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1-76 Susquehanna
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Second Edition
American Segmental Bridge Institute June 2008
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e : (602) 997-9964 Fax: (602) 997-9965
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CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
HANDBOOK FOR
CONCRETE SEGMENTAL
AND CABLE-SUPPORTED BRIDGES
Published June 2008
by
© Copyright 2008 by the American Segmental Bridge Institute. All Rights Reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof may not be reproduced
in any form without permission of the publisher.
Bilfinger Berger
Ingenieurbau GmbH
Bibliothek
C 7-63/0#
MASTER TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0 - 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 1 of 9
CHAPTER 4.0 CONSTRUCTION OF PRECAST BALANCED CANTILEVER BRIDGES
Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0 - 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 2 of 9
CHAPTER 5.0 CONSTRUCTION OF CAST-IN-PLACE BALANCED CANTILEVER BRIDGES
5.0 Construction of Cast-in-Ptace Balanced Cantilever Bridges 3
5.1 Introduction 3
5.2 Construction Methods 6
Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0 - 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 3 of 9
CHAPTER 8.0 SEGMENTAL SUBSTRUCTURES A
8.0 Segmental Substructures 3
8.1 Introduction 3
8.2 Project Examples 3
8.3 Precasting Operations 7
8.4 Erection Operations 10
8.5 Summary 11
Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0- 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 4 of 9
CHAPTER 9.0 PRODUCTION OF PRECAST SEGMENTS Continued
9.1.8 Post Casting 25
9.1.9 Summary - Casting Yard Planning and Setup 26
9.2 Long Line and Short Line Forms 27
9.2.1 Long Line Casting Bed 27
9.2.2 Short Line Casting Bed 33
9.3 Match Casting 37
9.4 Casting Curve 38
9.5 Fabrication of Rebar Cage with Post-Tensioning Ducts and Hardware 39
9.6 Installation of Post-Tensioning Ducts 41
9.7 Handling the Prefabricated Rebar Cage 41
9.8 Rebar Cage in Casting Cell 42
9.9 Setting the Match Cast Segment 42
9.10 Placing Concrete 43
9.11
9.12
9.13
Curing
Forms
_
Finishing the Top Surface
f
4 fcr
_ 45
46
47
9.14 Special Situations - Elevated Light Rail Construction 50
9.14.1 Rail Construction 50
9.14.2 LRT Electrification 52
9.14.3 Crossover Construction 52
9.14.4 Grounding Requirements 53
9.14.5 LRT Conclusion 55
CHAPTER 10.0 PROCEDURES FOR HANDLING TRANSPORTING AND ERECTING PRECAST SEGMENTS
10.0 Procedures for Handling, Transporting and Erecting Precast Segments 3
10.1 Methods of Lifting Precast Segments 3
10.1.1 Lifting Holes Cast in the Top Slab of Segments 3
10.1.2 Inserts Embedded in the Segment Webs and Protruding Above the Top Slab 4
10.1.3 Lifting Slings or C Hook Frame 5
10.2 Handling and Transporting of Precast Segments in Precast Yard 6
10.2.1 Handling precast segment from the new-cast position to the match-cast position 6
10.2.2 Handling and Transporting of Precast Segments from the Casting Area
to the Storage Area 6
10.3 Transporting Precast Segments from the Precast Yard to the Erection Site 11
10.3.1 Transporting Precast Segments via Water Using Barges 11
10.3.1.1 Loading 11
10.3.1.2 Transport 12
10.3.1.3 Unloading 12
10.3.2 Transporting Precast Segments Off-site via Land 14
10.3.2.1 Loading 14
10.3.2.2 Transport 14
10.3.2.3 Unloading 15
10.3.3 Transporting Precast Segments On-site via Land 15
10.4 Erection of Precast Segmental Bridges 19
10.4.1 Factors for the Selection of Precast Segmental Bridge Erection Methods 19
Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0- 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 5 of 9
CHAPTER 10.0 PROCEDURES FOR HANDLING TRANSPORTING AND ERECTING PRECAST SEGMENTS
Continued
10.4.2 Erection Methods for Precast Segmental Bridges 21
10.4.2.1 Erection Methods for Span-by-Span Type Bridges 22
10.4.2.1.1 Underslung Trusses with Crane on Ground or Barge Mounted on Water 22
10.4.2.1.2 Erection on Underslung Trusses with Crane or Derrick/Lifter on Deck 24
10.4.2.1.3 Erection with an Overhead Gantry 25
10.4.2.1.4 Ful! Span Erection with Winches / Strand Jacks 27
10.4.2.1.5 Full Span Carrier / Erector 28
10.4.2.1.6 Full Span Erection on Shoring Falsework 29
10.4.2.2 Erection Methods for Balanced Cantilever Bridges 30
10.4.2.2.1 Balanced Cantilever Erection by Crane on Ground or on Water 30
10.4.2.2.2 Balanced Cantilever Erection by Overhead Gantries 32
10.4.2.2.3 Balanced Cantilever Erection with Beam and Winch/Strand Jacks 34
10.4.2.2.4 Balanced Cantilever Erection with Special Erectors 36
10.4.2.3 Erection Methods Conclusion 37
-
Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 6 of 9
CHAPTER 12.0 EPOXY JOINTING, DUCT COUPLER DEVICES, AND PREPACKAGED GROUT
12.0 Epoxy Jointing, Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 3
12.1 Purposes of Epoxy 3
12.2 Types and Application of Epoxy 3
12.3 Duct and Duct Coupler Devices 6
12.3.1 FREYSSINET Post-Tensioning Systems 7
12.3.2 VSL Segmental Duct Coupler 8
12.3.3 General Technologies, Inc. Precast Segmental Duct and Duct Coupler 9
12.4 Prepackaged Grout 10
12.4.1 BASF Construction Chemicals - Building Systems Epoxy and Prepackaged
Grout for Segmental Bridge Construction 13
12.4.1 BASF Construction Chemicals - Building Systems Epoxy
and Prepackaged Grout for Segmental Bridge Construction 14
12.4.2 SIKA Corporation Epoxy Resin for Segmental Bridge Construction 15
12.4.3 SIKA Corporation Prepackaged Grouts for Segmental Bridge Construction 16
r -- Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0- 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 7 of9
CHAPTER 15.0 LESSONS LEARNED
15.0 Lessons Learned 3
15.1.0 General 3
15.2.0 Design Lesson Learned 4
15.2.1 Reinforcing Details 4
15.2.2 Tendon and Duct Detailing 4
15.2.3 Cracking 6
15.2.4 Designing for Construction Tolerance 7
15.2.5 Principal Stresses and Web Shear 7
15.2.6 Flange Shear Stresses 7
15.2.7 Asymmetric Sections and Rotated Principal Axes 9
15.2.8 Shear Distribution of Multiple Webs 9
15.2.9 Shear Lag 9
15.2.10 Combination of Transverse Bending and Shear 10
15.2.11 Built-in Loads 10
15.2.12 Tendon Losses 10
15.2.13 Bottom Slab Drainage Details 10
15.2.14 Inspection Access 11
15.3.0 Construction Lesson Learned 12
15.3.1 General 12
15.3.2 Equipment Requirements 12
15.3.3 Construction Loads 12
15.3.4 Truss Stability 13
15.3.5 Bearing of Truss Supports 14
15.3.6 Warping Under Concentrated Loads 14
15.3.7 Out-of-Balance Moments 14
15.3.8 Alignment and Geometry Problems 14
15.3.9 Geometry Control in Gore Regions 15
15.3.10 Fit of Match Cast Segments 15
15.3.11 Steam Curing and Warping 15
15.3.12 Short Tendon Elongations 16
15.3.13 Tendon Blockages 16
15.3.14 Tendon Pop-out 16
15.3.15 Epoxy Not Setting 18
15.3.16 Freezing of Water in Ducts and Recess Pockets 18
15.4.0 References 19
Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0- 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 8 of 9
CHAPTER 16.0 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING & INSPECTION (CEI) OF SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION
Continued
16.9 Casting Yard Quality Control / Geometry Control 5
16.10 Review of Erection Procedures 6
16.11 Confirmation of Erection Procedures 6
16.12 Post Tensioning and Grouting 6
16.13 Bearings, Expansion Joints and Seismic Devices 7
16.14 Highway vs. Rail Bridges 7
16.15 Record Keeping / As-Builts 7
16.16 Safety 7
16.17 Environmental Issues 8
16.18 Claims and Changes 8
16.19 Successful Project Ingredients 8
16.20 Summary 9
Table of Contents, Chapters 1.0- 17.0 and Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation & Grouting Manual 9 of 9
Construction Practices Handbook For
Concrete Segmental and Cable-Supported Bridges
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In addition to the acknowledgements of individuals who were primary authors of chapters of the First
Edition, the following individuals were primarily responsible for writing or revising chapters of the
second edition:
Lessons Learned
Chapter 15 Cliff Freyermuth, ASBI
Ben Soule, International Bridge Technologies, Inc.
Ralph Salamie, Kiewit Pacific Company
Construction Engineering Inspection of Segmental Construction
Chapter 16 Ian Hubbard, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Inc.
Thomas DeHaven, FIGG
John W. Jordan, Earth Tech, Inc.
Acknowledgements
(First Edition)
“A Guide to the Construction of Segmental Bridges” developed by and for the Florida
Department of Transportation; October 1989, was used by the American Segmental Bridge
Institute Construction Practices Committee as a source document in the development of the
“Guidelines for Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges” presented in this publication.
Contributions to the Handbook by individuals who were primary authors of chapters of this
section of the manual are acknowledged as follows:
i
ASBI Construction Practices Committee
May 2008
2
DISCLAIMER
This publication is intended for the use of professionals competent in evaluating the
significance and limitation of its contents and who will accept responsibility for the
application of the materials it contains. American Segmental Bridge Institute makes no
warranty regarding the recommendations contained herein, including warranties of
quality, workmanship or safety, express or implied, further including, but not limited to,
implied warranties or merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. THE
AMERICAN SEGMENTAL BRIDGE INSTITUTE SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR
ANY DAMAGES, INCLUDING CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, BEYOND
REFUND OF THE PURCHASE PRICE OF THIS PUBLICATION. The incorporation
by reference or quotation of material in this publication in any specifications, contract
documents, purchase orders, drawings or job details shall be done at the risk of those
making such reference or quotation and shall not subject the American Segmental Bridge
) Institute to any liability, direct or indirect, and those making such reference or quotation
shall waive any claims against the American Segmental Bridge Institute.
Precast segmental balanced cantilever bridges are presently used in the U.S. for spans up to 440 feet When
circumstances permit the use of “heavy” segmental construction, spans as long as 820 feet have been built
in balanced cantilever. The balanced cantilever construction process involves placing segments
progressively on alternate sides of a pier. As shown in Figure 1.3, segments can be erected by land or
barge-mounted cranes, by deck-mounted lifting equipment, or by an overhead gantry. Erection speed using
cranes typically varies between 2 to 4 segments per day per crane. A mobile rubber-tired segment erector
used in 2002 in construction of the Dallas High Five Interchange is shown in Figure 1.4.
-
Figure 1.3 Common Segment Installation Methods
-
Figure 1.4 Erection of Cantilever N-E5 with Segment Erector. Cantilever W-N 10 in the Foreground
Precast segmental progressive placement may be used for spans ranging from 100 to 300 feet. This method
of construction has been applied or considered in environmentally sensitive locations where construction
access is restricted to one or both ends of the bridge. A sketch of the erection scheme is shown in Figure
1.5, and a construction view of the Linn Cove Viaduct is presented in Figure 1.6.
Construction of the precast segmental arch spans of the Natchez Trace Parkway Bridge in Tennessee is
illustrated by Figures 1.7 and 1 .8. The arch spans range to 582 feet. Segment erection is supported by tie-
backs to piers, or tie-backs anchored at ground anchors at the abutments. The Natchez Trace Parkway
Bridge deck was constructed utilizing balanced cantilever construction with spans ranging from 90 to 246
feet.
-
Figure 1.8 Placement of Keystone of Natchez Trace Arch Bridge
-
Figure 1.9 Construction of Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Bridges
Cast-in-place segmental incremental launching involves construction of segments in a casting bed at one or
both abutments, and pushing the segments across the piers by means of hydraulic jacks. Spans may range
to about 350 feet, but longer spans may require use of temporary mid-span supports. The principle of
incremental launching is illustrated in Figure 1.12. Figures 1.13 and 1.14 illustrate incremental launching
of the Bellaire Beach Bridge in Tampa, Florida in 2008. Detailed description of construction of
incrementally launched concrete bridges is presented in Chapter 6.0. A steel launching nose is attached to
the first segment to reduce moments and stresses during launching as shown in Figure 1.13 with reference
to the Bellaire Beach Bridge in Tampa, Florida. Launching equipment for the Bellaire Beach Bridge is
shown in Figure 1.14.
Precast and cast-in-place cable-stayed bridges are discussed in Chapter 7.0. In addition, both precast
segmental construction technology and cast-in-place segmental technology as discussed in this Handbook
are applicable to construction of concrete cable-stayed bridges. Examples of U.S. cable-stayed bridges are
the C&D Canal Bridge in Delaware with precast segments and a main span of 750 feet (Figure 1.15), the
Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa, Florida with precast segments and a main span of 1 ,200 feet (Figure
1.16), and the Dames Point Bridge in Jacksonville, Florida with cast-in-place segments (edge girder, deck
and floor beam) and a main span of 1,300 feet (Figure 1.17).
The Skyway portion of the San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge, East Span Replacement consists of dual
precast segmental concrete structures, measuring 6,900 feet in length, and two times 82 feet in width. The
typical span length is 525 feet, and 28 cantilevers will be constructed using 452 precast segments. Typical
segments are 25 feet long, 82 feet wide, and the maximum segment weight is 800 tons. Figure 1.18 shows
the long line casting form for the segments, Figure 1.19 shows the 800-ton segment transporter, and
segment storage is illustrated in Figure 1.20.
Segments are delivered on barges since the entire structure is over water. The erection equipment consists
of self-launching beams and hydraulic winches. The size and weight of these segments has made the
design and fabrication of this erection equipment unique and challenging. All lifting and hydraulic
equipment has been factory tested and calibrated. In addition, each SLED will be load tested to 125
percent of the heaviest segment weight.
The Skyway Structure consists of 28 cantilevers, and each cantilever has up to nine segments on each side.
