy bar, or a late-to-class pass. An ABAB design was used—baseline,
two-week intervention, two-week withdrawal of intervention, and two-week return to
group consequences. All students showed clear improvement in following the rules when
the reward system was in place. Students liked the approach and the teacher found it
easy to implement.

Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation “Lessons for Teachers” are succinct and usable prin-
Until four basic conditions are met for every student and in every classroom, no motiva-
tional strategies will succeed. First, the classroom must be relatively organized and free
from constant interruptions and disruptions. (Chapter 13 will give you the information
ciples for teaching based on the research.
you need to make sure this requirement is met.) Second, the teacher must be a patient,
supportive person who never embarrasses the students because they made mistakes.
Everyone in the class should view mistakes as opportunities for learning (Clifford, 1990,
1991). Third, the work must be challenging, but reasonable. If work is too easy or too
difficult, students will have little motivation to learn. They will focus on finishing, not on
learning. Finally, the learning tasks must be authentic. And as we have seen, what makes
a task authentic is influenced by the students’ culture (Bergin, 1999; Brophy & Kher, 1986;
Stipek, 1993).
Once these four basic conditions are met, the influences on students’ motivation
to learn in a particular situation can be summarized in four questions: Can I succeed at
this task? Do I want to succeed? What do I need to do to succeed? Do I belong? (Com-
mittee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 2004;
Eccles & Wigfield, 1985). We want students to have confidence in their ability so they
will approach learning with energy and enthusiasm. We want them to see the value of
the tasks involved and work to learn, not just try to get the grade or get finished. We
want students to believe that success will come when they apply good learning strate-
gies instead of believing that their only option is to use self-defeating, failure-avoiding,
face-saving strategies. When things get difficult, we want students to stay focused on
the task, and not get so worried about failure that they “freeze.” And we want students
to feel as though they belong in school—that their teachers and classmates care about
them and can be trusted.

“Connect and Extend to Licensure” exercises appear

. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Miss Johnson would like for her students to be motivated to do
their work without bribing them with treats or promises of extra
recess time. Which one of the following is the type of motivation
should she encourage in her students?
A. Extrinsic
B. Intrinsic
C. Locus of control
D. Relatedness
Hint: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Feedback: Intrinsic motivation is the natural human tendency
to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal
interests and exercise our capabilities. When we are intrinsically
motivated, we do not need incentives or punishments, because
the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding (Anderman &
Anderman, 2010; Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reiss, 2004).
2. Why should educators concern themselves with Abraham
4. Which of the following is true regarding extrinsic motivation?
at the end of every chapter, consisting of case studies
A. Extrinsic motivation should be avoided at all costs because
it undermines a student’s intrinsic desire.
B. Extrinsic motivation is not associated with grades and
with constructed-response questions, and multiple-choice
incentives.
C. Extrinsic motivation may be necessary to initially encour-
questions, all mimicking the types of questions found on
age students to engage in certain activities.
D. Extrinsic motivation is more desirable than intrinsic motiva-
tion in the classroom as educators have increased control.
licensure exams such as the Praxis tests published by the
.
Hint: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Feedback: To initially interest students in a topic, educators may
Educational Testing Service (ETS).
use extrinsic measures such as quizzes. The ultimate goal, how-
ever, is for students to eventually realize the intrinsic satisfaction
they acquire from engaging in certain activities or studying
particular topics.
CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS
 PREFA CE ix

Supplements
This Twelfth Edition of Educational Psychology provides a comprehensive and integrated
collection of supplements to assist students and professors alike in maximizing learning
and instruction. Together, these materials immerse students in the content of the text,
allowing them and their instructors to benefit from a deeper and more meaningful
learning experience. All of the instructor supplements are available at the Instructor
Resource Center. To access the Instructor’s Resource Manual, the PowerPoint lecture
presentation, and the Assessment Package, go to the Instructor Resource Center at
www.pearsonhighered.com and click on the “Educators” link. Here you will be able to
login or complete a one-time registration for a user name and password.

Innovative Online Course—MyEducationLab

THE POWER OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE In Preparing

Teachers for a Changing World, Linda Darling-Hammond and her colleagues point out
that grounding teacher education in real classrooms—among real teachers and students
and among actual examples of students’ and teachers’ work—is an important, and per-
haps even an essential, part of training teachers for the complexities of teaching in
today’s classrooms. MyEducationLab is an online learning solution that provides con-
textualized interactive exercises, simulations, and other resources designed to help you
develop the knowledge and skills that teachers need. All of the activities and exercises
in MyEducationLab are built around essential learning outcomes for teachers and are
mapped to professional teaching standards. Utilizing classroom video, authentic student
and teacher artifacts, case studies, and other resources and assessments, the scaffolded
learning experiences in MyEducationLab offer you a unique and valuable education tool.
On the MyEducationLab for this course you will find the following features and
resources.

STUDY PLAN AND BOOK RESOURCES SPECIFIC TO YOUR TEXT A MyEducationLab

Study Plan provides students with the opportunity to take a self-assessment after read-
ing each chapter of the text. Self-assessment questions are tied to learning outcomes, so
the students are assessed on their knowledge and comprehension of all the concepts
presented in each chapter. The quiz results automatically identify areas of the chapter
that still need some additional study time. Students are then presented with Review,
Practice, and Enrichment exercises to help ensure learning and to deepen understanding
of chapter concepts—when just re-reading and studying chapter content is not enough.
Flashcards for each chapter help students master definitions of key terms within each
chapter. The study plan is designed to help each student perform well on exams and to
promote deep understanding of chapter content.
In addition to the study plan, MyEducationLab resources specific to this book
include:
• AnitaTalks Podcasts: Direct links to relevant selections from Anita Talks about
Teaching, a selection of podcasts in which Dr. Woolfolk discusses how chapters of
this text relate to the profession of teaching.
• Connect and Extend to Licensure exercises allow students to complete the licensure-
style questions and activities shown at the end of each chapter of this text while
receiving hints that help scaffold their correct responses, as well as feedback with
which they can compare their responses.

CONNECTION TO NATIONAL STANDARDS Now it is easier than ever to see how

coursework is connected to national standards. Each topic, activity and exercise on
MyEducationLab lists intended learning outcomes connected to the appropriate national
standards.
x P REFAC E

ASSIGNMENTS AND ACTIVITIES Designed to enhance your understanding of concepts

covered in class, these assignable exercises show concepts in action (through videos,
cases, and/or student and teacher artifacts). They help you deepen content knowledge
and synthesize and apply concepts and strategies you read about in the book. (Correct
answers for these assignments are available to the instructor only.)

BUILDING TEACHING SKILLS AND DISPOSITIONS These unique learning units help
users practice and strengthen skills that are essential to effective teaching. After pre-
senting the steps involved in a core teaching process, you are given an opportunity to
practice applying this skill via videos, student and teacher artifacts, and/or case studies
of authentic classrooms. Providing multiple opportunities to practice a single teaching
concept, each activity encourages a deeper understanding and application of concepts,
as well as the use of critical thinking skills. Feedback for the final quizzes is available to
the instructor only.

IRIS CENTER RESOURCES The IRIS Center at Vanderbilt University (http://iris.

peabody.vanderbilt.edu), funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special
Education Programs (OSEP), develops training enhancement materials for preservice
and practicing teachers. The Center works with experts from across the country to cre-
ate challenge-based interactive modules, case study units, and podcasts that provide
research-validated information about working with students in inclusive settings. In your
MyEducationLab course we have integrated this content where appropriate.

SIMULATIONS IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT One of the most difficult challenges

facing teachers today is how to balance classroom instruction with classroom manage-
ment. These interactive cases focus on the classroom management issues teachers most
frequently encounter on a daily basis. Each simulation presents a challenge scenario at
the beginning and then offers a series of choices to solve each challenge. Along the way
students receive mentor feedback on their choices and have the opportunity to make
better choices if necessary. Upon exiting each simulation, you will have a clear under-
standing of how to address these common classroom management issues and will be
better equipped to handle them in the classroom.

TEACHER TALK This feature emphasizes the power of teaching through videos of mas-
ter teachers, who each tell their own compelling stories of why they teach. These videos
help you see the bigger picture and consider why the concepts and principles you are
learning are important to your career as a teacher. Each of these featured teachers has
been awarded the Council of Chief State School Officers Teachers of the Year award, the
oldest and most prestigious award for teachers.

LESSON PLAN BUILDER The Lesson Plan Builder is an effective and easy-to-use tool
that you can use to create, update, and share quality lesson plans. The software also
makes it easy to integrate state content standards into any lesson plan.

CERTIFICATION AND LICENSURE The Certification and Licensure section is designed

to help you pass your licensure exam by giving you access to state test requirements,
overviews of what tests cover, and sample test items.
The Certification and Licensure section includes the following:
• State Certification Test Requirements: Here, you can click on a state and will then
be taken to a list of state certification tests.
• You can click on the Licensure Exams you need to take to find:
• Basic information about each test
• Descriptions of what is covered on each test
• Sample test questions with explanations of correct answers
 PREFA CE xi

• National Evaluation Series™ by Pearson: Here, students can see the tests in
the NES, learn what is covered on each exam, and access sample test items with
descriptions and rationales of correct answers. You can also purchase interactive
online tutorials developed by Pearson Evaluation Systems and the Pearson Teacher
Education and Development group.
• ETS Online Praxis Tutorials: Here you can purchase interactive online tutorials
developed by ETS and by the Pearson Teacher Education and Development group.
Tutorials are available for the Praxis I exams and for select Praxis II exams.
Visit www.myeducationlab.com for a demonstration of this exciting new online teaching
resource.