The speed of moving from cantilever to cantilever is more important than the lifting and launching speed
for each segment. The two lifters that make up a SLED are fully self-contained, and each lifter can be
moved to the next cantilever in a single pick as a complete unit. Figure 1.21 shows erection of the first
segment on July 26, 2004.
Figure 1.20 - Long Line Casting Form - San Francisco-Oakland East Bay Skyway Bridge
Figure 1.21 - 800- ton Segment Transporter - San Francisco Oakland East Bay Skyway Bridge
Figure 1.23 - San Francisco-Oakland Skyway Bridge, Erection of First Segment, July 26, 2004
2.0 Terminology 3
2.1 General Terminology 3
2.2 Post-Tensioning and Grouting Terminology 8
Anchorage Block - Build-out in the web, flange, or web-flange junction to provide area for one or more
tendon anchorages (Figure 2.2).
Balanced Cantilever Erection - This is an erection method where segments are erected alternatively on
either side of the pier in cantilever up to the point where a cast-in-place closure is made with the previous
cantilever or existing side span structure (Chapter 4.0)
-
Beam and Winch Custom made erection equipment consisting of a longitudinal beam fitted with lifting
pulleys, tackle and winches which is attached to the end of a cantilever and lifts up the segments. After
erecting a segment, the equipment is advanced for erection of the next segment. This equipment is used
with balanced cantilever or progressive cantilever erection (Figure 4.3).
Box Girder or Box Pier - Box shaped structural member used for bridge superstructures and piers as shown
in Figure 2.2.
Cantilever Tendons Longitudinal post tensioning installed in the top slab of segmental bridges built in
balanced cantilever.
Casting Curve - This is the geometric profile to which the segments must be made in order to achieve the
required theoretical bridge profile after all final structural and time-dependent (creep and shrinkage)
deformations have taken place.
-
Closure Cast-in-place concrete segment or segments used to complete a span.
Continuity Tendons - Longitudinal post tensioning installed in the bottom slab of segmental bridges built in
balanced cantilever.
Diabolo - Details for continuous duct placement through deviation saddles, and for connection at
diaphragms (Figure 2.3)
Deviation Saddle - Build-out in the web, flange, or web-flange junction to provide for change of direction
of an external tendon.
Deviation Trumpet - Detail for tendon connection of deviation saddles and diaphragms to provide tolerance
for angle of tendon connection (Figure 2.4).
-
External Tendon Tendon located outside the flanges or webs of the structural member, generally inside
the box girder cell.
Erection Truss Span-bv-Span - This is a custom built truss which rests underneath a span on supports
connected to the pier and/or previously erected superstructure onto which a complete span of segments is
placed by crane or other device. Such trusses may be self launching to the next span or may be moved by
cranes.
Form Traveler - Equipment utilized for construction of Cast-in-Place segmental bridges. Major
components include the structural frames (horses), the upper work platform, the lower work platform, and
the trailing work platform. The form traveler is used to advance the forms from segment to segment. It
also supports the leading edge of the forms throughout the “form-rebar-pour” cycle.
Internal Tendon - Tendon located within the flanges or webs (or both) of the structural member.
-
Long Line Casting Method of casting segments on a long casting bed which makes up the complete
cantilever or span between field closures.
-
Match Cast Method of casting segments whereby a segment is cast against an existing segment to produce
a matching joint. When the segments are separated and re-assembled in the structure, the mating surfaces
fit together and reproduce the "as cast geometry."
—
Permanent Post Tensioning Post tensioning that is required as part of the completed structure.
—
Pier Table The portion of a cast-in-place segmental bridge that is built atop the piers prior to assembly of
the form travelers. In fact, a key factor in the pier table design process is the decision about whether to
only provide space for assembly of one form traveler or to provide adequate space for concurrent
fabrication of two form travelers.
-
Precast Segments Box shaped precast concrete elements which can be assembled to form a bridge
superstructure or pier (see Figure 2.1).
Precast Segmental Bridge - A bridge constructed with precast segments. Common types described in
Article 1.3 of Chapter 1.
Progressive Erection in Cantilever - Segments are erected in cantilever in one direction only from one pier
to the next using temporary intermediate piers or temporary cable stays or both to support the advancing
cantilever.
Segmental Construction - the fabrication and erection of a structural element (superstructure and/or
substructure) using individual elements, which may be either precast or cast-in-place. The completed
structural element acts as a monolithic unit under some or all design loads. Post-tensioning is typically used
to connect the individual elements. For superstructures, the individual elements are typically short (with
respect to the span length) box-shaped segments with monolithic flanges that comprise the full-width of the
structure.
Short Line Casting - Method of casting each segment in a special form called a casting cell using a fixed
bulkhead at one end and a previously cast segment at the other as shown in Figures 6.10, 6.11, and 6.12.
The form is only one segment long, hence the term "short line."
Span-bv-Span Erection - This is an erection method where all the segments for one span are placed on a
temporary support truss, aligned, jointed, and longitudinally post-tensioned together in one operation to
make a complete span. See Chapter 3.0.
Temporary Post Tensioning - Post tensioning installed solely for erection purposes.
Transverse Tendons - Post tensioning installed in the top deck and perpendicular to the centerline of the
bridge, typically to strengthen the cantilevered wings of the segments.
Post - tensioning
Shear hey Face anchor duet
in recess
O O O
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post— tensioning
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SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER STANDARDS
Figure 2.4 — Deviation Trumpet Details
Anchorage Assembly - An assembly of various hardware components which secures a tendon at its ends
after it has been stressed and7 imparts the tendon force into the concrete (Figure 2.5).
Anticipated Set - The wedge set assumed to occur in the design calculation of the post-tensioning forces at
the time of load transfer.
-
Bar Post-tensioning bars are high strength steel bars, normally available from 5/8 to 2 1/2 inch diameter
and usually threaded with very coarse thread.
Bearing Plate - Any hardware that transfers the tendon force directly into a structure or the ground.
-
Bleed The autogenous flow of mixing water within or its emergence from, newly placed grout, caused by
the settlement of the solid materials within the mass.
-
Bursting Force Tensile forces in the concrete in the vicinity of the transfer or anchorage of prestressing
forces.
-
Coupler A device used to transfer the prestressing force from one partial length prestressing tendon to
another. (Strand couplers are not permitted.)
Deviation Saddle - A concrete block build-out in a web, flange, or web-flange junction used to control the
geometry of, or to provide a means for changing direction of external, tendons.
-
Duct Material forming a conduit to accommodate prestressing steel installation and provide an annular
space for the grout which protects the prestressing steel.
Effective Prestress - The stress or force remaining in the prestressing steel after all losses (short-term and
long-term) have occurred.
Family of Systems - Group of post-tensioning tendon assemblies of various sizes which use common
anchorage devices and design. All components within the family of systems shall be furnished by a single
supplier and shall have a common design with varying sizes.
-
Fluidity A measure of time, expressed in seconds necessary for a stated quantity of grout to pass through
the orifice of a flow cone.
Grout - A mixture of cementitious materials and water with or without mineral additives or admixtures,
proportioned to produce a pumpable consistency without segregation of the constituents, when injected into
the duct to fill the space around the prestressing steel.
-
Grout Cap A device that contains the grout and forms a protective cover sealing the post-tensioning steel
at the anchorage.
Heat Shrink - Heat welding techniques to make splices between sections of plastic duct, in accordance with
the duct manufacturers instructions. Heat shrink sleeves having unidirectional circumferential recovery
manufactured specifically for the size of the duct being coupled consisting of an irradiated and cross linked
high density polyethylene backing for external applications and linear-density polyethylene for internal
applications.
Inlet (also inlet pipe or grout injection port) - Tubing or duct used for injection of the grout into the duct.
-
Jacking Force The force exerted by the device that introduces tension into the tendon.
Outlet (also ejection pipe or grout outlet vent or vent) - Tubing or duct to allow the escape of air, water,
grout and bleed water from the duct.
Pre-stressing Steel - The steel element of a post-tensioning tendon, which is elongated and anchored to
provide the necessary permanent prestressing force.
Post-Tensioning Scheme or Layout - The pattern, size and locations of post-tensioning tendons provided by
the Designer on the Contract Plans.
Prepackaged Grout grout with anti-bleed, low permeability, and thixotropic characteristics
Post-tensioning System - An assembly of specific models of hardware, including but not limited to
anchorage assembly, local zone reinforcement, wedge plate, wedges, inlet, outlet, couplers, duct, duct
connections and grout cap, used to construct a tendon of a particular size and type. The entire assembly
must meet the system pressure testing requirement. Internal and external systems are considered
independent of one another.
-
Pressure Rating The estimated maximum pressure that water in a duct or in a duct component can exert
continuously with a high degree of certainty that failure of the duct or duct component will not occur
(commonly referred to as working pressure).
Set (Also Anchor Set or Wedge Set) - Set is the total movement of a point on the strand just behind the
anchoring wedges during load transfer from the jack to the permanent anchorages. Set movement is the
sum of slippage of the wedges with respect to the anchorage head and the elastic deformation of the anchor
components. For bars, set is the total movement of a point on the bar just behind the anchor nut at transfer
and is the sum of slippage of the bar and the elastic deformation of the anchorage components.
; Special Anchorage Device - Anchorage device whose adequacy should be proven in standard acceptance
test Most multiple anchorages and all bond anchorages are special anchorage device.
Strand - An assembly of several high strength steel wires wound together. Strands usually have six outer
wires helically wound around a single straight wire of a similar diameter.
Stressing Jacks and Gauges - Each jack will be equipped with a pressure gauge for determining the jacking
pressure. The pressure gauge will have an accurate reading gauge with a dial at least 6 inches in diameter.
-
Temporary Corrosion Protection The introduction of a substance into the post-tensioning ducts
subsequent to installation and stressing of post-tensioned tendons and prior to grouting for purpose of
preventing or mitigating the initiation or propagation of corrosion of post-tensioned steel.
-
Tendon A single or group of prestressing steel elements and their anchorage assemblies imparting
prestress forces to a structural member or the ground. Also, included are ducts, grouting attachments, grout
and corrosion protection filler materials or coatings.
-
Tendon Size The number of individual strands of a certain strand diameter or the diameter of a bar.
Tendon Type - The relative location of the tendon to the concrete shape, internal or external.
Thixotropic - The property of a material that enables it to stiffen in a short time while at rest, but to acquire
a lower viscosity when mechanically agitated.
Transfer - The operation of imparting the force in a pre-tensioning anchoring device to the concrete.
Vacuum Grouting grout injection used for repair of voids in ducts and anchorages after generating a
-
Wedge Plate - The hardware that holds the wedges of a multi-strand tendon and transfers the tendon force
to the anchorage assembly. (Commonly referred to as anchor head)
Wedge - A small conically shaped steel component placed around a strand to grip and secure it by wedge
action in a tapered hole through a wedge plate.
Wire - A single, small diameter, high strength steel member and, normally, the basic component of strand,
although some proprietary post-tensioning systems are made up of individual or groups of single wires.
Grout Inlet
Grout Outlet
Syilftm 1OO
Grout cap
Trumpet Strand
Duct
3.1 Introduction
Of all the types of segmental bridges, span-by-span bridges are possibly the simplest, and are often the
most cost effective. They are typically utilized for moderate span lengths up to approximately 150 feet,
although the construction method has been extended to spans upwards of 180 feet. For spans longer than
approximately 150 feet to 180 feet, other erection methods typically become more attractive. Even at span
lengths of 160 to 180 feet, span-by-span construction begins to lose much of its appeal. This is because the
erection trasses become larger and the construction method begins to lose cost effectiveness. Serious
consideration should be given to using span-by-span construction for any span length greater than 160 feet.
Span-by-span construction can be defined as construction where an entire span is erected and becomes self-
supporting, before erecting the next span. Typically, this involves supporting an entire span of precast
segments on a temporary erection truss. The segments are epoxy joined and the post-tensioning is stressed
to make the span self-supporting. The erection truss is then moved ahead to the next span and the erection
process repeated. The erection truss (or trusses) most often supports the segments under the wings, or
bottom soffit. Overhead erection trusses have also been utilized. Typical span-by-span construction can be
seen in Figures 3.1 and 3.2.
There are several variations to the typical span-by-span construction method. Entire spans of precast
segments can be constructed on the ground, or on barges, and then lifted into position. Similarly, entire
spans can be cast-in-place on the ground, or on barges, and then lifted into position. (The lifting of an
entire span can be seen in Figure 3.3.) It is also possible to utilize the previously completed spans to
transport segments up the bridge deck and erect them from the “top-down”. Another variation is to cast¬
in-place each span on the temporary erection trasses.
While many variations on the basic technique have been utilized, the common feature is that an entire span
is erected and becomes self-supporting, before erecting the next span.
Figure 3.1 - Underslung Erection Truss during Top-Down Erection of the Ernest Lyons Bridge
(Photo courtesy of PCL Civil Constructors, Inc.)
Figure 3.3 - Overhead Gantry during erection of the Seattle Sound Transit Project
(Photo courtesy of PCL Civil Constructors, Inc.)
Of all the types of segmental construction, span-by-span constructed bridges are typically the most cost
effective. Historically, precast segmental span-by-span bridges have competed successfully in alternate
bids with cast-in-place concrete bridges, bulb-T bridges and steel bridges.
Most of the work associated with span-by span bridges is done in the precasting operations. The precasting
occurs in a casting yard and typically has no impact on highway or railway traffic occurring at the site of
the new bridge. Once the segments are cast, span-by-span bridges can be erected quickly. This minimizes
the time that construction impacts the site around the new bridge.
It should be noted that traffic can be maintained under the temporary erection trusses, once they are in
position for erection of a span. Typically the only restriction is that traffic is halted during the placement of
each segment, which takes only a small amount of time (typically 15 - 30 minutes). Although traffic can be
maintained under the trusses during erection, it should also be noted that care must be taken to protect
vehicular traffic from epoxy squeeze. This can be accomplished using various methods, the most common
of which is using tarps that hang underneath the segments during the epoxy operation. Examples of traffic
being maintained under and around spans being erected are illustrated in Figures 3.6 through 3.8.
Figure 3.6 — Maintenance of Traffic for the Ernest Lyons Bridge Project
(Photo courtesy of PCL Civil Constructors, Inc.)
Once the trusses have been advanced to the next span, the segments are then loaded onto the trusses as illustrated in
Figures 3.11 through 3.14. Typically, all but one segment is loaded onto the trusses before epoxy joining begins.
This is done because the truss deflections need to occur before the segments are epoxy joined, or else there is the
possibility that the deflections could crack a previously epoxied joint.
I
Figure 3.13 - Erecting Segments onto Trusses at the Evans Crary Sr. Project
Figure 3.15 shows epoxy being applied to segments as a part of the joining process. Normally,
temporary post-tensioning bars are used to apply the pressure for epoxy squeeze. These are often
located in small anchor blocks located inside the segments, as shown in Figure 3.16. The number
and location of temporary Tendon anchor blocks should consider the number of segments that can
be glued at one time.
Epoxy is typically applied to groups of segments that are then stressed together using temporary
anchor blocks and post-tensioning bars. Even with slow-set epoxies, three to four segments may
be a practical maximum before there is a risk that the epoxy will set before the group is stressed
together. If the epoxy does set prior to stressing the temporary bars, costly repairs will be
required.
)
Chapter 3.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Span-by-Span Bridges Page 11 of 20
Figure 3.15 - Applying Epoxy for Joining of the Segments
(Photo courtesy of Figg Engineering Group)
When groups of segments are stressed together, a significant amount of epoxy squeezes out of all
sides of the segment, including the top deck. If this epoxy is not swabbed down flush with the
deck, problems could arise later in the project during the deck grinding operation (required by
most specifications). Deck grinders will often only cut grooves through the hardened epoxy rather
than completely remove it as one might think. This in turn causes the back wheels of the grinding
machine to ride up onto the epoxy thus causing the front of the machine to grind deeper into the
deck. A dip is then created in the traveling surface of the structure which is considered
unacceptable by most standards. Swabbing of the epoxy on the top deck prior to it hardening will
make deck grinding easier and ultimately produce a better product.
Similarly, it is important to swab the insides of the permanent post-tensioning ducts of the pier
segments after the epoxy operation. If epoxy squeezes into the post-tensioning ducts and
swabbing is not performed, crews could have difficulty installing the permanent post-tensioning
cables.
Once all but the final segment is in place and epoxied, the one remaining segment is installed,
epoxy joined and temporarily stressed. Small concrete spacer blocks are then placed in the closure
joints between the typical segments and the pier segments, and approximately 5 percent to 8
percent of the permanent longitudinal post-tensioning is stressed. This locks the geometry of the
span in-place. It should be noted that the spacer blocks used to maintain the closure joint opening
can either be precast concrete blocks or cast-in-place high strength grout blocks. If cast-in-place
blocks are used, there are products on the market today that can achieve the required strength in
approximately 2 hours.
The closure joint concrete is then placed using high strength concrete, as illustrated in
Figures 3.17 and 3.18. Closure joints are typically placed at the end of a shift to allow for curing
of the concrete. Even using high early strength concrete, it can take 10-12 hours to achieve the
required strength for stressing (depending on the ambient temperature). After the closure joints
achieve a nominal strength (typically 2500 psi to 3000 psi), the longitudinal post-tensioning is
stressed to the final force, as illustrated in Figure 3.19. Draped external tendons that run the
length of one span and overlap across a pier segment with the tendons from the previous span
(Figure 3.19) are commonly utilized to create continuous span units.
It should be noted that construction loads (i.e. fully loaded concrete trucks, etc.) on adjacent spans
are sometimes prohibited until closure joints have been cured to a specified strength and final
stressing is complete. This is often a requirement because construction loads in adjacent spans can
cause vibration and movement to be transferred across the closure joint. If the closure joint has
not been properly cured, this vibration could jeopardize the structural integrity of the joint.
The stressing platform is often equipped with chain-falls that are used to support the stressing
jacks from above. Figure 3.19 shows a stressing jack being supported from above by a chain-fall
during stressing operations.
When designing a stressing platform, consideration should be given to the amount of working
room required to thread the stressing jack over the strand “tails” extending from the anchor head.
If the length of tails is not taken into account, crews will not have sufficient room on the platform
to insert the strand tails into the jack without leaning over the edge of the platform, thus creating
an unsafe condition. Figure 3.20 shows a stressing crew safely working on a stressing platform.
)
Chapter 3.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Span-by-Span Bridges Page 16 of 20
3.4 Special Considerations
In order to ensure an efficient construction plan using the span-by-span method, it is critical that
special attention be given to certain activities. For example, sufficient clearance must be allowed
between temporary truss supports and the bottom of the completed structure to allow for removal
of temporary supports. Figure 3.22 shows a temporary support being lowered through the
completed deck above using steel rods.
It is also important to consider how and when construction materials and equipment are placed
inside the bridge structure. As with all segmental bridge construction, the span-by-span method
requires a significant portion of the work to take place from inside the bridge structure. This work
requires tools, equipment and materials to be transferred into and out of the bridge structure. Once
a span has been completed and the trusses have been advanced, it can be extremely difficult to
place bulky materials such as HDPE ducts, strand, temporary post-tensioning bars, etc. inside the
bridge structure.
It is often easiest to place construction materials inside the bridge through the open end of the
structure (leading edge of construction) when crews have access from the trusses and stressing
platforms. Likewise, it is always best to dispose of waste materials as each individual span is
completed rather than waiting until the end of the project when access is not readily available.
3.5 Safety
Safety is of paramount concern for all types of bridge construction. In addition to the typical
safety concerns on all construction projects, the span-by-span method of segmental bridge
construction has several unique safety challenges of its own.
As with all segmental construction, the leading edge of the structure during span-by span
construction is constantly changing. It is not uncommon for site conditions to change drastically
within one shift. For this reason, it is essential that strict procedures be in place to communicate
all hazards and protect site personnel.
While a span is being erected on the truss, it is common to require all personnel working on the
individual segments to be tied off 100% of the time. This becomes extremely critical during the
epoxy joining operation when segments are being pulled together, thus creating gaps between
adjacent segments. All employees working inside and on top of the segments during this phase
must be tied off.
Once all segments have been epoxied together and all gaps have been closed, it is possible for
personnel to work inside tire bridge and on the top deck without being tied off, provided that all
leading edges are properly delineated per OSH A guidelines. Figure 3.24 shows a typical situation
in which personnel are required to work near a leading edge (note all workers have harnesses and
are tied off to cables anchored to the bridge deck).
In addition to fall protection, another safety concern includes procedures for post-tensioning the
temporary and permanent post-tensioning tendons. Temporary post-tensioning bars and bar jacks
used during the epoxy squeeze operation are often heavy and awkward and must be lifted very
near the ceiling of the segment, many times in the comers. This activity is often very difficult and
can easily cause back injuries or muscle sprains if not well planned. If possible, temporary
stressing blocks should be designed to allow for easy access of personnel and equipment.
Permanent post-tensioning operations are performed using jacks with extremely high forces (in
excess of 500 tons). As a result, personnel working around this operation should be well trained in
the hazards associated with post-tensioning. For example, no personnel should be allowed directly
behind either end of the post-tensioning tendons when the stressing operation is taking place, in
case one or more strands should break. In addition, prior to starting the stressing operation, all
personnel in the area should be made aware that the operation is underway so that they know to
take the proper safety precautions. This is often communicated with a siren or an air horn.
In addition to the above mentioned concerns, thought should also be given as to how the leading
edge of the structure will be delineated after erection of a certain span is complete and the trusses
have been advanced forward. Several other crews are required to follow behind the erection crew
and it is important that the leading edges of the bridge structure be maintained until the permanent
traffic barrier or railing is in place.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 1 of 39
TABLE OF FIGURES
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES HANDBOOK FOR
CONCRETE SEGMENTAL AND CABLE-SUPPORTED BRIDGES
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 2 of 39
4.0 Construction of Precast Segmental Balanced Cantilever Bridges
4.1 Overview
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 3 of 39
MMiHl
Stoye JO
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Figure 4.1-2 Three-Span Example, 2 of 2
Balanced cantilever spans are generally considered in situations where span-by-span erection is
impractical. Span lengths greater than 150’ are typically prohibitive for span-by-span
construction, while precast balanced cantilever construction is effective for span lengths from 150’
to 450’, and has been implemented for spans in excess of 500’ in response to special
circumstances. Balanced cantilever construction is well adapted for alignments with tight
curvature. Erection gantries used for span-by-span erection, and particularly underslung gantries,
may not be able to simultaneously place an entire span when the transverse offsets due to
curvature are significant. With balanced cantilever erection, segments are placed individually,
bringing more flexibility and extended reach.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 4 of 39
4.1.3 Segment Details
There are several features common to precast balanced cantilever segments that are best illustrated
by examining a typical bulkhead drawing shown in Figure 4.3. The notable features include:
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 5 of 39
4.1.3.1 Cantilever T endon Anchorages.
These anchor the cantilever tendons that permanently secure each pair of tendons to the cantilever.
They are typically located in the top flange, in close proximity to the web/flange junction. There are
several different configurations for locating the cantilever tendons, illustrated in Figure 4.4.
Considerations for choosing the location of an anchorage include the maximum tendon size, thickness
of the top flange, interference with web stirrups, and cost and complexity of the forms. An additional
consideration that is growing in importance is the role of grouting and anchorage protection. This area
has seen new developments in recent years, and it is important that the anchorages are detailed to
accommodate the project grouting, inspection and anchorage protection requirements.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 6 of 39
SINGLE CANTILEVER TENDON, FACE ANCHORED
When two cantilevers are joined, continuity tendons are stressed across the completed construction
joint. At this stage, there is no access to the segment face, so the continuity tendons are anchored in
internal blisters. These are concentrated in the bottom flange, at the web/flange interface. Often there
are a limited number of continuity tendons in the top flange as well.
During a typical erection cycle, the segments are secured against the cantilever with post-tensioning
bars until the permanent tendons have been stressed. The various methods of accommodating these
bars are discussed below, but it is important that they are anticipated from the earliest stages.
Precast segments for balanced cantilever construction are notable for the number of holes on the face
of the segment. Because each cantilever tendon stretches from end to end of the cantilever, segments
near the pier must accommodate nearly one set of tendons for each segment in the cantilever. Figure
4.5 illustrates a typical longitudinal post-tensioning layout, showing the concentration of tendons in the
top flange near the pier, and in the bottom flange near mid-span.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 7 of 39
Figure 4.5- Typical Tendon Layout
Balanced cantilever construction relies primarily on internal tendons, and attention to detail in the
planning stages can simplify construction. In some cases, the contractor is permitted to adjust
tendon layout and local details provided the post-tensioning force and eccentricity is maintained.
Some typical considerations include:
1. Proper spacing of the ducts. Duct spacing is governed by the requirements of the
AASHTO Specifications, and deserves careful attention. Ducts that are spaced
too closely together are at an increased risk of a pull-through failure where
transverse deviations occur. Ducts should be spaced at least one duct diameter
apart. This limitation is generally increased, due to practical considerations. Duct
holes in the bulkhead need %” or more between them to facilitate bulkhead
manufacture and segment production.
2. Ducts should be straight across all joints. When the segments are match-cast, an
important consideration is alignment of the ducts across the segment joint. This is
generally achieved by inserting a short, rigid mandrel in the ducts that cross the
joint. When a duct is curved, a smooth transition is difficult to achieve, and can
lead to unwanted kinks at the joint. It is frequently necessary to include tendons
that run at a slight angle to the bridge axis. This is easily accommodated - it is
only a curve that is to be avoided.
—
Chapter 4.0 Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 8 of 39
3. Tendon and anchorage details should be standardized to the greatest extent
possible. Duct placement is sometimes in areas with complicated and congested
reinforcement, and standardized details are helpful in reducing conflicts and
errors. Anchors generally require a small blockout behind the anchor plate to
accommodate the geometry of the anchorage. If the orientation of the anchors can
be standardized to one or two positions, the production efficiency is increased,
and opportunities for confusion are eliminated.
Shear keys are indentations along the mating faces of the webs. Their purpose is to ensure the transfer
of shear across the segment joint. As such, they should cover as much of the web as is achievable.
Alignment keys are generally located in the top and bottom flanges of the segment. They are distinct
from web keys, in that they are not explicitly designed to transfer global shear across the joint. Rather,
their primary function is to ensure a proper fit-up between segments when they are erected in the field.
They are also important in transferring local shear in the top flange at the joints. Balanced cantilever
segments typically have large portions of the top and bottom flanges reserved for longitudinal ducts, so
consideration should be given in design and construction to accommodating both ducts and alignment
keys.
4.2.1 Forms
As for most precast segmental construction, the casting cell bulkhead is a critical part of the set up.
The basics of the bulkhead are covered elsewhere in this handbook, but there are a few features
specific to balanced cantilever bridges that are worth noting.
When span lengths are over 200 feet, it is frequently more cost effective to use a variable depth
superstructure. This helps to provide peak shear and bending capacity where it is needed most. At
the same time, it adds a layer of complexity to casting operations. Forms created for variable
depth segments need to accommodate changes in depth, and to do so without interrupting the
casting schedule. Common solutions include two-piece bulkheads, where the bulkhead can be
lengthened or shortened by bolting together different pieces, adjustable soffit tables, and
adjustable core forms. While one set of forms can accommodate a range of depths, it may be
economical to have one set of forms that can accommodate the deepest segments, and another set
to accommodate the shallowest. In this case, it is important to analyze the workflow to ensure the
forms work together without interruption.
While the fixed bulkhead is an important part of any casting cell, for a balanced cantilever bridge
it takes on additional significance as the template for all longitudinal post-tensioning. All tendon
ducts are secured to pre-existing holes in the bulkhead. This means that the bulkhead must include
a hole at every location where a tendon crosses the joint — not just for that particular joint, but for
all joints. It is beneficial to standardize and re-use duct locations in a post-tensioning layout, to
avoid unnecessary or overlapping holes in the bulkhead.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 9 of 39
-
Figure 4.6 Typical Form and Fixed Bulkhead
Balanced cantilever designs make use of internal blisters for anchoring continuity tendons and
temporary PT. While it is good to standardize the blister locations whenever possible, it is likely
that the locations of internal blisters will vary. Core forms should be able to accommodate the
addition or removal of an internal blister on a regular basis.
Many of the detailing issues for balanced cantilever segments are directly related to successfully
integrating the internal tendons. Tendons can exert a significant force on the section wherever
they deviate, be it by design or unintentional. Good workmanship is important in these areas. The
topics listed below represent a partial list of areas specific to balanced cantilever bridges that merit
close attention.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 10 of 39
The first location is where the ducts
cross the segment joints. At this
location, the two primary
requirements are to create a smooth
transition across the joint, and to
eliminate the natural tendency for the
ducts to sag (see Figure 4.7). The
first is generally achieved by
inserting a mandrel in the ducts of the
match cast segment, which serves to
align and seal the ducts. The second
is achieved by ensuring the duct is
firmly supported against the rebar
cage at close intervals to as to
maintain the duct in a tangent
alignment at the joint.