ONLINE INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL The Online Instructor’s Resource

Manual synthesizes all of the resources available for each chapter and sifts through the
materials to match the delivery method (e.g., semester, quarter) and areas of emphasis
for the course. These materials can be used for traditional courses as well as online or
online-supported courses. The Instructor’s Resource Manual is available for download at
www.pearsonhighered.com.

ONLINE TEST BANK Students learn better when they are held accountable for what
they have learned. That is why we have developed a bank of hundreds of challeng-
ing questions in multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blanks, true/false, short-answer, and case
study formats, along with detailed answer keys. The Test Bank is available online at
www.pearsonhighered.com.

PEARSON MYTEST This is a powerful assessment generation program that helps

instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams. Questions and tests are authored
online, allowing ultimate flexibility and the ability to efficiently create and print assess-
ments any time, anywhere! Instructors can access Pearson MyTest and their test bank
files by going to www.pearsonmytest.com to log in, register, or request access. Features
of Pearson MyTest include:
Premium assessment content
• Draw from a rich library of assessments that complement your Pearson textbook
and your course’s learning objectives.
• Edit questions or tests to fit your specific teaching needs.

Instructor-friendly resources
• Easily create and store your own questions, including images, diagrams, and charts
using simple drag-and-drop and Word-like controls.
• Use additional information provided by Pearson, such as the question’s difficulty
level or learning objective, to help you quickly build your test.

Time-saving enhancements
• Add headers or footers and easily scramble questions and answer choices—all from
one simple toolbar.
• Quickly create multiple versions of your test or answer key, and when ready, simply
save to MS-Word or PDF format and print!
• Export your exams for import to Blackboard 6.0, CE (WebCT), or Vista (WebCT)!

ONLINE POWERPOINT SLIDES These visual aids display, summarize, and help explain
core information presented in each chapter. They are available for download at www.
pearsonhighered.com. All PowerPoint slides have been updated for consistency and to
reflect current content in this new edition.
xii PREFAC E

Acknowledgments
During the years I have worked on this book, from initial draft to this most recent
revision, many people have supported the project. Without their help, this text simply
could not have been written.
Many educators contributed to this and previous editions. Carol Weinstein wrote
the section in Chapter 13 on spaces for learning. Nancy Perry (University of British
Columbia) and Philip Winne (Simon Frasier University) wrote sections of Chapter 11 on
self-regulation. Brad Henry (The Ohio State University) crafted sections on technology
in two chapters and also read every chapter with the digital world in mind to suggest
updates. Michael Yough (Purdue University) looked over several chapters including the
new one on Language Development, Language Learning, and Immigrant Education. That
chapter was also improved by suggestions from Alan Hirvela, the Ohio State University.
Gregg Schraw, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, provided invaluable guidance for
the chapters on cognitive learning. Gypsy M. Denzine (Northern Arizona University) is
responsible for the Test Bank. The portraits of students in Chapters 1 and 6 were pro-
vided by Nancy Knapp (University of Georgia). The Instructor’s Resource Manual and
PowerPoint™ Presentations were created by Michael Yough (Purdue University) and
Kate Kovach (The Ohio State University), future stars in our field.
As I made decisions about how to revise this edition, I benefited from the ideas
of colleagues around the country who took the time to complete surveys, answer my
questions, and review chapters.
For their revision reviews, thanks to: Frank D. Adams, Wayne State College; Karen
J. Dreyer, University of Pittsburgh; Aleza Greene, University of Arkansas; Martin H. Jones,
University of Memphis; Penny McGlawn, Harding University; Deborah Norland, Luther
College; Susan Parault, St. Cloud State University; Joseph Polvere, Montclair State Uni-
versity; Anuradhaa Shastri, SUNY College of Oneonta; A. Sean Taylor, Des Moines Area
Community College; Fredrick B. Van Sant, Ferris State University; Diane Ward, Roane
State Community College.
Many classroom teachers across the country and around the world contributed
their experience, creativity, and expertise to the Teachers’ Casebook. I have thoroughly
enjoyed my association with these master teachers, and I am grateful for the perspective
they brought to the book: Madya Ayala, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico;
Kelly McElroy Bonin, Klein Oaks High School, Spring, TX; Karen A. Boyarsky, Walter C.
Black Elementary, Hightstown, NJ; Keith J. Boyle, Dunellen, NJ; Jane Campbell, Dunellen
School District, Dunellen, NJ; Valerie Chilcoat, Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD; Katie
Churchill, Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL; Paula Colemere, McClintock High
School, Tempe, AZ; Kelley Crockett, Meadowbrook Elementary School, Fort Worth, TX;
Lou DeLauro, Dunellen School District, Dunellen, NJ; Paul Dragin, Columbus East High
School, Columbus, OH; Aimee Fredette, Fisher Elementary School, Walpole, MA; Pam
Gaskill, Riverside Elementary School, Dublin OH; Linda Glisson, St. James Episcopal
Day School, Baton Rouge, LA; Jolita Harper, Weinland Park Elementary, Columbus, OH;
Danielle Hartman, Claymont Elementary, Parkway School District, Ballwin, MO; Carla
S. Higgins, Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH; Kelly L. Hoy, The Phillips Brooks
School, Menlo Park, CA; Marie Hoffman Hurt, Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington,
OH; M. Denise Lutz, Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH; Jessica N.
Mahtaban, Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ; Jennifer Matz, Williams Valley
Elementary School, Tower City, PA; Thomas Naismith, Slocum Independent School
District, Slocum, TX; Allan Osborne, Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA;
Katie Piel, West Park School, Moscow, ID; Jennifer Pincoski, Lee County School District,
Fort Myers, FL; Barbara Presley, C.W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY; Lauren
Rollins, Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH; Dr. Nancy Sheehan-Melzack,
Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA; Patricia Smith, Northside Independent
School District, San Antonio, TX; Linda Sparks, John F. Kennedy Elementary School,
Billerica, MA; Sara Vincent, Langley High School, McLean, VA; Jacalyn Walker, Treasure
Mountain Middle School, Park City, UT; Michael Yasis, L.H. Tanglen Elementary School,
Minnetonka, MN.
 PREFA CE xiii

In a project of this size so many people make essential contributions. Becky Savage,
Permissions Coordinator, worked diligently, often through weekends, to obtain permis-
sions for the material reproduced in this text and the supplements. The text designer,
Diane Lorenzo, and photo editor, Carol Sykes, made the look of this book the best yet—
hard to do after 11 editions. Again, Kathy Smith, Project Manager, held all aspects of
the project in her wonderfully ordered and intelligent mind. I will never forget that she
found power for her computer using a neighbor’s generator in the aftermaths of both the
Katrina and Gustav hurricanes so that we could keep the chapters flowing. All the regular
shipping services had stopped delivering but Kathy always delivers! She performed the
impossible again this edition—wouldn’t want to write without her! Mary Irvin, Produc-
tion Editor, coordinated all aspects of the project, with amazing skill and grace. Somehow
they brought sanity to what could have been chaos and fun to what might have been
drudgery. Now the book is in the able hands of marketing manager Joanna Sabella and
her staff. I can’t wait to see what they are planning for me now! What a talented and
creative group—I am honored to work with them all.
On this edition, I was again privileged to work with an outstanding editorial group.
Their intelligence, creativity, sound judgment, style, and enduring commitment to quality
can be seen on every page of this text. Kevin Davis, Publisher, guided the project from
reviews to completion with the eye of an artist, the mind of a scholar, and the logistical
capacity of high-powered computer. He proved to be an excellent collaborator with a
wise grasp of the field and a sense of the future. Lauren Carlson, Editorial Assistant, kept
everything running smoothly and kept my email humming. On this edition I was fortu-
nate again to have the help of Alicia Reilly, an outstanding developmental editor with the
perfect combination of vast knowledge, organizational ability, good humor, and creative
thinking. Once again, she coordinated every aspect of the revision, always staying just
ahead of whatever had to happen next, communicating with people around the world—
remarkable! The text features, Teachers’ Casebook, and excellent pedagogical supports
would not exist without her tireless efforts.
Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for their kindness and support during
the long days and nights that I worked on this book. To my family, Marion, Bob, Eric,
Suzie, Lizzie, Wayne K., Marie, Kelly, Tom, Lisa, Lauren, Mike, and the newest member,
Amaya—you are amazing.
And finally, to Wayne Hoy, my friend, colleague, inspiration, passion, husband—
you are simply the best.
—ANITA WOOLFOLK HOY
 BRIEF CONTENTS
1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 

PART I STUDENTS
2 Cognitive Development 
3 The Self, Social, and Moral Development 
4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs 
5 Language Development, Language Diversity,
and Immigrant Education 
6 Culture and Diversity 

PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

7 Behavioral Views of Learning 
8 Cognitive Views of Learning 
9 Complex Cognitive Processes 
10 The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 
11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and
Motivation 
12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching 

PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING

13 Creating Learning Environments 
14 Teaching Every Student 
15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized
Testing 
 CONTENTS
Preface v POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research
Should Guide Education? 19
Supporting Student Learning 21
CHAPTER 1 Summary and Key Terms 23
Connect and Extend to Licensure 24
Learning, Teaching, Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Child Behind:
and Educational What Would They Do? 25