Figure 4.7
Adequate duct support is important in other areas
as well. One example is in the bottom flange,
where continuity tendon ducts run the length of
the segment. If the concrete is placed in a
manner that requires a transverse flow (from web
to centerline), ducts that are not adequately
secured will tend to bow (see Figure 4.8). This
can create small kinks at the bulkhead, where the
duct is firmly attached. In general, proper duct
support is the key to avoiding unwanted kinks.
Figure 4.8
—
Chapter 4.0 Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 11 of 39
the duct is contained entirely within the toe of the blister, and it is important that the duct
placement in the yard matches this requirement, when applicable.
Figure 4.11
These examples of common critical details do not constitute an exhaustive list. It is important that
good engineering judgment be used in developing segment details, and that critical details are
clearly shown in the plans and accurately implemented in the casting yard. Specific requirements
for many of these details are given in AASHTO Specifications, their successfill implementation
begins with careful detailing during design.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 12 of 39
4.2.3 Geometry Control
In most respects, geometry control for short line casting is no different for balanced cantilever
spans than it would be for any other precast span as discussed in Chapter 10. There is one minor
difference, however. Casting of balanced cantilever spans progresses from the pier to the
cantilever tip. This means that the casting direction reverses for up- and down-station cantilevers.
This is easily achievable, but requires additional care and attention to detail in determining casting
coordinates, setting up the geometry control program, and determining the nomenclature for the
casting coordinates. It is good practice to use a three dimensional CADD program to plot the
casting coordinates for the entire bridge together, to check for any unintended kinks or
misalignments.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 13 of 39
-
Figure 4.13 Typical Lifting Methods
-
Figure 4.14 Typical Erection Cycle
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 14 of 39
4.3.2 Epoxy
Epoxy is now required for all segment joints, and has always been an AASHTO requirement for
joints with internal tendons. In many jurisdictions, epoxy is required on both faces of the
segments to be joined. The main purposes of the epoxy are to provide a strong, impermeable seal
at the joint to prevent corrosion in the tendons, and to lubricate the joint during installation. For
balanced cantilever construction, the epoxy can enter many of the empty ducts when the segments
are stressed together if adequate measures to protect the duct are not taken. It is important to swab
the ducts after erecting each segment, otherwise the epoxy can block the duct and hinder tendon
installation for subsequent segments.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 15 of 39
4.3.3 Temporary PT
Temporary PT is generally a necessary part of a typical erection cycle. In most cases, the
temporary PT will take the form of high-strength bars placed near the top and bottom flanges. The
purpose of the temporary bars is twofold. First, they provide a means of securing the new segment
to the cantilever, so that it may be released from the lifting equipment. Second, it provides a means
of compressing the wet epoxy. The epoxy should be compressed to a minimum of 40 psi during
the cure time, which can vary depending on product and temperature. The post-tensioning bars
should provide a minimum compression both while the segment is supported only by the bars, and
when the cantilever tendons have been stressed.
There are three main methods of incorporating the temporary PT into the segment. The first is via
small blisters cast on the interior of the box girder. They are typically located as shown in figure
4.16. This option allows easy access to both ends of the bars, so the bars can be removed and re¬
used on later cycles. To be re-used, the bars must be stressed to a fairly low level, typically 50%
of their ultimate strength. This method is very efficient during construction, and requires a limited
quantity of bars. However, the forms and casting operations see a small impact due to the
inclusion of interior blisters.
The second method consists of using internal PT bars, incorporated into the segment cross section.
Subsequent bars are coupled onto the previous set, and cannot be removed. Since the bars are
permanent, they can be stressed to higher levels, and can be included in the design of the final
structure. They must also be properly grouted and protected against corrosion. This method
eliminates the need for internal blisters, which is beneficial for the casting yard. However, a
greater number of bars is required.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 16 of 39
INTERNAL TO CROSS-SECTION
The third method consists of using a bracket attached to the segment to anchor the bars. This
functions much like the first option, but eliminates the blisters from the interior. However, careful
attention must be paid to proper detailing of the brackets to avoid local spalling. Some operations
are added to the typical cycle to secure the brackets in place for each segment.
The first is the frequency of tendon installation and stressing. With each cycle, at least two, and
occasionally four or six tendons must be installed and stressed. This is a critical path activity, as
the next pair of segments cannot be placed until the previous tendons have been completed. In
some cases, three or four cycles are completed in a day, a rate that requires efficient post¬
tensioning operations.
Another is the location of the work. During cantilever construction, all of the post-tensioning
installation and stressing is done from the end of the cantilever. In order to access the anchor
heads, it is necessary to have post-tensioning platforms that provide access to each end of the
cantilever. This platform must be removed and re-positioned with every cycle. Early efforts to
integrate the stressing platforms with segment placement equipment and operations can have a
positive impact on the speed of a typical cycle.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 17 of 39
Figure 4.18 - Stressing Platforms on the Otay River Bridge
4.3.5 Grouting
There is a growing recognition of the important role that grouting procedures play in the long-term
performance of segmental bridges. For a balanced cantilever bridge, it is beneficial to refine the
typical grouting operations.
As noted above, tendons are installed and stressed on a daily basis during cantilever erection.
However, it is generally best to wait until the entire cantilever is complete before grouting any of
the cantilever tendons. This is because there is often an empty duct directly adjacent to each
tendon when it is installed. If that tendon were grouted, there would be a risk of the grout crossing
over to the empty duct. This would result in blockages when later tendons are installed if the
empty ducts are not swabbed clear with each grouting operation
Depending on erection speed and local conditions, the allowable period for leaving a stressed
tendon ungrouted may be exceeded. In this case, a corrosion inhibitor can be used to extend the
period before grouting. In all cases, care should be taken to assure that water is not allowed to
stand in the ducts during cantilever erection. In cases where roadway grade does not provide
convenient drain points, grout inlets can be used to verify conditions in ungrouted tendons and
blow out standing water if necessary.
Cantilever tendons are often very long and flat, with little variation in elevation other than
roadway grade. This means that there are few high or low points where grout vents would be
required. For longer tendons, it is worthwhile to install supplemental grout vents along the length
of the tendons to improve grouting results.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 1 8 of 39
4.4 Erection Equipment and Methods
The defining task of balanced cantilever erection is delivering segments to the cantilever tip. The
equipment chosen for this operation can have an important impact on the project cost and
schedule. The three most common methods are with a crane, beam and winch, and erection
gantry. Factors that can influence the choice of equipment include:
• Up-front cost
• Operating height
• Lifting capacity
• Terrain / Access
• Required safety factors (for example, when crossing a railway)
• Erection sequence
• Loads on the structure
• Structure capacity
OVERHEAD GMTRT
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 1 9 of 39
4.4.1 Crane
Under the right circumstances, cranes can be used to place segments at the cantilever tips. This
can be a very cost-effective option, as cranes are readily available. It also allows the possibility of
erecting multiple cantilevers at once, offering savings on schedule.
However, the main constraint on crane erection is access. Balanced cantilever bridges are often
selected in response to inaccessible terrain, be it over a highway, water, or an environmentally
sensitive area. Since the crane will be used to place the segments in their final position, it must
have access along the entire alignment.
-
Figure 4.20 Segment Erection by Crane on PR181
In some cases, this can be avoided by using a light crane positioned on the bridge deck. A ground
based crane can be used to place segments on the deck, typically at the pier. The deck mounted
crane then picks up the segments and carries it out to the tip. This technique was used on the
Sound Transit balanced cantilever spans (Figure 4.21), and is generally only available for
relatively light sections.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 20 of 39
Figure 4.21 - Deck-mounted Crane Erection, Sound Transit Tukwila Line
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 21 of 39
Some considerations for beam and winch systems include the access and the height. For a fixed
system, access is required at every location along the alignment to deliver segments to the tip. In
addition, hoisting segments over significant heights can be time consuming, and have a negative
impact on the erection cycle.
Some specialized equipment has been built to overcome these difficulties. Specialized lifters are
able to move along the deck to hoist segments at an accessible location. They then deliver the
segment to the cantilever tip for erection. These are generally custom built to suit a specific
project. An example is the lifter used in the Dallas High-5 project, shown in Figure 4.23 below. It
should be noted that this method may present some engineering challenges during erection, since
the loaded hauler will occupy many different positions. Supplemental methods of reducing
demand on the substructure, such as tie-downs or counterweights may be necessary.
-
Figure 4.23 Mobile Lifter, Dallas High-5
Because the gantries in use today have evolved to a rather high level of sophistication and are
generally customized for a particular project, they represent a major investment in equipment.
Their successful use is governed by the job's capacity to offset the up-front cost. This may be
through increased speed of erection or in overcoming access restrictions. It is apparent that the
cost impact of the gantry is reduced as the overall cost of the project becomes larger.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 22 of 39
The impact of schedule may also be a deciding factor in selecting an overhead gantry. Where the
structure is relatively long and there is a reasonable repetitiveness of spans, a gantry can be a fast
and efficient means of erecting cantilevers. However, gantries are restrictive, in that they impose a
linear erection sequence on the project. It is not possible for a single gantry to erect on multiple
piers, as would be the case with crane erection.
With many of the gantries currently being designed and/or fabricated overseas, other issues should
be considered including lead time, import challenges, quality control issues, design criteria and
standards, replacement parts and equipment training.
After the pier segment is in place, either by setting it if precast or by casting it in place, the
overhead gantry is positioned as shown in Figure 4.24 to begin typical segment erection. The
gantry rests on two supports and is, therefore, statically determinate. The center support is
anchored on the pier segment where the cantilever is being erected while the rear support is tied
down at some point on the previous cantilever. The segments to be erected are either transported
from the rear of the gantry along the completed structure or lifted directly from below depending
on the conditions of ground or barge access at the site. In the former case, the gantry supports
must be transversely spaced such that a segment, when rotated 90° to the bridge, may pass
between them. A trolley which generally rides on the upper or secondary chords of the launching
girder is used to transport the segment and to position it for erection.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 23 of 39
Figure 4.25 - Segment Rotated 90° between Truss Chords, Otay River Bridge
After erection of a particular cantilever is completed and any span closures are made, the gantry is
launched to begin cantilever erection on the following pier. The exact sequence involved depends
largely on the gantry being used and the span configuration of the bridge under construction. If the
gantry is of sufficient size relative to the forward span length, shown in Figure 4.24A, it may be
possible to place the pier segment for the next cantilever without changing the longitudinal
positioning of the gantry. If the nose section of the gantry is shorter than the forward span length
as shown in Figure 4.24B, some sort of two-stage launch or temporary intermediate bent must be
used.
After the pier segment is in position, the gantry can be advanced until the central support is located
over the pier segment. The support is then anchored to the pier to begin the next cycle of typical
segment erection on the new cantilever.
The method by which a launching gantry advances relative to the bridge depends on the overall
design of the gantry and the particular construction application. In some designs, the gantry is
supported on temporary front and rear supports, and then prepared to launch by freeing the
primary (center) support. The gantry rolls over the front (nose) support by means of a trolley fixed
to the support. It may also roll over a similar trolley on the rear support, which has typically
already been advanced and reattached to the deck near the center support. Alternately, for this type
of gantry the rear support may be attached to the launching gantry itself. In this instance the rear
support would actually roll over the completed deck on rubber tires or a rail system. In other
gantry designs that feature two moveable primary supports, the gantry is supported on temporary
supports only long enough to advance the two primary supports along the completed deck. Once
the primary supports are repositioned and reengaged, the gantry rolls over trolleys fixed to those
supports.
Chapter 4,0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 24 of 39
Figure 4.26 - Erection Gantry Launched Forward, Otay River Bridge
Once the decision has been made to use an overhead gantry based on the constraints of the project,
the type of gantry must be chosen. The total contract bid price, the availability of existing gantries,
and the potential future use of the gantry on other projects are all factors that influence the
ultimate design of the gantry. Of particular importance is the length of the gantry with respect to
the typical span length.
The earliest gantries were designed to be slightly longer than the span length of the bridge on
which they were being used. A typical gantry of this classification is shown in Figure 4.24B. The
length was sufficient to span between the previous cantilever and the present cantilever being
erected while supported on the rear and center supports. By minimizing the distance between
gantry support points, it resulted in a least-weight gantry design.
The disadvantages to this type of gantry, however, involve the position of the rear support on the
previous cantilever during typical segment erection and the increased complexity of pier segment
placement and girder launching operations. Figure 4.24B shows the gantry in position during
typical segment erection. The proximity of the rear gantry support to the tip of the cantilever may
result in a worst case scenario for the loads on the cantilever or the pier. This would require
additional temporary post-tensioning for moment or shear consideration in the cantilever or
bending reinforcement in the pier above the service level requirements. During launching
operations, this type of gantry requires an intermediate step to position the temporary nose support
over the pier to begin pier segment placement operations. Alternately, a temporary pier bent may
be required to support the nose where a span is exceptionally greater in length than the typical
span.
The evolution of launching gantries has recently been towards girders whose total lengths are
equal or slightly greater than twice the typical span length (Figure 4.24A). This has been made
possible largely due to the more efficient use of materials than the first-generation gantries, and
due to a recognition that additional bridge reinforcing and associated labor is more expensive over
the course of a large project than additional gantry length. As is demonstrated in the schematics in
Figure 4.24A, the longer girders offer the advantage of ensuring that loads transmitted to the
superstructure remain over the piers or at least in the very near vicinity. Pier segment placement
and girder advancement operations are simplified by allowing the simultaneous placement of the
typical segments of a cantilever and the pier segment at the following cantilever pier location.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 25 of 39
As a practical matter, the tendency is to size a gantry based on twice the "typical" span length.
This keeps the gantry to a reasonable length to facilitate erection and launching operations for the
majority of spans. For span lengths in excess of the typical span, special, though not necessarily
complex, procedures will need to be carried out to allow the gantry to be launched from one pier
segment to another.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 26 of 39
Figure 4.28 - Launching Gantry for Hanging Lake Viaduct
Glenwood Canyon, Colorado
4.4.4 Hauler
In some cases, a specialized segment hauler may be used to transport segments at the erection site.
This is sometimes used to deliver segments over the completed structure to the erection gantry.
When this is the case, it is advantageous to match the width of the hauler to the webs of the box
girder. The loaded hauler places significant concentrated loads on the bridge, and local bending of
the top flange should be minimized. Care should be taken to limit the path taken by the hauler to
avoid overloading the structure.
Controlling cantilever geometry during erection can be complex for a balanced cantilever bridge.
This is because the bridge will deflect many times during construction, due to unbalanced segment
weights, closure sequence or unbalanced erection equipment.
Surveys should be carried out on a daily basis, and should always be performed before or near
sunrise to avoid tip deflections associated with differential temperatures. The survey data should
be used to compare the projected position of the cantilever tip to the target position for that stage.
Note that the target position may vary from day to day as the structure is loaded - it will not
necessarily coincide with the final alignment.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 27 of 39
The construction engineer plays an important role in this effort. The construction engineer should
calculate the deflected shape of the cantilever at multiple phases during erection. This may
include the completion of each cycle, before and after stressing PT, and before and after major
shifting major equipment (such as launching an erection gantry). These deflections can be
combined with the actual casting data by the site personnel, and compared against the daily
surveys.
In this case, the entire segment is cast as part of the substructure. The great advantage of this
method is in weight. Since the segments with a thickened diaphragm can be the heaviest of the
project, using a cast-in-place pier segment can reduce the heaviest load for transportation and
erection equipment. This frees the designer to use a larger diaphragm, which is often
advantageous in seismic regions with heavy column reinforcement that must be continuous into
the pier cap.
These advantages do not come without costs. Chief among them is the impact to the erection
schedule. When the pier segment is cast-in-place, there is no match-cast joint with the first precast
segment. Therefore, a small CIP closure is necessary between the two. This requires the first
precast segment to be supported in its proper position while the closure pour is formed, poured and
cured. This operation can take several days, where a match-cast segment cycle takes only a few
hours.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 28 of 39
Figure 4.30 - First Precast Segment Supported Prior to Casting Closure Joint,
Otay River Bridge.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 29 of 39
4.5.2.2 Precast Pier Segment
In this case, the pier segment is part of the typical precasting operations. Precast pier segments
are often not as long as typical segments, in order to reduce their weight. This and the thicker
internal diaphragm often require a unique mold for the pier segment.
There are two main advantages to precasting the pier segments. The first is that the exacting rebar
placement and concrete operations take place in the casting yard, where the conditions are much
more controlled. The second is in segment placement during erection. The need to have a CIP
joint between the pier and first typical segment is eliminated, greatly enhancing the erection speed
of a typical cantilever.
In most cases, a precast pier segment is supported on bearings. This means that structure stability
is an important consideration during construction. The large unbalanced loads that are a necessary
part of balanced cantilever erection can be difficult to accommodate with a bearing connection in
the absence of a gantry designed to provide stability. Supplemental towers, tie-downs, brackets,
or combination are needed to provide global stability, as shown in Figure 4.33. The cost of these
stability structures can become substantial as the unbalanced loads increase.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 30 of 39
A1C0UIUN FRAME SUPPORTED BISmOlE TENSION AUD COMPRESSION PROP
This is a hybrid of the CIP and precast pier segments. In this method, the exterior shell of the pier
segment is precast in the casting yard. It is then transported to the site, and positioned over the
continuous rebar coming up from the column. Supplemental rebar is then tied in place, and the
internal diaphragm is cast, using the concrete shell as a portion of the formwork.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 31 of 39
This method brings with it both the advantages and drawbacks of conventional methods. The
chief advantage is the ability to create a monolithic connection with the pier, while still
maintaining a match-cast joint at the pier segment. This provides the global stability of a CIP pier
table, without sacrificing the speed of segment erection.
However, many of the challenges of CIP work remain. It is necessary to have continuous rebar
between the precast shell and the CIP diaphragm. This often means a large number of rebar
couplers on the interior face of the shell. Complex rebar and higher-strength concrete must be
placed on site. An additional consideration is the degree of grade and crossfall. The precast shells
must be supported accurately in order to set the alignment correctly for the entire cantilever.
Placing the segment and tying the supplemental rebar can be a challenge when the segment is at a
steep angle to the vertical column steel. In situations where these challenges can be met, the
precast shell method can offer an advantage in erection speed.
-
Figure 4.35 Installation of Precast Shell, Vancouver Millennium Line
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 32 of 39
Figure 4.36 — Installation of Supplemental Rebar Inside Precast Shell, Dallas High-5
4.5.3 Expansion Joints
For longer viaducts, it can be necessary to introduce expansion joints to alleviate the effects of
creep, shrinkage and temperature. For span-by-span precast segmental construction, expansion
joints are normally located at the piers. However, for balanced cantilever construction, there are
three different possibilities.
Each method places the joint at a different location within the span. The first is the quarter-span
hinge. In this case, the hinge is located at the quarter point of the completed span, or halfway out
one of the cantilevers. The hinge is a concrete seat type hinge, as is common for many viaducts
cast in place on falsework. The challenge in this case is making this configuration compatible
with balanced cantilever erection.
This is achieved by blocking the two halves of the hinge together during cantilever erection. The
two hinge halves are effectively treated as a single segment, and temporary cantilever tendons are
installed through them to erect the remainder of the cantilevered segments. Once closure has been
cast for that span, the temporary tendons holding the hinge together are severed, and the blocking
removed.
It should be noted that this method often requires tightly congested post-tensioning and
reinforcement in the hinge segments. If this method is adopted, constructability should be an
important consideration at every stage of design and construction.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 33 of 39
Figure 4.37 - Quarter-Span Hinge Erection Sequence
In its permanent configuration, this type of hinge only transfers shear across the joint, and relies
on its location at an inflection point to avoid abrupt angle breaks under live loads. Important
considerations for this method include the weight of the segments, which will affect the geometry
of that cantilever, and the complex temporary post-tensioning operations that are necessary. A
schematic of the system employed on the H3 viaduct in Hawaii is shown in Figure 4.37 above.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 34 of 39
The second method is the mid-span hinge. In this method, the joint is located in the middle of the
completed span, between two adjacent cantilevers. Continuity is created by steel beams that cross
the joint, and are anchored in both sides. There are several possible configurations for the support
of these beams, but they are all intended to transfer moment as well as shear, while allowing
longitudinal movement. Transfer of moment is important, because without moment continuity the
angle break under creep redistribution and live load would be unacceptable. The beam
configuration for the Otay River Bridge is shown in Figure 4.39 below.
This method does require special diaphragm segments, whose purpose is to anchor the steel beams
to the concrete box girder. As with any diaphragm segment, weight is an important consideration.
Beam installation is performed inside the concrete box girder, which can limit the space available
for work. A generous allowance for construction tolerances for all of the various components
(beam, segment, bearing, geometry) will help to avoid placement problems in the field.
The beams serve as an important structural member, and their long term performance should be
considered during design. This would include issues such as access and bearing replacement.
Awareness of the maintenance requirements should persist during construction, when the long
term impact of proposed modifications should be weighed against any gains to constructability.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 35 of 39
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Figure 4.40 Mid-Span Hinge Beam Installation, Otay River Bridge
The third method is to place the expansion joint at the columns. This can be achieved by building
the spans adjacent to the expansion joint on falsework, when that option is available. However,
balanced cantilever construction is often selected to avoid the need for falsework. In these cases,
temporary post-tensioning can be used to erect the spans adjacent to the expansion joint in
balanced cantilever.
With this method, the pier segments at the expansion joints are blocked and secured together to
create a monolithic pier segment. The segments on either side of the joint are equipped with ducts
for temporary cantilever tendons. These spans can be built out from the expansion joint pier in
typical balanced cantilever fashion, held in place by the temporary tendons. Once continuity has
been achieved on both sides, the temporary tendons are cut, and the blocking removed. This
method is generally applicable only for shorter spans.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 36 of 39
Figure 4.41 - Column Expansion Joint Erection Schematic
The most important consideration with performing the mid-span closure is aligning and securing
the opposite cantilever tips. It is likely that small adjustments in both vertical and horizontal
alignment will be necessary. Even if there is no need for adjustment, the tips should be firmly
held in position to avoid any relative movement during curing of the closure joint.
This is generally achieved via strongback beams placed across the joints. The beams should be
configured to transfer a moment to the box girder, so tension tie-downs are often necessary. The
contractor should coordinate with the construction engineer to estimate the necessary strength and
rigidity of the tie-down beams, and to verify that they will not damage the deck under anticipated
loads. Provisions for securing the strongback beams to the deck should be developed early, so
they can be easily integrated into the casting yard work.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 37 of 39
Figure 4.42 - Strongback Beams at Closure Joint Pour
4.6 Engineering
Construction engineering is an important feature of balanced cantilever construction. While
construction schematics are typically included in a design, the wide variation in schedule, methods
and equipment available make it unlikely that the contractor’s chosen method will match the
assumed conditions. Listed below are some of the tasks typically associated with construction
engineering for a precast balanced cantilever bridge.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 38 of 39
4.6.2 Erection Loads
Construction of a balanced cantilever bridge includes numerous different loading conditions,
which are applied to a structure that is different after every stage. It is important that the full
structure be checked at all critical phases and loading conditions. These may include the loads due
to an unbalanced segment, reactions from an erection gantry, counterweights, post-tensioning,
wind and miscellaneous equipment, fri some jurisdictions, it is necessary to check the structure for
a low-level seismic event for the governing temporary conditions.
Erection with a gantry is generally the most complex in this regard. The typical segment erection
and launching sequences will contain numerous steps, with the reactions placed at multiple
locations. Close coordination between the truss supplier, contractor and construction engineer is
necessary to identify the critical cases. Transverse eccentricity should always be considered, as
the induced torsion can be significant when the gantry negotiates tight curves.
In addition, it is often necessary to check the structure for segment delivery cases. When the
completed portion of the deck is used to transport and stage the segments, large local loads can
develop.
The AASHTO Specifications provide guidelines for construction loads and load combinations,
some of which are specific to balanced cantilever construction. These guidelines are often
supplemented with additional loads to suit the project, such as seismic or collision loads. One
load case that is defined by the Specification is the accidental release case. In this case, a dynamic
impact factor of 2.0 (twice the segment weight) is applied to approximate catching a lost segment
load using lifting equipment. This is an ultimate load case, and is frequently a governing case
among the construction loads.
Chapter 4.0 - Construction of Precast Segmental Typical Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 39 of 39
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction
Free cantilevering is a method of construction to build outward from a fixed point to form a
cantilever structure, without temporary support, using staged construction as shown in Figure 5.1.
Definition of "cantilever" from Webster's Dictionary is: "A rigid structural member projecting
from a vertical support, especially one in which the projection is great in relation to the depth, so
that the upper part is in tension and the lower part in compression". Another meaning of
"cantilever" is "bracket".
FIXED POINT
-
Figure 5.1 Cantilevering Construction Method
When two opposing free cantilever structures are attached as a single structure and erected at the same
step, it is termed "balanced cantilever construction method" as shown in Figure 5.2.
With cast-in-place construction the bridge segments are built in place, in progressive increments; one
segment at a time. The manufacturing switches from a controlled environment (a casting yard) to the
superstructure itself. The segment forms cantilever from the previously cast segment and remain in
place until the new concrete segment has achieved sufficient strength so that it can be post-tensioned
and permanently held in place to the previous segments cast behind it.
The application to cast-in-place reinforced concrete bridges took place for the first time with the
construction of a 68 meter span bridge across the Rio de Peixe in Brazil in 1930. However, the
cantilevering method for reinforced concrete never gained popularity due to excessive deflection and
heavy reinforcing.
Dr. Ulrich Finsterwalder of the firm Dyckerhoff & Widmann AG (DSI International) successfully
applied post-tensioning to a cast-in-place concrete bridge using the balanced cantilever method
with construction of the Lahn Bridge at Balduinstein in Germany in 1950-1951, after World War II
(see Figure 5.3). The bridge is fixed at both ends and has a span length of 203.65 feet (62.09m).
This bridge is considered the pioneer of modem long span segmental concrete bridge construction.
After successful completion of the Lahn Bridge, the system was improved over the years and
gained popularity for construction of long span bridges across the world (see Figure 5.4). Cast-
in-place balanced cantilever bridges are especially suitable for construction or long spans over
deep valleys and rivers where placing temporary supports is not possible of cost prohibitive. The only
drawback of the system is the time required for superstructure construction. While the time required
for construction of a typical segment (usually about 5 days, however this can vary considerably
depending on the learning curve) is much longer than precast segmental construction, this should be
considered in the context of the longer span lengths for which cast-in-place balanced cantilever
construction is used. The span length for cast-in-place segmental bridges is a function of several
different factors; the economical range is about 70 to 250m (230 to 820ft) with major cost factors
being the large pier tables and the specialized equipment required to construct the segments. At the
beginning of superstructure construction, there is a learning curve for the construction crew which
results in a much slower pace of construction. The learning curve effect may be particularly apparent
during construction of the first pier table. Sufficient consideration should be incorporated in the
project schedule for the learning curve of the first pier table and initial segment casting cycle.
The cantilevering process is not possible without the use of a specialized piece of equipment; a form
traveler. The form travelers are a self-launching structural system that is supported off the leading
cantilever tip and is used to support the segment formwork and weight of the newly cast segment. The
form traveler remains in place until the new segment has gained sufficient strength to be post¬
tensioned to the previous cantilever segments where the segment will remain in its final structural
position. Provisions are made that allow the form traveler to move forward, at an increment of one
segment length at a time, as the cantilever is constructed. A detailed discussion of form travelers is
provided in this chapter
The balanced cantilever method of construction is the most common technique for cast-in-place
segmental bridges. Several advantages have contributed to the success of the balanced cantilever
method. One of the most important advantages is the repetitive cycle that is used to construct each
segment, which leads to efficient and rapid construction of the superstructure. This method is very
feasible for long span bridges which are located high above the ground, eliminating the use of
extensive falsework. Access from the ground is only necessary for construction of the abutments and
piers. Several creative and cost saving methods for constructing the superstructure are available when
terrain under the structure is inaccessible or particularly difficult to build from.