Psychology 2
PART I STUDENTS
Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What
Would You Do? 2 CHAPTER 2
Overview and Objectives 3
Learning and Teaching Today 4 Cognitive
Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Development 28
Technology 4
Confidence in Every Context 5
High Expectations for Teachers and Students 6 Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals:
Do Teachers Make a Difference? 7 What Would You Do? 28
Teacher–Student Relationships 7 • The Cost of Poor Overview and Objectives 29
Teaching 7 A Definition of Development 30
What Is Good Teaching? 8 Three Questions Across the Theories 30
Inside Four Classrooms 8 What Is the Source of Development? Nature versus
A Bilingual 1st Grade 8 • A Suburban 5th Grade 8 Nurture 30 • What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity
• An Inclusive Class 8 • An Advanced Math Class 9 versus Discontinuity 31 • Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical
• So What Is Good Teaching? 9 versus Sensitive Periods 31 • Beware of Either/Or 31
Differentiated Instruction 10 General Principles of Development 32
Why Do We Need Differentiated Instruction? 10 • Elements The Brain and Cognitive Development 32
of Differentiation 10 The Developing Brain: Neurons 33
Beginning Teachers 11 The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 35
The Role of Educational Psychology 12 Adolescent Development and the Brain 36
In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology Putting it All Together: How the Brain Works 37
and Teaching 12 Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching 37
Educational Psychology Today 12 Instruction and Brain Development 37
Is It Just Common Sense? 13 The Brain and Learning to Read 38
Taking Turns 13 • Helping Students 13 • Skipping Emotions, Learning, and the Brain 39
Grades 13 • Obvious Answers? 13 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education 40
Using Research to Understand and Improve Lessons for Teachers: General Principles 40
Learning 14 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 42
Descriptive Studies 14 • Correlation Studies 14 Influences on Development 43
• Experimental Studies 15 • Single-Subject Experimental Basic Tendencies in Thinking 43
Designs 16 • Microgenetic Studies 16 Organization 43 • Adaptation 43 • Equilibration 44
• The Role of Time in Research 16 • Teachers as Four Stages of Cognitive Development 44
Researchers 16 Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage 44 • Early Childhood
What Is Scientifically Based Research? 18 to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational
Theories for Teaching 18 Stage 45 • Later Elementary to the Middle School Years:
The Concrete-Operational Stage 47
xvi C ON T EN T S
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 47
GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 49
High School and College: Formal Operations 50 • Do We All
Reach the Fourth Stage? 51
GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal
Operations 51
Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience
Views of Cognitive Development 52
Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory 53
The Trouble with Stages 53 • Underestimating Children’s
Abilities 54 • Cognitive Development and Culture 54
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 55
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 55
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 56
Technical Tools in a Digital Age 57 • Psychological Tools 57
The Role of Language and Private Speech 58
Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared 58
The Zone of Proximal Development 59
Private Speech and the Zone 59 • The Role of Learning and
Development 60
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory 60
Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for
Teachers 60
Piaget: What Can We Learn? 60
Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking 61 • Activity
and Constructing Knowledge 61
Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? 62
The Role of Adults and Peers 62 • Assisted Learning 62
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic
Middle” 63
GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 63
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers 64
Summary and Key Terms 64
Connect and Extend to Licensure 66
Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would
They Do? 67
CHAPTER 3
The Self, Social,
and Moral
Development 68
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? 68
Overview and Objectives 69
Physical Development 70
Physical and Motor Development 70
Young Children 70 • Elementary School Years 70 • The
Adolescent Years 71 • Early and Later Maturing 71
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in
the Classroom 72
Play, Recess, and Physical Activity 72
Physical Exercise and Recess 73
Challenges in Physical Development 73
Obesity 73 • Eating Disorders 74
GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images 75
Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 75
The Importance of Context and the Bioecological
Model 75
Families 77
Family Structure 77 • Parenting Styles 78 • Culture and
Parenting 78
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Connecting with Families 79
Attachment 80 • Divorce 80
Peers 80
GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce 81
Crowds 81
Peer Cultures 82 • Cliques and Friendships 82
• Popularity 82 • Who Is Likely to Have Problems with
Peers? 83
Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support 83
Academic and Personal Caring 84
Teachers and Child Abuse 85
Society and Media 85
Identity and Self-Concept 87
Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development 87
The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative 88
• The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus
Inferiority 89
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry 90
Adolescence: The Search for Identity 90
GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation 92
Identity and Technology 92 • Beyond the School Years 93
Racial-Ethnic Identity 93
Ethnic Identities: Outcome and Process 93 • Racial Identity:
Outcome and Process 94 • Racial and Ethnic Pride 94
Self-Concept 95
The Structure of Self-Concept 95 • How Self-Concept
Develops 95 • Self-Concept and Achievement 96
Self-Esteem 97
Sex Differences in Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 97
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools
Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? 98
Understanding Others and Moral Development 99
Theory of Mind and Intention 99
Moral Development 99
Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development 100 • Criticisms
of Kohlberg’s Theory 101 • Gender Differences: The
Morality of Caring 101
Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal
Choices 102

Moral versus Conventional Domains 103 • Implications for
Teachers 103
Diversity in Moral Reasoning 103
Moral Behavior: Aggression and Cheating 104
Aggression 104 • Relational Aggression 105 • Media,
Modeling, and Aggression 106 • Video Games and
Aggressive Behavior 106 • Cheating 106
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging
Cooperation 107
Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers 108
Summary and Key Terms 109
Connect and Extend to Licensure 111
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would
They Do? 112
CHAPTER 4
Learner Differences
and Learning
Needs 114
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would
You Do? 114
Overview and Objectives 115
Intelligence 116
Language and Labels 116
Disabilities and Handicaps 116 • Person-First
Language 117 • Possible Biases in the Application of
Labels 117
What Does Intelligence Mean? 119
Intelligence: One Ability or Many? 119
Multiple Intelligences 120
What Are These Intelligences? 120 • Critics of MI
Theory 120 • Gardner Responds 121 • Multiple
Intelligences Go to School 122
Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers 122
Intelligence as a Process 123
Measuring Intelligence 124
Binet’s Dilemma 124
GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores 125
What Does an IQ Score Mean? 125 • Group versus
Individual Tests 125 • The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting
Smarter? 126 • Intelligence and Achievement 126
Gender Differences in Intelligence 126
Heredity or Environment? 127 • Being Smart About IQ
Tests 128
Learning and Thinking Styles 128
Learning Styles/Preferences 128
Cautions about Learning Styles 129 • The Value of
Considering Learning Styles 129
Beyond Either/Or 130
C ON TEN TS xvii
Individual Differences and the Law 130
IDEA 131
Least Restrictive Environment 132 • Individualized
Education Program 132
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS:
Productive Conferences 133
The Rights of Students and Families 133
Section 504 Protections 135
Students with Learning Challenges 136
Neuroscience and Learning Challenges 136
Students with Learning Disabilities 136
Student Characteristics 137 • Teaching Students with
Learning Disabilities 139
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention
Disorders 139
Definitions 140 • Treating ADHD with Drugs 140
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills of Skills for
Children with ADHD? 141
Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments 141
Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD 142
Students with Communication Disorders 142
Speech Disorders 143 • Language Disorders 143
Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties 144
GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional
Problems 146
Suicide 146 • Drug Abuse 147 • Prevention 149
Students with Intellectual Disabilities 149
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual
Disabilities 150
Students with Health Impairments 150
Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities 150 • Seizure
Disorders (Epilepsy) 151 • Other Serious Health
Concerns: Asthma, HIV/AIDS, and Diabetes 152 • Students
with Vision Impairments 152 • Students Who Are
Deaf 153
Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome 153
Theory of Mind 154 • Interventions 154
Response to Intervention (RTI) 155
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 155
Who Are These Students? 156
What Is the Origin of These Gifts? 156 • What Problems
Do the Gifted Face? 157
Identifying Gifted Students 158
Recognizing Gifts and Talents 158
Teaching Gifted Students 158
Acceleration 158 • Methods and Strategies 159
Summary and Key Terms 161
Connect and Extend to Licensure 163
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student:
What Would They Do? 164
xviii C O N T EN T S

CHAPTER 5 GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and

Language Development,
Language Diversity,
and Immigrant
Education 166
Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Class in the Classroom: What
Would You Do? 166
Overview and Objectives 167
The Development of Language 168
What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences 168
The Puzzle of Language 168
When and How Does Language Develop? 169
Sounds and Pronunciation 169 • Vocabulary and
Meaning 169 • Grammar and Syntax 170 • Pragmatics:
Using Language in Social Situations 170 • Metalinguistic
Awareness 171
Emergent Literacy 171
Inside-Out and Outside-In Skills 172 • Building a
Foundation 172
Emergent Literacy and Bilingual Children 173
GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting
Literacy 174
Diversity in Language Development 175
Dual Language Development 175
Second Language Learning 175 • Benefits of
Bilingualism 176 • Language Loss 176
Signed Languages 178
What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? 178
Contextualized and Academic Language 180
GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning 181
Dialect Differences in the Classroom 182
Dialects 182
Dialects and Pronunciation 182 • Dialects and Teaching 183
Genderlects 184
Teaching Immigrant Students and English Language
Learners 184
Immigrants and Refugees 185
Classrooms Today 186
Four Student Profiles 186
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 188
Bilingual Education and English Learners 189
Two Approaches to English Language
Learning 189 • Research on Bilingual
Education 189 • Bilingualism for All: Two-Way
Immersion 189
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach
English Language Learners? 190
Sheltered Instruction 191
Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 194
Increasing Self-Esteem for English Language
Learners 195
Working with Families: Using the Tools of the
Culture 196
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Welcoming All Families 197
Special Challenges: English Language Learners with
Disabilities and Special Gifts 197
English Language Learners with Disabilities 197
Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual
Students 198
Summary and Key Terms 199
Connect and Extend to Licensure 201
Teachers’ Casebook—Culture Class in the Classroom:
What Would They Do? 202
CHAPTER 6
Culture and
Diversity 204
Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would
You Do? 204
Overview and Objectives 205
Today’s Diverse Classrooms 206
American Cultural Diversity 206
Meet Four More Students 207
Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences 210
Cultural Conflicts and Compatibilities 210 • Dangers in
Stereotyping 210
Economic and Social Class Differences 211
Social Class and SES 211
Poverty and School Achievement 211
Health, Environment, and Stress 213 • Low Expectations—
Low Academic Self-Concept 213 • Peer Influences
and Resistance Cultures 213 • Home Environment and
Resources 214 • Summer Setbacks 214
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Tracking an Effective
Strategy? 215
Tracking: Poor Teaching 215
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in
Poverty 216
Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning 216
Terms: Ethnicity and Race 216
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School
Achievement 217
The Legacy of Discrimination 219
What Is Prejudice? 220 • The Development of
Prejudice 220 • Continuing Discrimination 221
 CON TEN TS xix