Long span balanced cantilever bridges require post-tensioning for support during construction and
under service loading after the structure is completed. During construction the cantilever arm
increases in length with the casting of each additional segment and large tension stresses are applied to
the top deck of the segment. The stresses are smallest at the cantilever tip and increase to a maximum
adjacent to the pier. A series of post-tensioning tendons, called cantilever tendons, are located in the
top deck to resist the tension and keep the cantilever tip from sagging. These tendons tie back a newly
cast segment to the existing structure and must be stressed from the leading cantilever tip each time a
new segment is cast. This concept is best illustrated with the diagram provided in Figure 5.8. The
majority of tendons are located at the point of maximum stress and decrease at the end of a completed
cantilever arm. Each cantilever tendon passes through a thin metal conduit, referred to as a duct, that
stretches from one end of the cantilever tip to the other; each tendon is located in a separate duct. The
cantilever tendons increase in length with the addition of new segments and reach their maximum with
a completed cantilever.
When two adjacent cantilever arms are connected with a closure segment a span is complete and
continuity is provided from pier to pier. After continuity is achieved a redistribution of stresses takes
place reducing the values applied during construction. The span must withstand the self-weight of the
structure combined with design loads such as vehicles, temperature, future overlays and snow. Large
tension stresses are now applied to the bottom deck of the cross-section. The stresses are smallest
adjacent to the pier and increase to a maximum at mid-span. Continuity tendons are located in the
bottom slab to balance the tension stresses. Higher concentrations of continuity tendons are required at
the location of maximum tensile stress and decrease towards the piers. Continuity tendons are stressed
at concrete anchor blocks inside the box segment after the closure pour is made. Figure 5.8A
illustrates this principle.
• Wind loads
• Seismic loads
• Accidental loads, such as loss of one form-traveler
For horizontally curved superstructures, out of balance loads also occur in the transverse direction. For
this reason, a three-dimensional structural model is required for horizontally curved structures.
Columns, footings, and foundations are critical elements of the cantilever structure to be checked and
designed for construction loads. In addition to serviceability and strength, the stability of the overall
structure must be checked. Due to large out of balance loads, it is common practice to provide
temporary supports to resist out of balanced forces. Temporary supports provide the required structural
stability during construction as shown in Figure 5.10. Stability during construction may also be
provided by double-walled piers as shown in Figure 5.11, or by a monolithic connection between the
pier and superstructure as shown in Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.10 - Temporary Supports During Construction, Puyallup River Bridge, Washington
Figure 5.12 - Monolithic Column Superstructure Connection, Tsable River Bridge, Vancouver, BC
Once the pier table has been placed, cured and formwork removed the assembly of the first traveler can
take place on top of the pier table. It typically takes approximately 2 weeks to assemble the first traveler for
one end of the cantilever and another 2 weeks to assemble and attach all of the associated soffit, side and
ceiling forms with hardware to the traveler prior to beginning the initial casting cycle. The casting of the
initial segment takes another 2 to 3 weeks (depending on the amount of reinforcing steel and post¬
tensioning to be installed). Once the first segment has been cast and the traveler is advanced out on the
cantilever at this point in time this will provide sufficient room on top of the pier table to allow the
assembly of the second traveler on the opposite end of the cantilever. Again, the similar time of 2 weeks
must be allowed to assemble the second traveler and another 2 weeks to attach all of the associated forms
and hardware prior to the beginning of the casting cycle.
Typically one working cycle can be accomplished in one week after the learning curve has passed. It is
noted that the cycle can vary and is dependent on many variables. ).. Pier tables are normally constructed
in three to four months. One advantage to this type of construction is the repetition of activities over and
over until the bridge is completed. Over the course of these cycles, the contractor has the opportunity to
correct and improve procedures. The minimum pier table length is approximately 32 feet.
However, NRS of Norway has designed a special form-traveler which can accommodate a minimum length
pier-table of 10'-0" as shown in Figure 5.16.
The weight of a typical form-traveler including formwork ranges from 160 to 180 kips for a single cell box,
and can reach 280 kips for wider twin cell boxes. The single cell box consists of two traveler frames while
a two-cell box has three frames.
.Form travelers are usually obtained from subcontractors, and are provided with a detailed checklist of the
steps involved in operation of the form traveler. This checklist must be consistently observed during the
construction process.
Form traveler installation and operation on the 1-895 Bridge over the James River in Virginia is illustrated
in Figure 5.17 through 5.21. The main span length is 672 feet.
Figure 5.22 - End view of traveler looking from the leading end of construction
Bottom Platform
Bottom platform carries the concrete weight for the bottom slab and walls, and provides a safe staging area
to work from. The bottom platform is held in place on the trailing end to the previous segment with a set of
4 high strength bars that pass through sleeves in the bottom slab. The leading edge is supported with 4 bars
suspended from the inside spreader beams. It is noted that when the bottom platform is ready to be moved
ahead the trailing end must be released from the existing segment or else it would be restrained from
moving. A secondary set of bars, one each side, are suspended from the rear truss and connected to the
bottom platform allowing it to move freely during launching to the next position.
Launching System
The complete traveler assembly is supported on a pair of rails located directly above the girder web walls
for direct load transfer into the superstructure. The rails provide a smooth surface to roll the traveler
forward removing any irregularities of the concrete deck. Launching the form traveler system forward is a
two step process: first the rails are ‘pulled’ forward 5.0m to the next segment position stopping just short of
the leading edge at the cantilever tip, next the complete assembly is ‘pushed’ forward 5.0m over the rails.
Details of the launching components are provided in Figure 5.24. The system is moved forward in 900mm
increments with a set of hydraulic cylinders pinned between the main frame of the traveler and rails. The
traveler and rails are launched with the same set of cylinders. The length of the launching cylinders limits
the distance traveled with each increment.
Figure 5.24: The launching rams [G2J have pushed the traveler forward to the leading
edge of construction. The front bogy assembly [G4] is on the main rails
During launching, the traveler is top heavy and must be restrained from tipping over the leading edge. A
rear bogey assembly includes rollers that grip under the flanges of the rails to restrain the rear end from
tipping as detailed in Figure 24. The trailing ends of the rails must be tied down to the existing segment
with high strength bars. Sleeves are cast through the top slab of the segment to accommodate these bars.
The leading edge of the traveler is supported on the front bogey assembly, incorporating a Hillman roller.
When the form traveler is launched to the next segment position all components move simultaneously.
Work Platforms
An upper woik platform is suspended from the front truss by a series of high strength bars and a lower
work platform is supported from a fixed channel support to the bottom platform. The work platforms
provide access for construction of segment bulkheads, post-tensioning from the leading edge and access to
the traveler components. Figure 5.26 provides an end view of the traveler.
Day 4: Day 2:
Install / Advance and
longitudinal anchor form
Day 4: Advance Day 3: Install traveler to existing
tendon ducts and interior formwork, bulkhead. Install concrete at next
install wall ties and rebar in bottom segment position.
tendons. Install rebar in top slab slab and web Survey new segment
walls. elevations.
-
Figure 5.27 Repetitive Casting Cycle
A casting cycle begins after placing concrete for a new segment. The first step in a new cycle is to stress
the transverse post-tensioning tendons located in the top slab. It was specified in the contract documents
that the transverse tendons must be stressed prior to stripping the traveler formwork. The traveler
formwork must be stripped before the traveler assembly can be launched forward. As a result, the first step
can not begin until the new segment concrete has reached sufficient strength so it will not crack under the
large compressive force from post-tensioning.
The curing of concrete thus becomes a time sensitive activity that has the potential to delay the critical path
of the project. High early strength concrete is typically used to avoid a potential delay. Since it is critical
that the proper concrete strength has been achieved prior to post-tensioning and launching the traveler test
cylinders were used to verify the in-place strength.
Day 1 of the casting cycle begins with the post-tensioning crew (4 members) stressing the transverse
tendons while the form traveler crew (4 members) simultaneously releases the form work and traveler
tiedown bars preparing to advance to the next segment. The cantilever tendons are stressed at this time if
they terminate at this location.
Day 2 the traveler crew (4 of 8 members, crew is divided between the each traveler) advances the form
traveler to the next segment position, trim the exterior wall form to the new height and align the formwork
to the correct elevation with the assistance of the project surveyor. A carpenter installs the prefabricated
bulkheads on the segment face.
Day 3 the reinforcing crew (5 members) begins installation of the bottom slab and web walls of the box
girder. All reinforcing steel for the segments is tied in place as the form traveler bracing and framework
did not provide enough space to lift a preassembled cage into place.
Dav 4 when the reinforcing installation is completed on the bottom slab and walls, the crew begins
installation on the top deck. In addition, the longitudinal and transverse post-tensioning ducts and tendon
strands are installed, but left unstressed. Coordination of the different crews is essential in the confined
area of the segment. The interior walls are rolled out, cut to the correct dimensions and form ties are
installed.
Day 5 consists of final preparations for casting of the segment and placement of the concrete. The day
begins early: the project engineer determines the final elevation of the new segment with any required
corrections. The project surveyor must then check the final position within an hour of sunrise to eliminate
any false readings caused by thermal movement of the cantilever. Concrete is typically placed in the
following sequence: outside comer of the bottom slab and web wall, bottom slab, web walls and top deck
—
Chapter 5.0 Construction of Cast-in-Place Balanced Cantilever Bridges Page 28 of 28
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction
The incremental launching segmental bridges combine the advantages of cast-in-place and precast
concrete bridge construction. They do not interfere with the obstacle to overpass, and the casting
yard can be the smallest. These advantages are precious in urban ambit or in the case of
environmentally sensitive areas. Safety of workers is at the highest level, the superstructure can be
cast under stringent quality-guarantee procedures, the reinforcing cages can be prefabricated at
different extents, and the casting yard can be easily sheltered for continued production with
inclement weather. Construction equipment is also particularly inexpensive (a launching nose, a
thrust system, and a casting cell) and can be easily reused in new projects. Another basic
advantage is that the yard industrialization can be easily adapted to the dimensions of the bridge.
The incremental launching method has been successfully used in dozens of long and short bridges
in Europe, Japan, and other parts of the world, although its application is limited in the North
America. The incremental launching method is generally economical for prestressed concrete
bridges of medium span, ranging from 100 feet to more than 200 feet. It is applicable to longer
spans with temporary piers that halve the spans during construction. Launching from the opposite
abutments is sometimes adopted in the longest bridges in order to diminish the thrust force.
Launching from the opposite abutments also permits halving the construction duration by working
in two casting yards, although the equipment cost doubles.
There are many advantages to incremental launching segmental bridges which include:
Figure 6.4 shows an incremental launch over a 6-track railroad in Italy. This wide three-cell
superstructure could also be cast on a general falsework; however, the complexity and cost of the
falsework would be prohibitive in many industrialized countries. Launching has proven to be a
cost-effective and high-quality solution in tens of difficult bridges.
Because of alternate bending moment and shear force the superstructure receives during launching,
the span-to-depth ratio is usually about 17. This ratio can be increased with the use of temporary
piers; this also permits savings in launch prestressing. This ratio is diminished to between 12 and
15 for high-speed railway bridges, mostly because of deflection limitations in service. Spans with
equal or almost equal length (except the end ones) are preferable in order to maximize the number
of equal segments.
The most suitable cross-section is the single-cell box section. Double-cell box sections have also
been used although construction is somewhat more complicated with respect to shuttering and
launch supports. A double-cell fish-belly section has been used in Italy for a 2700-feet-long bridge
with architectural board-marked finishing of surface.
Figure 6.5 shows the double-cell segment extraction from the highly industrialized casting yard.
The cleanliness and order of the yard are evident in the photograph. Above the deck, the roll¬
compacting unit expels the bleeding water from the upper concrete layer of the deck slab to
diminish the W/C ratio and increase the local strength.
Three-cell and four-cell cross-sections have also been successfully launched. Figure 6.4 shows a
three-cell section launched on two support alignments.
Figure 6.6 shows a four-cell voided slab launched in Italy on three support alignments. This highly
skewed, varying-width simply-supported span was launched onto a railroad with the help of a steel
temporary pier that avoided overturning, in this case the three launching noses were inexpensive
prestressed concrete blocks fixed to the front deck end with prestressing bars and braced to each
other with steel angles. The central launch alignment also acted as a plan guide.
Double-T beams (ribbed slabs) have been launched on short spans or onto arches. In this case the
span between the spandrel columns is generally short. In spite of their simplicity, the ribbed slabs
are hard to launch due to the raised location of the cross-sectional centroid.
—
Chapter 6.0 Incremental Launching of Segmental Bridges Page 7 of 18
The incremental launching method is normally used for straight bridges or bridges curved with
constant radius - either horizontally or vertically throughout the bridge. Bridges with variable
curvature have been launched with wide launch bearings and lateral temporary piers in the most
delicate cases. Launching from both abutments with central closure permits the use of two
different curvatures like “S” curve. The superstructure should be of constant depth. Minor
adjustment in the vertical alignment of the launch surface is attained by temporarily attaching
shims to formwork. An example of incremental launching of a bridge with plan curvature is
illustrated in Figures 6.7. Because of the unique character of construction, it is highly
recommended that the attention should be paid at the early design phase to the possible use of the
incremental launching method.
-
Figure 6.7 Incremental Launching of a Bridge with Plan Curvature
(Photo courtesy of PSM Construction USA, Inc.)
6.3.2 Post-tensioning
Almost every section of the superstructure receives alternating bending moment and shear force
from its own weight as it is launched forward. Mid-span sections which usually receive only
positive bending moment also have to resist negative moment and shear force during launch.
These cyclic changes prevent use of the final tendons during launch and require launch tendons
laid out centrically rather than eccentrically.
There are several ways to provide launch tendons and make them coordinate with final tendons.
The principles are broadly classable to two, as described below and illustrated in Figure 6.8.
1. Launch tendons required during launch are decided first, compensated by continuous
final tendons installed on completion of launch to resist the rest of dead load and live load.
Launch tendons are usually laid out straight in both the top slab and bottom slab, and they
provide centroidal prestress force as a whole. Continuous final tendons are provided by
parabolic internal tendons in the webs or polygonal external tendons.
2. Final tendons required against the service loads are determined first either with internal
tendons or external tendons. Temporary launch tendons compensate the eccentricity of
the final tendons during launch. Temporary launch tendons are removed on completion of
The incremental launching construction method has been mainly used for cast-in-place bridges as
this permits combining the advantages of the industrialized and repetitive work processes with
those deriving from a small number of construction joints. Nevertheless, it is suitable for precast
segmental construction as well. Bridges composed of precast segments arranged along temporary
support rails, connected by closure joints or epoxy coating, and incrementally launched offer
several advantages which include:
Commonly used launch technique is to launch the superstructure from one abutment towards the
opposite one. Expansion of application includes launching from the opposite abutments with mid¬
span closure and launching followed by transverse shifting to clear the launch alignment for the
construction of new bridge strips. An application of this construction method in Italy is shown in
Figure 6.10. The first half (28-feet wide) of the twin-box section is being shifted rightwards on
167-feet spans - in the photograph, the box-girder is leaving the temporary piers.
Launching can also be combined with other construction methods. Examples include construction
of the approaches of bridges where longer central spans are built by balanced-cantilever
construction (with or without stay-cables), and construction of the superstructure of arch bridges
(Figure 6.11).
Figure 6.11 - Incremental Launching with Balanced Cantilever and Arch Construction
Cable-stayed bridges can be built by incrementally launching the continuous superstructure onto
temporary piers and by permanently suspending it from a tower on launch completion. Figure 6.12
shows a cable-stayed bridge built by incremental launching in Italy. At the launch completions,
the crossbeams that anchor the stay-cables are generally located above the temporary piers. Also
this bridge was launched onto railways in service without any interference.
The casting yard is usually set behind one abutment. In the case of settlement or no embankment
is available, the formwork is supported by temporary supports. If the bridge has a longitudinal
gradient, it is preferable for the superstructure to be launched from the lower elevation, so that no
braking equipment is necessary during launching.
If the number of segments is large and enough space is available, it is convenient to create rebar
cage preassembly area. The rebar cage preassembly area is usually set behind the casting cell and
a gantry crane carries the rebar cage to the casting cell. Length of segments between 35 feet and
100 feet is generally economical. It depends on the location of construction joints, typical span
length, concrete volume, available space, and so on. Longer segments shorten construction period,
but expands the casting cell. It is desirable for construction joints to be located at section of low
bending moment. A half of a span with construction joints at the span quarters is a common
conclusion for length of segments.
A representative working cycle for typical incremental launching segmental bridges with a box¬
section consists of following steps:
Accurate setting of the formwork is very important so that the sliding bottom surface is smooth
and maintains the launching direction accurately. Formwork is of steel or plywood panels, selected
depending on the number of cycles, i.e. the number of segments. The launching surfaces are
generally match-cast onto neoprene-Teflon plates placed onto stiff stainless-steel extraction rails.
Load deflections of the extraction rails must be minimized.
Two persons are generally necessary at every pier during launching to insert low-friction plates
between the launching bearings and the superstructure. On completion of launch, temporary
bearings are replaced by permanent bearings after lifting the superstructure with hydraulic jacks.
Continuous final tendons, either external or internal, are installed and prestressed afterward.
—
Figure 6.13 Casting Yard behind an Abutment
(Photo courtesy of PSM Construction USA, Inc.)
There are several schemes to the system moving the superstructure forward. Among them, two
commonly used launching systems are pulling launching and friction launching.
Post-tensioning strands or bars are used to tow the superstructure. Center-hole jacks are set against
a support structure anchored to an abutment. The other ends of the tensioning elements are
connected to the superstructure by means of steel launching pins, steel beams, or steel brackets.
The steel launching pins are attached to the rear end section of the new segment. The steel
launching beams or the brackets are connected to the webs or the bottom slab by means of
prestressing bars or anchoring bolts. The speed of launch depends upon the types of jacks and
pumps and is usually from 10 to 20 feet/h. The scheme is illustrated in Figure 6.14 and 6.15.
—
Figure 6.14 Pulling Launching System
Another way to launch the superstructure is to use one or more pairs of launchers placed under the
webs of the cross-section. A launcher is composed of vertical jacks and horizontal pistons. After
the superstructure is hoisted from bearing blocks by vertical jacks, horizontal pistons push the
superstructure forward. The thrust force is transferred by friction between the vertical jacks and
the concrete bottom surface. Then, the superstructure is lowered onto the bearing blocks again by
retracting the vertical jacks, and the longitudinal pistons are finally retracted to repeat this cycle.
Compared to pulling launching system, friction launching system offers many advantages that
include following: (a) Thrust force is shared by launchers. Heavy superstructure can be launched
by placing synchronized launchers on every pier, which is difficult with pulling system in which
thrust force is transferred at one transmission point and create stress concentration, (b) The total
electric control of the hydraulic system permits synchronization of the action of launchers and
speeding the launch that reaches 30feet/h. (c) Friction launchers permit downhill launching and are
much safer than the pull-based systems.
The superstructure is supported temporarily by launch bearings before whole launching process
completes. The launching bearings are made of concrete or steel, set on the top of the piers under
the webs. The top of the launching bearings are covered by polished stainless steel sheet.
Launch pads are inserted between the superstructure and the launching bearings. The launch pads
are made of sandwiched neoprene sheets and steel sheets. A Teflon plate is glued to the bottom
surface of the pads. The pads are continuously fed until the designated launching length is reached
(Figure 6.17 and 6.18). Contact of the stainless steel sheet and the Teflon plate reduces friction to
2-4%. The edges of the launching bearings are rounded so that the sliding plates can be inserted
without difficulty. On completion of the whole launch, launch bearings are replaced by permanent
bearings. Some types of bearings are used as launch bearing as well as permanent bearings. An
example is shown in figure 6.19.
—
Figure 6.18 Launch Bearing and Launch Pads
Lateral guides are necessary to maintain the correct plan arrangement of the superstructure during
launch. They are placed beside the launching bearings surfaced with rollers or stainless steel
(Figure 6.20). It is important to have locking devises to support the superstructure horizontally
between subsequent launches, especially when launch is performed in an inclined elevation.
The front cantilever receives the greatest negative moment before the tip of the cantilever touches
a pier ahead of it. Three ways usually employed to mitigate this negative moment are:
- attach a light weight steel launching nose to the front end of the superstructure to reduce
sectional force in the cantilever
- use temporary cable-stay system to support the cantilever from above
-
place temporary piers between permanent piers to reduce the span length during launch
Most of launched bridges are launched with a steel nose. Braced double plate girders are common
structure for concrete bridges. It is tapered off toward the front end according to reduced sectional
force it receives. Because it has to act monolithic with the superstructure, the connection is
important to prevent detrimental gap. Usually it is connected to the webs of the superstructure by
means of longitudinal post-tensioning. It is preferable to match-cast the first segment against the
gusset plates at the end of the launching nose to make sure perfect alignment. As a rule of thumb,
the length of the launching nose is around 65 to 70% of the maximum span to get the maximum
benefit. Launching nose is transferred to the field in segments. They are assembled in front of
casting yard before the first segment is cast. When a friction launcher is placed at the abutment,
the superstructure is pulled onto the launcher through the launching nose.
A second solution to reduce stress in the cantilever is supporting it with a temporary cable-stayed
system. The pylon is hinged to the deck. Because of the need to continuously tighten and loosen
the stays while launching and the complexity of calculation involved, the application is usually
limited to long spans and well-trained crews.
Placing temporary piers halves the spans and reduces the launch stresses. The scheme is to use a
temporary pier at mid-span of the main span which is much longer than the others (as in Figures
6.4 and 6.20) or to use a temporary pier per span for long multiple spans as in Figure 6.10. This
solution is particularly advantageous in combination with transverse shifting as the temporary
piers are along the launch alignment only, and saving in prestressing is amplified. More temporary
piers can also be used in the same span in the case of cable-stayed bridges Figure 6.12.
6.6 Summary
Incremental launching method is one of the most industrialized and effective forms of segmental
construction. Large numbers of segmental concrete bridges have been successfully competed by
incremental launching all around the world. Recent development of high-strength concrete, light¬
weight concrete, and precast technologies can reduce launching weight and further reduce
construction period. Further expansion of application is expected.
6.7 References
(1) Rosignoli, M., “LAUNCHED BRIDGES: Prestressed concrete bridges built on the ground and
launched into their final position”, American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE Press, 1998.
(2) Rosignoli, M., “BRIDGE LAUNCHING”, Thomas Telford, 2002.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.0 Cable-Stayed Bridges 3
7.1 Introduction 3
7.2 Cable-Stayed Structure 3-4
7.3 Critical Construction Phases 5
7.3.1 Deck, Stay Cable Stresses 5-10
7.3.2 Unbalanced Loads 11-12
7.3.3 Other Critical Construction Loads 13
7.4 Geometry Control 14
7.4.1 Casting Curves 14-15
7.4.2 Geometry Control for Prescast Box Girder Segments 15-19
7.4.3 Geometry Control for Cast in Place Box Girders 20
7.4.4 Geometry Control for Cast-in-Place Flexible Decks 20
7.5 Stay Cable System Quality Control 20
7.5.1 Stay Cable Types . 20
7.5.2 Bearing Plate, Recess Pipe Installation 20-21
7.5.3 Stay Cable Pipe Installation 22
7.5.4 Installation of Other Stay Cable Components 23
7.6 Control of Stay Cable Forces 24-25
7.7 Fatigue Testing 26
7.8 Extradosed Bridges 26-27
7.8.1 Design Concept 26
7.8.2 Construction of Extradosed Bridges 28
7.9 Conclusion 29
References 29
Notable Contrete Cable-Stayed Bridges in the United States 29
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 7.1 Triangle Structure: Deck-Pylon-Stay Cable 3
Figure 7.2 Beam on Elastic Support Analogy 4
Figure 7.3 Deck Rigidity 4
Figure 7.4 Critical deck bending during construction 5
Figure 7.5 Typical Erection Phases 5
Figure 7.6 Neches River Bridge, Texas 6
Figure 7.7 Sunshine Skyway Bridge, Florida 6
Figure 7.8 Pasco Kennewick Bridge, Washington 7
Figure 7.9 Maumee River Bridge, Ohio 7
Figure 7.10 Centennial Bridge, Panama 8
Figure 7.11 Dame Point Bridge, Florida 9
Figure 7.12 La Plata River Bridge, Puerto Rico 9
Figure 7.13 Sidney Lanier Bridge, Georgia 10
Figure 7.14 Puente de la Unidad, Mexico 10
I Stay
i
Rigid superstructures provide for a better distribution of the loads among the previously erected
stay cables, which also reduces the negative moment in the deck when pouring or lifting segments.
Segment lengths are also normally shorter for precast segments to limit the segment weights and/
or allow for trucking the segments. In this case, the stay cable spacing is divided into two or three
segments, allowing for re-stressing of the stay cable in-between lifts and further reduction of the
moments in the deck. Stay cable forces and deck bending moments during construction are also
more critical with heavier erection equipment such as cranes on deck.
Figure 7.7
Sunshine Skyway Bridge, Florida
Photos Courtesy of
Figg & Muller Engineers
With flexible superstructures, the segments can be as long as 35 ft (10.7 m), corresponding to the
stay cable spacing. In this case, the deck moment and stresses in the previously installed stay cables
must be reduced. For instance, the stay cable can be connected to the traveling form and partially
stressed prior to pouring the segment. Alternatively, the stay cable spacing and segment length can
be reduced. For instance, the stay cable spacing and segment length were reduced to 17’6” for the
Dame Point Bridge in Florida to facilitate construction operations.
The main loads to be considered for overall stability during construction are:
• Unbalanced segment
• Unbalanced dead load
• Unbalanced horizontal and vertical wind
• Unbalanced construction loads.
At ultimate conditions, the dynamic effects due to the loss of a segment and/or erection equipment
on one cantilever must be taken into account.
Load combinations for checking stability during construction can be found in AASHTO LRFD,
Art. 5.14.2.3.2. Horizontal and vertical wind loads during construction should be developed through
wind tunnel testing or analytical wind studies.
Figure 7.15 Unbalanced Loads
DL-1% t t t t MM DL+1%
CL + 5PSF I I I F Mir CL+ 10PSF
WL-5PSF MM LI LI WL + 5PSF
The aerodynamic stability of the structure during construction must also be checked. Favorable
deck damping helps the aerodynamic stability. Length/width and width/thickness ratios influence
the behavior of the structure under wind conditions. The flutter effect is avoided with a proper
torsion/bending rigidity ratio. Streamlining of the deck, for instance by using fairings along the
edges of the deck, is another efficient way to improve the aerodynamic stability of the bridge during
construction as well as in service.
Entrainment effects must also be accounted for, especially when the backstay cables are anchored
in a previously erected back span. Sufficient compression must be provided to prevent joint
opening behind the stay cable anchorages.
These vibrations must be studied carefully at the design stage; and wind tunnel tests should be
performed to evaluate counter measures, which could include:
• The loads applied to the structure: dead loads, construction loads and stay cable forces.
• The characteristics of materials, (ie. concrete creep and shrinkage), Modulus of elasticity of the
concrete, apparent Modulus of elasticity of stay cables including the non-linear effects due to sag.
• The sequence and schedule of construction.
Casting cannot start until casting curves are developed, which requires knowledge of the final
erection scheme, actual construction loads, and actual material characteristics. If creep tests are
required, they should be made at the beginning of the project so as not to delay casting. Segment
weights should be monitored at the site by checking member dimensions and concrete unit weight
or weighing segments (if the segments are precast) .
In summary, it is essential to develop actual casting curves rapidly at the beginning of construction
to avoid delays. These curves must be produced using a time-dependent software that takes into
account the effects of concrete creep and shrinkage, steel relaxation, and actual construction phases
and schedule.
It should be noted that a systematic error of only 0.001 feet on elevation measurements in the
casting cell would result in significant discrepancies at the end of a long cantilever. The first
segment of the cantilever must be placed accurately to avoid offsets at the cantilever end.
Deflections of the structure at each stage are obtained from the general time-dependent computer
program. Adding these values to the as-cast survey marker elevations provides expected elevations
at each stage of erection.
Similarly, the geometry of the pylon must be controlled during construction to verify that the
maximum out-of-plumb and out-of-straight-line values assumed in the design for this compression
member are not exceeded.
Pylon - Construction Tolerances
Figure 732 Out-of-Plumb Figure 733 Deviation from Straight Line
R . 2OOH
The elevation of the cantilever end should be plotted at each phase against theoretical figures.
Instant movements of deck and pylon should be measured when lifting a segment or stressing a stay
cable and checked against theoretical figures. Interpretation of the results would give indications on
the actual stiffness of the structure.
Deck Deformations During Construction
It is imperative to check that the last erected segment is not warped. This is simply done by
comparing readings of the 4 elevation survey markers after erection and in the casting cell.