Stereotype Threat 222 Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical

Short-Term Effects: Test Performance 222 • Long-Term
Effects: Disidentification 223 • Combating Stereotype
Threat 224
Gender in Teaching and Learning 224
Sex and Gender 224
Sexual Orientation 225
Gender Roles 225
Gender Bias in Curriculum Materials 227
Gender Bias in Teaching 228
GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in
Teaching 229
Multicultural Education: Creating Culturally
Compatible Classrooms 230
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 231
Fostering Resilience 233
Resilient Students 233 • Resilient Classrooms 233
• Self-Agency Strand 234 • Relationship Strand 234
Diversity in Learning 234
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
GUIDELINES: Building Learning
Communities 235
Social Organization 235 • Cultural Values and Learning
Preferences 236 • Cautions (Again) About Learning Styles
Research 236 • Sociolinguistics 237 • Sources of
Misunderstandings 237
Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student 237
Know Your Students 238 • Respect Your
Students 238 • Teach Your Students 238
GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching 239
Summary and Key Terms 240
Connect and Extend to Licensure 241
Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What
Would They Do? 242
PART II LEARNING AND
Conditioning 248
GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning 249
Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 250
Types of Consequences 250
Reinforcement 250 • Punishment 252
Reinforcement Schedules 252
Extinction 254
Antecedents and Behavior Change 254
Effective Instruction Delivery (EID) 255 • Cueing 255
• Prompting 255
Applied Behavior Analysis 256
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors 256
Reinforcing with Teacher Attention 256
GUIDELINES: Using Praise Appropriately 257
Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle 257
• Shaping 258 • Positive Practice 259
Handling Undesirable Behavior 259
Negative Reinforcement 259
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Positive Behaviors 260
Reprimands 261 • Response Cost 261 • Social
Isolation 261 • Some Cautions About Punishment 262
Putting It All Together: Behavioral Approaches
to Teaching and Management 262
Group Consequences 262
GUIDELINES: Using Punishment 263
Contingency Contracts and Token
Reinforcement 264
Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior
Problems 266
Functional Behavioral Assessment and Positive
Behavior Supports 267
Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral
Assessments 267 • Positive Behavior Supports 268
Self-Management 269
Goal Setting 269 • Monitoring and Evaluating
Progress 270 • Self-Reinforcement 270

MOTIVATION FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Student Self-Management 271
Challenges, Cautions, and Criticisms 271
CHAPTER 7 Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge 271
Enactive and Observational Learning 272 • Learning and
Behavioral Views Performance 272
of Learning 244 Criticisms of Behavioral Methods 272
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students
Be Rewarded for Learning? 273
Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would Ethical Issues 274
You Do? 244 Goals 274 • Strategies 274
Overview and Objectives 245 Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers 275
Understanding Learning 246 Summary and Key Terms 275
Neuroscience of Behavioral Learning 246 Connect and Extend to Licensure 277
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 247 Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would They Do? 278
xx C ON T EN T S
CHAPTER 8
Cognitive
Views of
Learning 280
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics:
What Would You Do? 280
Overview and Objectives 281
Elements of the Cognitive Perspective 282
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views 282
Views of Learning 282 • Goals 282
The Brain and Cognitive Learning 283
The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition 283
General and Specific Knowledge 284
Cognitive Views of Memory 284
Sensory Memory 286
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory
Memory 286 • Perception 286 • The
Role of Attention 287 • Attention and
Multitasking 288 • Attention and Teaching 288
Working Memory 288
GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 289
The Central Executive 291 • The Phonological Loop 291
• The Visuospatial Sketchpad 291 • The Episodic
Buffer 292 • The Duration and Contents of Working
Memory 292
Cognitive Load and Retaining Information 292
Three Kinds of Cognitive Load 292 • Retaining Information
in Working Memory 293 • Forgetting 294
Individual Differences in Working Memory 294
Developmental Differences 294 • Individual Differences 295
Long-Term Memory 296
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Long-Term
Memory 296
Contents of Long-Term Memory: Declarative, Procedural, and
Self-Regulatory Knowledge 296
Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic 298
Propositions and Propositional Networks 298 • Images 298
• Two Are Better Than One: Words and Images 299
• Concepts 299 • Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-
Based Categories 299 • Schemas 300 • Episodic
Memory 301
Implicit Memories 302
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long-Term
Memory 303
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Organizing Learning 304
Imagery 304 • Levels of Processing Theory 306 • Retrieving
Information from Long-Term Memory 306 • Spreading
Activation 306 • Reconstruction 306 • Forgetting and
Long-Term Memory 307
Individual Differences and Long-Term
Memory 307
Becoming Knowledgeable: Some Basic
Principles 307
Reaching Every Student: Development of
Declarative Knowledge 307
Making It Meaningful 308 • Mnemonics 308 • Rote
Memorization 309
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with
Memorizing? 310
Development of Procedural Knowledge 310
Automated Basic Skills 311 • Domain-Specific Skills 311
GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and
Remember 312
Summary and Key Terms 312
Connect and Extend to Licensure 314
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics:
What Would They Do? 314
CHAPTER 9
Complex Cognitive
Processes 316
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would
You Do? 316
Overview and Objectives 317
Metacognition 318
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 318
Individual Differences in Metacognition 319
Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 319
Metacognitive Development for Younger Students 319
• Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College
Students (Like You) 320
Learning Strategies 321
Being Strategic About Learning 321
Deciding What Is Important 322 • Summaries 323
• Underlining and Highlighting 323 • Taking
Notes 323
Visual Tools for Organizing 325
Reading Strategies 326
Applying Learning Strategies 326
Appropriate Tasks 326 • Valuing Learning 326
GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student 327
Effort and Efficacy 327
Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies for
Struggling Students 328
Problem Solving 328
Identifying: Problem Finding 329
Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 330

Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant 330 • Understanding
the Words 330 • Understanding the Whole
Problem 331 • Translation and Schema Training: Direct
Instruction in Schemas 332 • Translation and Schema
Training: Worked Examples 333 • The Results of Problem
Representation 334
Exploring Possible Solution Strategies 334
Algorithms 335 • Heuristics 335
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 335
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 336
Some Problems with Heuristics 336
Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving 337
Knowing What Is Important 337 • Memory for Patterns and
Organization 337
GUIDELINES: Problem Solving 338
Procedural Knowledge 338 • Planning and Monitoring 339
Creativity and Creative Problem Solving 339
Defining Creativity 339
Assessing Creativity 339
What Are the Sources of Creativity? 340
Creativity and Cognition 340 • Creativity and Diversity 341
Creativity in the Classroom 342
The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 342
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Creativity 343
Critical Thinking and Argumentation 343
Developing Critical Thinking 343
Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects 344
Argumentation 344
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical
Thinking and Problem Solving? 345
Teaching for Transfer 346
The Many Views of Transfer 347
Teaching for Positive Transfer 348
What Is Worth Learning? 348 • How Can Teachers Help? 348
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Promoting Transfer 349
Stages of Transfer for Strategies 349
Summary and Key Terms 350
Connect and Extend to Licensure 351
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would
They Do? 352
CHAPTER 10
The Learning
Sciences and
Constructivism 354
Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate:
What Would You Do? 354
Overview and Objectives 355
CON TEN TS xxi
The Learning Sciences 356
What Are the Learning Sciences? 356
Basic Assumptions of the Learning Sciences 356
Embodied Cognition 357
Cognitive and Social Constructivism 358
Constructivist Views of Learning 359
Psychological/Individual/Cognitive Constructivism 359
• Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism 361
• Constructionism 361
How Is Knowledge Constructed? 362
Knowledge: Situated or General? 363
Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered
Teaching 363
Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks 364
• Social Negotiation 364 • Multiple Perspectives and
Representations of Content 364 • Understanding
the Knowledge Construction Process 365 • Student
Ownership of Learning 365
Applying Constructivist Perspectives 365
Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 366
Examples of Inquiry 366 • Problem-Based Learning 367
• Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 369
Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal
Teaching 369
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based
Learning Effective Teaching Approaches? 370
Cognitive Apprenticeships in Reading: Reciprocal
Teaching 370 • Applying Reciprocal Teaching 371
Collaboration and Cooperation 372
Collaboration, Group Work, and Cooperative Learning 372
• Beyond Groups to Cooperation 373 • What Can Go
Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning 374
Tasks for Cooperative Learning 374
Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building Tasks 374
• Ill-Structured, Conceptual, and Problem-Solving
Tasks 375 • Social Skills and Communication Tasks 375
Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning 375
Setting Up Cooperative Groups 376 • Giving and Receiving
Explanations 376 • Assigning Roles 376
Designs for Cooperation 379
Reciprocal Questioning 379 • Jigsaw 380 • Structured
Controversies 380
Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning
Wisely 381
GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning 382
Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice 382
Service Learning 383
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP GUIDELINES:
Service Learning 384
Learning in a Digital World 385
Learning Environments and Technology 385
Virtual Learning Environments 386
xxii C O N T EN T S
Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities
foe Young Children 387
Computers and Older Students 388
Media/Digital Literacy 388
GUIDELINES: Using Computers 389
GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development
of Media Literacy 390
Summary and Key Terms 391
Connect and Extend to Licensure 392
Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate:
What Would They Do? 393
CHAPTER 11
Social Cognitive Views
of Learning and
Motivation 396
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate:
What Would You Do? 396
Overview and Objectives 397
Social Cognitive Theory 398
A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura 398
Beyond Behaviorism 398
Triarchic Reciprocal Causality 399
Modeling: Learning from Others 400
Elements of Observational Learning 401
Attention 401 • Retention 401 • Production 402
• Motivation and Reinforcement 402
Observational Learning in Teaching 402
Directing Attention 403 • Fine-Tuning Already-Learned
Behavior 403 • Strengthening or Weakening
Inhibitions 403 • Teaching New Behaviors 403
GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning 404
Arousing Emotion 404
Self-Efficacy and Agency 404
Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 405
Sources of Self-Efficacy 406
Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching 406
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy 407
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy 408
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are High Levels of Teacher
Efficacy Beneficial? 409
Self-Regulated Learning 409
What Influences Self-Regulation? 410
Knowledge 410 • Motivation 411 • Volition 411
• Development of Self-Regulation 411
Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Agency 412
An Individual Example of Self-Regulated Learning 413
Two Classrooms 414
Writing 414 • Math Problem Solving 415
Technology and Self-Regulation 415
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Supporting Self-Regulation at Home and in School 416
Reaching Every Student: Families and Self-Regulation 416
Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive
Behavior Modification 416
Emotional Self-Regulation 418
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation 419
Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated
Learning 420
Complex Tasks 420
Control 421
Self-Evaluation 422
Collaboration 422
Bringing it All Together: Theories of Learning 422
Summary and Key Terms 424
Connect and Extend to Licensure 426
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate:
What Would They Do? 426
CHAPTER 12
Motivation in
Learning and
Teaching 428
Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students
When Resources Are Thin: What Would
You Do? 428
Overview and Objectives 429
What Is Motivation? 430
Meeting Some Students 430
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 431
Five General Approaches to Motivation 432
Behavioral Approaches to Motivation 433 • Humanistic
Approaches to Motivation 433 • Cognitive Approaches
to Motivation 433 • Social Cognitive Theories 433
• Sociocultural Conceptions of Motivation 433
Needs 434
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 434
Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy,
and Relatedness 435
Self-Determination in the Classroom 435 • Information and
Control 436 • The Need for Relatedness 436
GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination
and Autonomy 437
Needs: Lessons for Teachers 437
Goal Orientations 438
Types of Goals and Goal Orientations 438
Four Achievement Goal Orientations in School 439 • Wait—
Are Performance Goals Always Bad? 439 • Beyond
Mastery and Performance 440 • Goals in Social
Context 441

Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance 441
Goals: Lessons for Teachers 441
Beliefs and Self-Perceptions 442
Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs 442
Beliefs About Ability 443
Beliefs About Causes and Control: Attribution Theory 444
Attributions in the Classroom 444 • Teacher Actions and
Student Attributions 445
Beliefs About Self-Worth 445
Learned Helplessness 445 • Self-Worth 446
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Worth 447
Beliefs and Attributions: Lessons for Teachers 447
Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety 448
Tapping Interests 448
Catching and Holding Interests 449
Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 449
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning
Fun Make for Good Learning? 450
GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and
Curiosity 451
Emotions and Anxiety 451
Neuroscience and Emotion 451 • Achievement
Emotions 452 • Arousal and Anxiety 453 • Anxiety in
the Classroom 453 • How Does Anxiety Interfere with
Achievement? 453
Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety 454
Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for
Teachers 454
Motivation to Learn in School: On TARGET 454
GUIDELINES: Coping with Anxiety 455
Tasks for Learning 456
Task Value 456 • Beyond Task Value to Genuine
Appreciation 457 • Authentic Tasks 457
Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing
Accomplishment 458
Supporting Choices 458 • Recognizing Accomplishment 459
Grouping, Evaluation, and Time 459
Grouping and Goal Structures 459 • Evaluation 460
Time 460 • Putting It All Together 460
Diversity in Motivation 460
Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage
Motivation 463
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations 463
• Do I Want to Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning 464
• What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on
the Task 465 • Do I Belong in This Classroom? 465
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Motivation to Learn 465
Summary and Key Terms 465
Connect and Extend to Licensure 468
Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students
When Resources Are Thin: What Would
They Do? 468
C ON TEN TS xxiii
PART III TEACHING AND
ASSESSING
CHAPTER 13
Creating Learning
Environments 470
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What
Would You Do? 470
Overview and Objectives 471
The Need for Organization 472
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 472
The Goals of Classroom Management 473
Access to Learning 473 • More Time for Learning 474
• Management for Self-Management 474
Creating a Positive Learning Environment 476
Some Research Results 476
Routines and Rules Required 476
Routines and Procedures 476
GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines 477
Rules 478 • Rules for Elementary School 478 • Rules for
Secondary School 478 • Consequences 479 • Who Sets
the Rules and Consequences? 479
Planning Spaces for Learning 481
Personal Territories 481 • Interest Areas 481
GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces 482
Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 482
Effective Managers for Elementary Students 483 • Effective
Managers for Secondary Students 484
Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 484
Encouraging Engagement 484
GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged 485
Prevention Is the Best Medicine 485
Withitness 485 • Overlapping and Group Focus 486
• Movement Management 486 • Student Social Skills
as Prevention 486
Caring Relationships: Connections with School 487
School Connections 487 • Creating Communities of Care for
Adolescents 488
Dealing with Discipline Problems 488
Stopping Problems Quickly 488
GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties 489
Bullying and Cyber-Bullying 490
Victims 490 • Bullying and Teasing 490 • Changing
Attributions 490 • Cyber-Bullying 491
Special Problems with High School Students 491
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good
Idea? 493
xxiv C O N T EN T S

GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive GUIDELINES: Teaching Effectively 522

Situations 494 Seatwork and Homework 523
The Need for Communication 494 Seatwork 523 • Homework 524
Message Sent—Message Received 494 Questioning and Discussion 524
Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It? 495 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Homework a Valuable
Counseling: The Student’s Problem 496 Use of Time? 525
Confrontation and Assertive Discipline 496 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
“I” Messages 497 • Assertive Discipline 497 Homework 526
• Confrontations and Negotiations 498 Kinds of Questions 526 • Fitting the Questions to the
Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Negotiation 498 Students 527 • Responding to Student Answers 528
Research on Management Approaches 499 • Group Discussion 529
Integrating Ideas 499 GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions 530
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals 530
Classroom Management 500 Differentiated Instruction 531
Communicating with Families About Classroom Within-Class and Flexible Grouping 531
Management 500 The Problems with Ability Grouping 531 • Flexible
Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management 500 Grouping 531
Summary and Key Terms 501 GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping 532
Connect and Extend to Licensure 503 Adaptive Teaching 532
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction
Would They Do? 504 in Inclusive Classrooms 534
Technology and Differentiation 534
CHAPTER 14 GUIDELINES: Teachers as Mentors 537
Mentoring Students as a Way of Differentiating Teaching 537
Teaching Every Teacher Expectations 537
Student 506 Two Kinds of Expectation Effects 538
Sources of Expectations 538
Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’
Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Achievement? 539
Every Student: What Would You Do? 506 Instructional Strategies 539
Overview and Objectives 507 GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of
Research on Teaching 508 Teacher Expectations 540
Characteristics of Effective Teachers 508 Teacher–Student Interactions 541
Clarity and Organization 508 • Warmth and Enthusiasm 508 Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate
Knowledge for Teaching 509 Expectations 541
Recent Research on Teaching 509 Summary and Key Terms 541
The First Step: Planning 512 Connect and Extend to Licensure 543
Research on Planning 512 Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching
Objectives for Learning 513 Every Student: What Would They Do? 544
An Example of Standards: Technology 513 • Classrooms:
Instructional Objectives 514 • Mager: Start with the CHAPTER 15
Specific 514 • Gronlund: Start with the General 514
Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies 515 Classroom
The Cognitive Domain 515 • The Affective Domain 516 Assessment, Grading,
• The Psychomotor Domain 517 and Standardized
GUIDELINES: Using Instructional Objectives 518
Planning from a Constructivist Perspective 518
Testing 546
Teaching Approaches 519 Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades:
Direct Instruction 519 What Would You Do? 546
Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions 520 • Advance Overview and Objectives 547
Organizers 520 • Why Does Direct Instruction Work? 521 Basics of Assessment 548
• Evaluating Direct Instruction 521 Measurement and Assessment 548
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
thereof till the waters are dried up. Though this may appear
marvellous, it is the fact with these people.”
Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. “Are four rivers (perhaps canals) belonging to
Maséna.”
“The present Sultan of Maséna is Ahmad Hamad Labo, who rules
over Timbuctoo, Jeri, and Oonbori, and indeed he may be called the
sovereign of the Gharb (West) in Soodan. He is now at war with
Sego.
“From Soccatoo to Benji is one day’s journey through Sisilbi,
which is the metropolis of Ghalooji. This country is level and fertile,
and contains rivers, woods, gardens, and wells. On the east side of it
there are two rocky, rugged mountains; on the right there is a river,
and on the left there are plains and barren deserts. In the environs of
the capital of Benji there are, however, several villages or towns
belonging to the Mohammedans. Between the territory of Benji and
that of Mouri is three days’ and nights’ journey, through barren and
sandy deserts. Mouri contains small mountains, woods, and has two
roads on the left; on one of which there is a deep stream, and on the
other are two lakes, surrounded with flowering and fruitful trees. This
country originally belonged to the Sultan of Kabi, and its inhabitants
are infidels. Its present sultan is named Ghagara, and has a city for
his residence named Lukoo-you, which has a great lake near it. The
chief towns of this country are Dogordoosi, Myzani, Toonsubi, and
Tabada. There are many smaller ones, which need not be mentioned
for brevity’s sake. The lands are mostly stony, sandy, and hilly. There
are a great many deep wells, well supplied with water; but the
country altogether has but few trees, though it abounds with reptiles.
“Next to it, at two days’ journey through dry deserts, with one track
of road only, though woody and hilly, the country of Emanoo lies, the
first town of which is Bakendoosi, which is of a moderate size; and
has, on the east, a lake surrounded with trees; and, on the west, a
well-known great and very tall tree. Between this town and the
metropolis of the sultan, whose name is Aghmarak, is half a day’s
journey. Emanoo is part of the countries of the Tuaricks, and
contains lakes, wells, mountains, hills, and sands. Its people live
upon the dokhun, and possess a great many cattle.
“Next to this, at one day’s journey, is the territory of Taghzar,
which also belongs to the Tuaricks, and contains hills, wells, and
natron lakes, which is called in our language káwa, or salt. East and
west of this country there are mountains well stocked with cattle. The
people are the worst and most ill-disposed of the tribes of Tuarick;
and their chief living is peas and dokhun. Their sultan is named
Hama-ráwadó, and also Hama-zanzamá, which means in our
language Dog.
“On the right of this country the territory of Jerma lies; it is a
narrow vale, between high hills and hillocks of sand; and on the east
it has a lofty mountain; it contains natron and other deep lakes. It is
inhabited by the tribe of Benoo-Hami, who are great warriors,
possessing swift and well-trained horses, and their spears are
extremely long and well-ironed with sharp blades. They are ill-
disposed people, and have no lawful sultan, but their chief is one
chosen out of the tribe. They subsist mostly upon dokhun, and their
country abuts on the great sea or river Cówara.
“On the left of the before-mentioned country (Taghzar) that of
Azwa lies, which is inhabited both by the Tuarick and by Benoo-
Hami. It contains plains, vales, mountains, hills, and sands; and has
deep streams. They possess abundance of cattle, and most of their
living is the dokhun.
“Between Taghzar and the river Cówara is three days’ journey,
through a barren desert, without any human being in it, inhabited
only by wild beasts; and it has a long and deep stream running
through sandy hills. From this stream the people of Taghzar provide
themselves with water when they go to the chase of the giraffe in the
winter season. The distance between their town and this stream is
half a day’s journey, through some woody plains, a few small
mountains, and sandy hills. On the road, however, there is a small
lake, surrounded with shrubs and trees, in which water is found only
in the autumn.
 “Near the river there are a great many white hills, without any
trees upon them; but on the banks there are very large tall trees of
tamarinds, under the shade of which travellers rest themselves.
W. “Now the great river Cówara comes, and here is its
representation. This great river is the largest in all the territories of
Houssa; we know not of its source, nor of any one who has seen it. It
rushes and precipitates itself through the country from left to right,
and contains many islands inhabited by fishermen, herdsmen,
husbandmen, and settlers. As to the variety of its animals, birds, and
fish, it is only known to the Lord Creator; it has rocks and mountains,
which break and shatter to pieces all vessels that are driven against
them; and its great roaring and noise, with the agitation of its waves,
astonish the hearer and terrify the beholder; and, at the same time,
exhibit the wonderful power of the Omnipotent Creator.
X. “Is an undescribed branch of the river.
Y. “The writing of this copy ended on Thursday afternoon, the 5th
of Rajab, 1242, of Hegira—(January 31, 1827, A.D.), in the city of
Soccatoo, residence of the Prince of the Faithful Sultan Mohammed
Bello, by his special command to me, Mohammed, son of Ahmad
Masané—(i.e. native of Maséna)—for Abdálláh the English
Christian.”
A. V. SALAMÉ.

No. II.

Translation of the Account of the “Expedition of Forty Christians,” &c.

&c.

“In past years a company of Christians came from the side of

Darwadar[2], a town belonging to the Christians, following the river to
Foota-tooro, and from thence they proceeded to Ségo. They were
forty men, and, on their arrival, the Sultan of Ségo received them
hospitably, gave them presents, and lodged them in one of his towns
called Sansaní (Sansanding of Park). They then acquainted him that
they wished to build a ship; to do which he gave them leave. During
their residence there, and the building of the ship, most of them died,
and by the time the ship was finished, five only were alive. These
five men embarked on board the vessel, and proceeded eastwards
till they arrived at Jeris, where they resided as long as God was
pleased. They thence went on to Maséna, following the river till they
came to one of our towns called Seebi[3], between Jeri and
Timbuctoo, that they might cross the way of the river[4]. They
sojourned there with the prince, who was one of the sons of the
Sultan of Timbuctoo, and whose name was Babal-kydiali. He
entertained them, and gave them leave to proceed to Timbuctoo.
They continued their voyage till they arrived in safety, five as they
were, at the city of Timbuctoo, where they resided as long as God
was pleased. Thence they went on towards the country of Sóghy till
they came to one of its towns called Gharwal-gáoo. There the
Tuaricks met, and fought them severely till three were killed, and two
only of them escaped with the vessel.
“They proceeded towards the east till they arrived at Boussa; but
the inhabitants fought and killed them, and their ship is to this
moment there. This is the substance and the truth of the case.”

Observation.—From the melancholy termination of this

adventure, and the place where the boat now exists, no one can
doubt that this account relates to Mungo Park and his party; and that
it is the most authentic and circumstantial that can be had. As to their
number being “forty Christians,” it is easily accounted for, when we
know that those people call any one who might be in the service of
an European “a Christian.” So that it is not improbable that all those
who were employed by Mungo Park were considered “Christians,”
and thus formed the number of forty.
A. V. S.
 No. III.

A Geographical Account of the Country, Rivers, Lakes, &c. from

Bornou to Egypt, &c.

“The territory of Bornou is very extensive, and contains

mountains, sands, and lakes: it has also two well known cities; one is
called Sira, the other Kataghoon, whose prince is named Dankawa.
To the name of Bornou that of Ghoodri is sometimes added.
“At twenty days’ journey from Bornou the territory of Adamawá
lies, which is mountainous, and contains vales, hills, and rivers. Two-
thirds of its inhabitants are infidels, and one-third Felan
Mahomedans. The metropolis of their sultan is called Ghórin. They
possess plenty of horses and oxen, and subsist upon the dura
(Indian corn). To the name of Adamawá the word Foobina is often
added.
“Next to Adamawá, at two days’ journey through a mountainous
desert abounding with rivers, the country of Lúghwí (Loggun of
Denham) lies; it contains a great many rivers, lakes, forests, and
trees. Its inhabitants are Soodan Mahomedans; but the desert
between it and Adamawá is infested with infidel robbers, who ride
their horses without saddles, fight most desperately, often interrupt
traffic on the road, and kill any one who falls into their hands.
“From Lúghwí to the territory of Baghármy, which comes next to it,
is two days’ journey through a desert containing a great and
extensive fresh-water sea, called Asoor or Ashoo[5]. This country is
hilly, sandy, and has small mountains; its width is a distance of ten
days, and its length is much more. Its inhabitants are Soodan,
Kahlans, and Arabs, who are robbers, and a treacherous set of
people. Their sultan, whose name is Borkoomada, is as cruel as
themselves, and even slays sheiks and Mahomedans. They possess
abundance of horses and oxen, get their water from wells, and
subsist upon the dokhun.
“Next to Baghármy the country of Roogá lies, which is stony,
abounding with rivers, and inhabited by infidels.
 “At three days’ journey through places inhabited by Arabs is the
territory of Wadaí; it is very extensive, hilly, sandy, mountainous, and
contains vales, lakes, and deep wells. Its sultan is named Yousuf,
and his capital, which is situated under high mountains, is called
Hoowara[6]; the inhabitants are a mixture of Arabs and Persians;
they are renowned for courage in war, swift horses, and the
abundance of their camels, oxen, and sheep. They have a great
many market places or towns, and their living is the dokhun and
dura.
“Next to Wadaí the country of Foor (Dar-foor) lies, at two days’
journey through mountains and woody deserts, in the midst of which
there is a vale containing dom trees. The territory of Foor is very
extensive, hilly, sandy, and droughty, so much so, that,
notwithstanding the great many deep wells they have, the people are
obliged to preserve their water within the trunks of trees. They are a
mixture of Felans, Arabs, and Kahlans; they possess plenty of swift
horses, camels, oxen, and sheep; they have all sorts of warlike
weapons, as shields, spears, armour, and so forth[7], and are great
warriors. Their sultan is named Mohammed Fadlú, who is a genteel,
handsome, black man, and renowned for his munificence and
generosity. His capital is called Nantalti, through which a river runs
during the rainy season; but in winter the people are obliged to dig
wells in the bed of that river for water. They live upon the dokhun and
dura, and have some date gardens.
“At ten days’ journey from Foor, through a mountainous, hilly,
sandy, and droughty desert, is the country of the Kordofal, which
extends seven days in length, and is inhabited by Arabs and
Kahlans; it is however possessed now by the Turks[8]. It is very
fertile, and has small mountains, hills, and sands; as also it contains
fine horses, and plenty of cattle and asses. The capital of its sultan is
called Loobi, and the living of the people is the dokhun.
“Next to Kordofal is Sonnar, which is a very extensive and fertile
country; and its inhabitants, who are Arabs, are blessed with every
sort of comfort by being able to cultivate the lands at all seasons of
the year. This fertility is owing to the situation of the country being
between two branches of the Nile; one of which, it is said, runs from
the eastward, and the other, which is called the White river, runs
from the westward; so that Sonnar is an island between the two
rivers. It is, however, now in possession of the Turks[9]. It is a very
cheap country, and its inhabitants possess plenty of oxen and asses,
and subsist upon the dokhun.
“The White river becomes very full of water during the rainy
season, which brings with it, from the Blue river, the animal called
Anghorotú[10]; but during the summer it becomes so shallow as to be
waded, the water not reaching above the thighs of people.
“Between Sonnar and Sawaken, which is on the Salt Sea coast
(the Red Sea), is a distance of forty days.”
A. S.

FOOTNOTES:

[2]It is perhaps Salvador.—A. S.

[3]It should here be observed that the writer, who is the
secretary of Sultan Bello, and wrote this by his order out of their
records, is a native of Maséna.—A. S.
[4]Whether this means the course, the current, or a reach of
the river, I cannot make out.—A. S.
[5]This must be another name for the great lake Shad or
Tchad.—A. S.—Perhaps rather the Asu river of Lander.—Ed.
[6]The crown prince of Wadaí, if we can call him so, was last
year in Egypt; and, upon his authority, this country lies under, or at
the foot of, the Mountains of the Moon.—A. S.
[7]When the present Pasha of Egypt sent his army to these
countries, a few years ago, some of these pieces of armour and
helmets were brought over to Cairo; and it was surprising to see
them resembling, in every respect, those of the ancient Romans
and Greeks.—A. S.
[8]Mohammed Ali, the present Pasha of Egypt.—A. S.
[9]See last Note.
 [10]Whether this name is meant for the crocodile or
hippopotamus I cannot say.—A. S.
 Nos. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. and IX.

Traditional Account of different Nations of Africa, &c.

4. “The territory of Malee is extensive, contains a gold mine, and

is inhabited by Soodans, whose origin is said to be from the
remnants of the Copts. Among its inhabitants are also Towroods,
Felans, Arabs, Jews, and Christians. These last are subject to two
Christian sovereigns, who send their ships to the harbour of this
place; and it is said that this country was formerly possessed by a
people called Sarankali, who, it is presumed, were Persians.
“The kingdom of Malee is an ancient and flourishing country, and
comprises two other provinces: one is Banbara, which contains
rivers, woods, sands, a gold mine, and is occupied by the Soodan,
who are still infidels, and possess great power; the other, on the west
of it, is Foota, which is inhabited by the Towrood, and the Sarankali,
or Persians. The Towrood people, it is said, were originally Jews,
others say Christians; that they came from the land between the two
rivers, the Nile[11] and the Euphrates, and established themselves
next to the Jews who inhabited the island; and that whenever they
oppressed or encroached upon the Jews, the latter had always
recourse to the protection of the officers of the Sehabat (the
immediate friends or companions of Mohammed), who then ruled
over them; that they (the Jews) used to say to them: ‘We came to
live in these islands to wait the coming of a prophet (after whom
there will be no other); after whose coming and death a relation of
his, named Aboo-Bakr, will succeed him; and Aboo-Bakr’s successor
will be Amroo, whose troops will come upon the surface of this water
(by which they meant Termes), protect us against you, and enable us
to conquer your country[12].’
“This is what we found written in our books.”

N. B.—The above account, with the exception of the latter part,

and a few small variations, has been already given to us in Sultan
Bello’s Geographical Account. (See Appendix, p. 166, First Journey.)
 A. S.

5. “The origin of the Felan tribe is stated to be as follows: When

the army of the Sehabat, during the reign of Omar Ben El-khattab,
penetrated into the Gharb, they arrived first at Termes; the Towrood
people having seen them, went immediately under their protection,
and became Mooslemeens, before the Jews who were waiting for
them[13]; in consequence of which they were enabled to fight and
subdue the Jews and Sarankali (Persians). When the Sehabat
wished their troops to retire from the Gharb, the prince of the
Towrood said to them: ‘You came to us with a faith of which we were
ignorant, and you are now going away without leaving any one to
instruct us in it and its laws.’ The Sehabat, hearing this appeal, left
behind them, for their instruction, Okbat Ben Aamer. He married a
daughter of the prince, named Gajmáa, and begot by her four sons,
Dytá, Náser, Wáyá, and Rerebi. He afterwards returned to Egypt,
and left his four sons behind with their mother. They grew up, and
spoke a different language from that of their father, which was the
Arabic, as well as from that of their mother, which was the old
Towrood, called Wakoori. They married, and had sons and
daughters, from whom the Felans descended; so that the father of
the Felans was an Arabian, and their mother a Towrood.
“This we found recorded in our books[14].”
6 “The country of Barghoo is situated on the right side of the river;
it is woody and sandy, and inhabited by tribes of the Soodan, who, it
is said, are descended from the slaves of the Felans, who were left
behind when their masters crossed the river; and thus they peopled
those countries. They are insubordinate and stubborn, as also very
powerful in magic; and it is recorded that, when the equitable Prince
Hadgi Mohamed Allah-kaja ruled over this province, he could gain no
advantage over them.
“Next to Barghoo, the province of Ghoorma lies; it is extensive,
mountainous, woody, sandy, and has various rivers. Its sultan is
named Boojujú, and the inhabitants are almost of the same
description as those of Barghoo, robbers, and depraved.
 “On the west of Ghoorma, the country of Mooshier, or Mooshee, is
situated. It is extensive, and contains a gold mine, rivers, woods, and
mountains. It is inhabited by tribes of the Soodan, who possess
plenty of swift horses, very tall asses, and are very powerful in war.
Their sultan is named Wagadoogo, and their asses are imported to
Ghoonja to carry the drums of the army.
“On the right of Mooshér the territory of Asantí lies, which is very
extensive.”

N. B.—The above account, with the exception of a few small

variations, has also been given to us in Sultan Bello’s geographical
account. (See Appendix, p. 165-6, First Journey.)

7. Itinerary.
“From Sira to Boogho is a distance of twenty days; thence to
Mooshkoom-Foosh, to Sary, to Sarwa, to Indam or Indag, to Warshá,
to Booshrá, to the mountain called Kaghoom, to Mount Kinghá, to
Mount Dooziyat, to Mount Aboo-Talfan, to Mount Aboo-Zarafat; then
to Rooga, to Dygo, to Kájá, to Katoonú; then to the mountain of
Nubia, to the gold mine called Tagly, which has no less than ninety-
nine mountains, the name of each of which begins with F; but three
only of these mountains are known, whose names are as follow:
Fazooglú, Fafaklú, and Foondooflú. In two days from this place, you
will get to the Nile of Sonnar; but from Tagly to Egypt, or Cairo, which
lies northward on the left side of it, is a journey of forty days,
travelling continually by the bank of the Nile; while from Tagly to
Sawaken, which is on the sea coast (the Red Sea), is a distance of
thirty days only.”

N. B.—This is the last of the seven papers which, it appears, were

written in Captain Clapperton’s memorandum book, by order of
Sultan Bello, and are dated “the 5th of Sháában, 1242, A.H.;” about
the 3d of March, 1827, A. D.
A. V. S.
 8. “The people of Nefé came originally from Kashná, and their
prince, Thoodyar, from Atághér. He first conquered the territory of
Beni, from the river called Bakoo to that which is named Kaduná;
then the territories of Booduor Boodi, and of Bassa or Boosa. He
thence embarked on the river Kowárá, and subdued the people on
its bank, called Abágha; after which he conquered the country of
Abbi (in which we now are[15]), and that of Kanbari, in conjunction
with the Prince of Yaouri. The river of these countries is called
Kantagoora. From Yaouri he proceeded to the great mountain, or
mountains, where Nefé, Beni, and Fatti-attu are: he then went to the
river Katha, or Kasha, and conquered the countries thereabouts;
which are, Ghoor-noofu, Koográ, Jemma, Doonfee, Taboo, and Aza,
or Azai. This prince was succeeded by Ithshab, whose successor
was Ithkootoo; and the whole number of princes who ruled over this
kingdom were thirteen. The rest of the eastern parts, as far as
Katáná, are in possession of a prince named Bakoo.
“About the right of Atághér the country called Nafry lies, by the
side of a river larger than that of Kowárá.
“The people of Beni are now extremely poor. They are submissive
to their princes, till and cultivate the lands of others, and pay
capitation tax. Sheep, goats, oxen, horses, and fowls, are scarce in
their country; and as to asses, there are none, except what are
imported from other countries. They have, however, plenty of
elephants.
“The river in the territory of Kowárá lies west, on the right hand
side; and that of Kaduná is in the centre; while the river Bakoo, or
Gakoo, is in the east.”

9. “The tribes who inhabit Noofee, it is said, were originally from

Beni; others say from Takra; and some assert that they came from
the middle of the river, perhaps an island. Their first town was
Jemma; but afterwards they inhabited Kafath or Kifath, Ayaki,
Karkena, and the eastern Kowárá, by a river called Matny. They had
also Kasoo or Kashoo, Zeer, the west of Malee or Moulee, Abyou,
and Wádá.
 “The river of Kowárá runs through mountains, and a great many
woods and forests; and has mountains on the north and the east.
This great river issues from the Mountain of the Moon; and what we
know of it is, that it comes from Sookan to Kiya, to Kabi, to Yaouri, to
Boossa, to Wá-wá, and to Noofee; but in that place there is another
river which springs from Zirmá, to Ghoober, to Zeffra, to Kory or
Koora, and then enters Noofee; its name is Kaduna. On the north of
it Kanbari lies; on the east is Kory; on the south are Cankan and
Kafath; and on the west is Bassoa, or Bashwa. About the centre of it
is the kingdom of Noofee, with that of Abyou.
“Noofee was once subject to the Felans; but when Edrees, a
prince of the Felans, ruled over it, and committed so many excesses
as even to violate its virgins, the people rose up against him, sword
in hand, and freed themselves; and thus they are now at war with the
Felans. Amongst them there are Mahomedans; but the greater part
are infidels, without either religion or law: they are drunkards and
oppressors; they neither pray, nor worship any god. They walk with
you during an hour as friends, while in the next they do not hesitate
to kill you. When one of them dies, they fasten the arms across the
chest, place the body in a sitting position in the grave, and one of
them lies by it, while another sits at the entrance. They have a large
and extensive cavern, in which they place their dead; but those who
guard this cavern, though they are something like priests, are the
most depraved persons. They sometimes send messengers to call
the relatives of the dead, enjoining them to bring with them the best
of every thing they have; and when these innocent people arrive at
the cavern, they are immediately plundered of what they take there;
and if they be females, their chastity is violated.
“This is the life and habits of these infidel Pagans; and
consequently the roads about Noofee are very dangerous and
perilous.
“When their king dies, they enter his house, and live in it.”

N. B.—It is proper here to observe, that the above two papers,

Nos. 8 and 9, are written, or rather scrawled out, unorthographically
and ungrammatically, and their composition is no more than a sort of
incoherent jargon. The translation, therefore, I have given of them is
mostly made out by conjecture. There is no doubt, however, that
Clapperton, who made some residence among these people, has
given some further account of them.
A. S.

FOOTNOTES:

[11]This is a mistake: it should be the Tigris.—A. S.

[12]The inventor of this story had, there is no doubt, meant it to
be as a prophecy for the coming of Mahomed, and that to show
that even the Christians themselves had foretold his coming; for
all these words which he puts into the mouth of these Christians
are the very result of Mahomed’s career, as recorded by the
Mahomedan historians.—A. S.
[13]See No. 4.
[14]Egypt was conquered by the Mahomedans in the 20th year
of Hegira, or the 10th after Mahomed’s death, under the Khalifat
of Omar Eben Elkattab, who, by the instigation of an intrepid
officer named Amrú Ben El-Aâss (who, under some very singular
circumstances, happened to visit Egypt and see its splendour a
few years previous), sent an army, consisting of no more than
4000 men, to subdue that mighty and rich country. Amrú
succeeded in his enterprise, and pushed on his conquest to the
Gharb; but Okbat Ben Amer’s name appears only as a witness to
the treaties concluded between the conqueror and the people of
Alexandria; though he was considered an officer of rank and
valour.—A. S.
[15]The writer of this account, it seems, was in Captain
Clapperton’s company, or attached to his service.—A. S.
A VOCABULARY OF THE YOURRIBA TONGUE.

Fowl, Ade′a
Goat, Aoor′ey
Sheep, Agon′ta
Pig, Ale′day
Salt, Ee′yo
Corn, Agbad′doo
Millet, Ok′kablebba
Grass, Co′co
Beads, Le′key
Gold, Sic′ca
Coral, In′yoh
Silver, Patak′ka
Cloth, Atchio
Man, Okon′a
Woman, Obin′a
King, Ob′bah
Horse, Ep′pee
Saddle, Gar′ree
Bridle, Ja′noo
Pepper, Att′ah
Shallots, Allabous′sa
Yams, Ish′oo
Plantains, Ayid′dey
Fire, Jun′ah
Water, Om′mee
Wood, Ig′gie
A pot, Coc′co
A calabash, E′bah
Duck, Pap′ayeh
Soup, Ob′eh
House, Ill′eh
Mug, Tank′ara
Plate, A′wo
Knife, O′beh
Head, Or′ree
Eyes, Oj′oo
Nose, Em′oo
Mouth, En′oo
Teeth, E′hee
Ears, Eff′ee
Chin, Ebb′ee
Neck, Enaff′oo
Shoulders, Edgeookah
Arm, Epk′wa
Elbow, Ebah′wa
Wrist, Onawa′wa
Hand, A′wa
Thumb, Atang′pako
Fingers, Ama′wa
The body, Agwid′demoo′gu
Belly, Inn′oh
Thigh, E′tah
Knee, Okk′oo
Leg, Ajoo′goo
Ankle, Coco′sey
Foot, Atalis′sey
Toes, Amalis′sa
Boots, Sa′labattoo
Sandals, Battoo
Fan, Abab′bey
Cow, Mall′oo
Dog, Aj′ah
Cub, Aloghin′ne
Mouse, Acoo′fu
Tiger, Ek′ka
Hyena, Eco′co
Vulture, Awood′ec
Jacket, Kook′oomah
Trousers, Shock′ootoo
Turkey, Fu′lutu′loo
Elephant, Gen′acoo
Hippopotamus, En′emy
Cotton wool, O′woo
Palm oil, Ep′eh
Cocoa-nut, Ay′ba
Tornado, Oj′uma′ri
A mule, Barak′ka
A jackass, Kettékettéh
A mat, Enn′ee
A bag, Ok′key
A gun, E′bah
A cutlass, Jom′ma
Silk, Ce′dah
Damask Ala′ri
Scarlet cloth, Doh′do
Blue ditto, Iss′ado′doh
Green ditto, Alar′ooya′goo
Yellow ditto,
Tree, E′wajass′kway
Sun, O′noo
Moon, Ajoo′pa
Star, Era′wo
God, Ala′noo
Thunder, Ar′oo
Lightning, Mannumanu
Rain, Odigoo
Wind, Avoo′voo
Cap, Fill′ah
Hat, Atte′ Ebo
Hair, Olloo
Beard, Eg′bee
Skin, All′ah
Nail, Eff′eh
One, Ok′ka
Two, Ma′jee
Three, Mai′ta
Four, Me′ne
Five, Mall′oo
Six, Mai′ffa mai′fa
Seven, Ma′gee
Eight, Ma′jo
Nine, Mai′ssu
Ten, May′wah
Twenty, Ok′ko
Thirty, Agboug
Forty, Ogojee
Fifty, Adett′a
Sixty, Ogotta
Seventy, Ado′nee
Eighty, Ogonee
Ninety, Ado′noo
One hundred, Ogo′noo
Two hundred, Egbe′o
Three ditto, Oa′doo
Four ditto, In′ee
Five ditto, Edag′bett′a
Six ditto, Eg′bett′a
Seven ditto, Edag′be′ne
Eight ditto, Eg′be′ne
Nine ditto, Edegba′noo
One thousand Eggba′noo
Two ditto Ebah
Three ditto Egba′dagoo
Four ditto Egbagie
Five ditto Egbe′dogmoo
Six ditto Egbaa′ta
Seven ditto Edegbaa′nee
Eight ditto, Egba′nee
Nine ditto, Edegbaa′noo
Ten ditto, Ebaa′noo
 FELLATAH.

One, Go
Two, Diddie
Three, Tattie
Four, Ni
Five, Jowie
Six, Jowego
Seven, Jowaddie
Eight, Jowatittie
Nine, Jowanie
Ten, Sapo
Eleven, Sapoago
Twelve, Sapodiddie
Thirteen, Sapoatittie
Fourteen, Sapoani
Fifteen, Sapoaji
Sixteen, Sapoajego
Seventeen, Sapoajaddide
Eighteen, Sapoajatittie
Nineteen, Sapoajanie
Twenty, Nogi
Twenty-one, Nogiago
Twenty-two, Nogiadiddie
Twenty-three, Nogiatittie
Twenty-four, Nogiani
Twenty-five, Nogiajowie
Twenty-six, Nogiajego
Twenty-seven, Nogiajadidde
Twenty-eight, Nogiajattitie
Twenty-nine, Nogiajanie
Thirty, Shapandatittie
Thirty-one, -------------- ago
Forty, Dabi
Fifty, Dabisapo
Sixty, Chapandijago
Seventy, Chapandajadidie
Eighty, Chapandagatittee
Ninety, Chapandajani
One hundred, Hemri
One hundred and one, Hemrigo
One hundred and two, Hemrididdie
One hundred and three, Hemritittie
One hundred and four, Hemrini
One hundred and five, Hemrijoie
Two hundred, Kamididdie
Three ditto, Kamitittie
Four ditto, Kamini
Five ditto, Kamijoie
One thousand, Koojuna
Two ditto, Koojunadiddie
Twenty ditto, Koojunaginogi
What is this? Konindadoom
Man, Gorko
Men, Worbaa
Woman, Debo
Women, Reuba
Boy, Beedo
Boys, Beepba
Girl, Surba
Girls, Surbaba
Horse, Putcha
Horses, Putche
Cow, Cows, Nagea.