Figure 736 Segment Shape Control
As Erected
A, B, C, D: Elevation Markers
As Cast
AA - AD = AB - AC
AA - AB = AD - AC
The accuracy of the stay cable jacking force can also be checked by measuring variations of
elevations of the same survey marker during a full erection cycle (segments lifting, stay cable
stressing and re-stressing). Comparing the result with theoretical figures allows determination of
a gain or loss of elevation for the full cycle. Loss of elevation could indicate a deficit of effective
stay cable force or excessive downward deformation, for instance, because of additional segment
weight. Since the total deck movement includes an equal number of upward and downward
deflections, the influence of the actual structure stiffness on the results is reduced.
The thermal gradients within the superstructure and between concrete deck and stay cables can
affect stay cable forces. The nominal stay cable forces given in the design normally do not
account for thermal effects. One solution consists of verifying and adjusting the stay cable forces
early in the morning if the stay cable has to be stressed during the day-time in order to satisfy the
contractor’s operations. It is more practical to estimate the gradients at the time of stressing, for
instance, with thermo-couples. At each stage of erection, a correction of stay cable force can be
computed to account for loss due to thermal gradients. During the daytime, thermal gradients
create a downward deflection of the cantilever. When the gradient dissipates, the cantilever deflects
back up and it results into a loss of stay cable force. Therefore, when stressing during daytime, an
increase of stay cable jacking forces is required .
AF g
AE X AL
L
av (Gradient)
AL = AV sin*<
Modifying the stay cable forces to bring the deck to the theoretical elevation at each phase could
result into unacceptable stresses in the superstructure. This explains why a cable stayed bridge with
a rigid type superstructure cannot be erected following theoretical elevations only. In this case the
erection should be governed by stay cable forces with a tolerance not exceeding +/-5%.
If cantilever tip elevations are low after stressing and lifting a segment, this is an indication that the
whole cantilever is aimed low or is deflecting excessively.
Lift Segment
Bridge Instrumentation:
Important information can be obtained by placing thermo-couples and strain gauges along the deck section.
However, precautions must be taken to obtain valid results:
• Gauges must have the proper accuracy to detect long-term strains.
• Gauges must be installed properly and must not be disturbed during concrete pours.
• They have to be distributed across the width and depth of the section so that
“average” axial stresses can be estimated.
• A “zero” reading must be taken just after erecting or pouring a segment. Effects of
creep/shrinkage of concrete must be dissociated by testing shrinkage separately.
• The concrete modulus of elasticity has to be estimated to convert strains into stresses.
Figure 7 39 Instrumentation
• Strain Gauge
(J) Strain Gauge + Thermocouple
Geometry Discrepancies:
Geometry discrepancies due to casting errors or inaccurate placement of the first cantilever segment
can be corrected by using plastic shims in the match cast joints between segments. The shim
thickness should not exceed 1/4 inch (6 mm) and fiberglass mats are usually applied to prevent
epoxy sag in the thicker part of the joint.
CAUSE EFFECT
+10% DL -8MM
-10 % CONCRETE E
-10 % INITIAL F-STAY - 10MM
-10 % FINAL F-STAY -44MM
DECK GRADIENT 10 C° -30MM
TEMPERATURE DECK -5 C° -2MM
GRADIENT STAY/DECK 5 C° - 12MM
E STAY -13 % - 11MM
Other geometry discrepancies due to additional segment weight or inaccurate stay cable jacking
forces must be corrected by re-stressing the stay cables. Usually several stay cables along the
cantilever have to be re-stressed to avoid excessive stresses in the deck or stay cables . Re-stressing
the stay cables is a complex operation because the system is highly undetermined. The designer
needs to calculate the jacking forces for each stay cable and re-check the stresses in the structure at
each stressing operation. If the geometry discrepancy was due to additional weight, the stay cable
forces will be adjusted higher and the designer needs to verify that allowable stay cable forces are
not exceeded for the bridge in service. It is advisable to provide some additional stay cable capacity
at the design stage to account for such construction variations.
All F| F2 * A31 F3
A|2 Ft + A22 F2 + A32 F3
Figure 7.46 Steel Pipe Erection with Highline, Maumee River Bridge, Ohio
Photo Courtesy of Bilfinger & Berger
Figure 7.48
PE Pipe Supported with Strands
Puente de la Unidad, Mexico
Photo Courtesy of VSL Mexico
Measurements of stay cable elongations during stressing can be made to check the correlation
between stay cable force and assumptions for stay cable elastic modulus and stiffness of deck and
pylon. Theoretical elongation figures must take into account the following effects: sag variation,
deck movement, pylon movement, and modulus of elasticity of the steel.
With a parallel strand stay cable system, seating of strand wedges should be compensated for .at the
time of stressing to avoid an accumulation of losses in stay cable forces.
This can be simply done by overstressing the stay cable by the amount of assumed anchor set prior
to releasing the pressure in the jack. The strands should be marked to ensure that no strand slippage
occurs after removal of the stressing jack.
Modem parallel strand systems are un-grouted and the strands are individually protected. This
allows for installation and stressing of the strands one by one, which greatly simplifies the
operations at the site due to lighter installation and stressing equipments (monostrand jacks). The
forces in the individual strands vary every time a new strand is stressed and stay cable suppliers
usually determine the jacking force for the initial (pilot) strand from information produced by the
bridge designer (total stay cable force and pylon and deck movements under a given stay cable
force). The stressing procedure should also result into equal forces between the individual strands
within a tolerance of + / - 2.5 % of the strand ultimate tensile strength. This can be achieved by
continually monitoring the force in the pilot strand, and stressing each strand to a force equal to the
force in this pilot strand.
n = strand number
Total Force: n x F,.
Force per strand
—
Chapter 7 Cable-Stayed Bridges 27 of 29
7.8.2 Construction of Extradosed Bridges
The construction of extradosed bridges is similar to girder bridges since the external cables act
more as post-tensioning cables than stay cables, since they do not carry the weight of the girder
directly.
The geometry is controlled during erection similar to a typical precast box girder: geometry
discrepancies can hardly be corrected by re-stressing the cables since a large force increase would
be required to move the deck vertically. The geometry control is even more critical than for a
typical precast box girder because the cantilevers are normally longer for extradosed bridges.
The erection process is typically more simple than for cable-stayed bridges because the cables are
normally stressed once like PT cables. The short cables are also easy to install.
Due to the short height of the pylon, it is easy to inject the cable with cement grout.
The cables must be replaceable and double pipe systems are used at the anchorages and saddles in
this case. Individually protected strands, similar to stay cables can also be used to facilitate cable
replacement.
The cables for extradosed bridges are quite short and normally not sensitive to wind-rain induced
vibrations.
References
• FIP Congress 1986-New Delhi, Cable Stayed Bridges, Keynote Lecture by Fritz Leonhardt
• Ponts Haubanes , Pr. Rene Walter-1985
• Construction and Design of Prestressed Concrete Segmental Bridges, Podolny-Muller-1982
• Construction and Design of Cable Stay Cable Bridges, 2nd edition-Podolny-Scalzi-1986
• PTI Recommendations for Stay Cable Design, Testing and Installation, Fifth Edition
• AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
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Chapter 7 Cable-Stayed Bridges 29 of 29 j
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Chapter 8.0 Segmental Substructures 2 of 17
8.0 Segmental Substructures
8.1 Introduction
The development of precast segmental piers, extends the use of segmental technology to bridge
substructures. The first use of precast segmental piers in the United States was likely the Seven
Mile Bridge, built in 1982 and located in the Florida Keys. Since 1982, over a dozen bridges
utilizing precast segmental piers have been successfully constructed, allowing bridge substructures
to utilize the benefits of precast/prestressed concrete. These benefits include increased rates of
construction, economy and durability. In many cases where site preparations, deep foundations or
extensive repetition of common piers provide lead time for precasting piers, conventional cast-in-
place foundations can be re-designed to precast segmental piers for a significant project savings.
As pointed out in the introduction, many projects have utilized precast segmental piers. These
projects are diverse and range from projects completed in the early 1980's to projects currently
under construction.
Many of these projects utilize simple hollow rectangular piers. This is the case for the Varina-
Enon Bridge, the James Burrows Edwards (Wando) Bridge, the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal
Bridge, the Garcon Point Bridge, and the Hoover Dam Bypass Colorado River Bridge.
Other structures have utilized a variety of shapes selected to meet structural, aesthetic and other
project requirements. Among these structures are the Sunshine Skyway, Linn Cove Viaduct,
Albemarle Sound Bridge and U.S. 183 Austin Bridge.
Of interest is the James Burroughs Edwards Bridge over the Wando River. The construction
sequence for the main span of the superstructure called for temporary piers in the side span. The
contractor elected to use precast segments for these piers, that were later disassembled after
construction of the main span and utilized for permanent piers elsewhere in the project. This
innovative use of segmental piers resulted in a significant reduction of materials and construction
cost.
Another project of note is the Linn Cove Viaduct on the Blue Ridge Parkway in North Carolina.
This project utilized hexagonal piers with concave surfaces to fulfill the aesthetic requirements.
Black iron oxide was added to the concrete mix that has allowed the piers to weather to the same
color as the surrounding rock outcroppings.
The Linn Cove Viaduct also utilized a unique construction placement for the piers. No heavy
equipment was allowed on the terrain below the structure. Therefore, the superstructure was built
forward in progressive placement until a pier location was reached. The pier column segments
were then delivered across the completed portion of the superstructure and placed in final position
from above.
Precast segments are also utilized in the Hoover Dam Bypass Colorado River Bridge. The
contractor elected to use precast segments for the pier columns and the spandrel columns on the
concrete arches. The columns are engineered to slightly taper toward the pier caps. The tallest of
the columns is about 300 fl tall. The temporary pylons which support stay-cable system during the
arch erection are precast as well. Because of their temporary nature, epoxy coating is not provided
between the pylon segments.
Figure 8.7 - Hoover Pam Bypass Colorado River Bridge Precast Column Erection
While there can be variations in precasting procedures based on the contractor's preferences, the
basic operations can be summarized as:
Precast column segments are typically a constant cross-section. Therefore, the reinforcing is very
simple and is typically comprised of a series of transverse sets and a series of vertical straight bars.
The transverse sets have typically been ties consisting of smaller bars sizes. Tie requirements with
current design codes have increased the density of ties, but the resulting reinforcing bar cages
remain modular and readily tied in assembly jigs offline.
Most precast column segments are cast in their actual vertical orientation. The segments are
match-cast to assure a precise fit for when they are epoxy joined during erection. The bottom
segments are typically cast first and casting proceeds upwards with the top segments being cast
last. The first segment in each column is simply cast in the forms at ground level. The next
segment is match-cast on top of the first segment. The first segment is then taken to storage, the
second segment placed in the bottom position and the third segment cast on top of the second.
This cycle is repeated until the casting of all segments in a column is complete. The last segment
is a pier cap segment and will typically have a solid section and special reinforcing to
accommodate the bearings and distribute the bearing and post-tensioning forces to the overall
cross-section.
The set-up for a match-cast pour most often follows the following sequence. The core form
(forming the interior void) is installed above and overlapping the match-cast segment. The
reinforcing cage is then installed, along with the post-tensioning ducts. The exterior form is then
installed. The form and match cast segment are then surveyed into plumb positions. If there was a
deviation in the as-built plumbness from the last match-cast pour, the next pour will not be set
perfectly, plumb. Instead, forms for the next pour will be offset to compensate for the previous as-
built survey and allow the column as a whole to track a vertical line. Note that two orthogonal
faces must be monitored to assure plumbness in both directions.
The placing of concrete is very simple, with concrete being placed directly into the top of the
forms. With the segments cast in the vertical position, there are no slabs and only the small upper
joint surface requires finishing operations. All other surfaces are formed. The curing requirements
are the same as for any other concrete element. The strength required to lift the segments to
storage is usually a nominal 2500 psi. Therefore, minimum strength for handling is readily
achieved overnight and most contractors elect not to steam column segments.
The precasting operations for precast column segments are very straightforward and a segment per
day can typically be produced in each fonn bed. The limiting factor is the time needed for the
concrete to achieve minimum strength for handling. It typically does not take a full day for a
three to four person crew to set up and pour a segment when the reinforcing cage is pre-tied.
Erection of precast columns proceeds very quickly. As noted, there can be variations based on the
contractor's means and methods, but the sequence that follows represents typical column erection
operations.
The first operation is to place and plumb the first segment on the footing. Typically a keyway,
slightly larger than the segment cross-section is cast into the top of the footing. The first segment
is placed partially down into the key way, but a minimum joint of 1 to 2 inches is left between the
segment and the bottom of the keyway. The segment is plumbed by survey and shimmed off the
bottom the keyway to maintain the desired geometry. Accuracy required for this operation is a
function of the height of the column, since any error in setting will be projected to the top of the
column. Post-tensioning ducts between the footing and the segment are coupled. Finally, high
strength grout is poured into the key way to join the segment to the footing.
The segments are placed until either stability becomes questionable, or the contact time
for the epoxy is approaching the spec limit. At this time vertical post-tensioning is applied to
the column to achieve a minimum uniform pressure of 40 psi for epoxy squeeze, or the
minimum stress required for stability, whichever is greater. During erection, intermediate post¬
tensioning is most-often achieved with post-tensioning bars. These bars can be temporary, or
become part of the permanent post-tensioning system. Note that for shorter columns, the entire
column can often be erected without an intermediate stressing operation.
After all the segments in a column are erected, the permanent vertical post-tensioning is stressed.
While either bars or strand tendons are acceptable, strand tendons are most often used for the
major permanent post-tensioning. These tendons typically have both anchorages located in the pier
cap segment and loop down through the footing, They are double end stressed from the pier cap.
Tendons internal to the concrete cross-section are typically utilized. However, tendons external to
the cross-section and running in the interior void can also be used if part of the design (these are
typically unbonded tendons, and require a different design basis than internal tendons). In either
case the tendons are grouted after installation for corrosion protection.
Five pages of detail drawings for precast box piers developed for use with the AASHTO-PCI-
ASBI Standard Segments are included in Figures 8.13 through 8.17. A detail drawing of the
tendon loop connection of precast segmental piers to the foundation is presented in Figure 8.18.
8.5 Summary
Precast segmental substructures can be a very efficient solution when ever there is volume
production of standard pier shapes. Precasting can also be the best solution for unique sections
that require high quality concrete or geometry control, and when there is a long lead time for deep
foundations that allows the contractor to fabricate pier sections in parallel with foundation work.
The major advantage of precasting piers is the speed of erection, which surpasses any available
option.
Figure 8.14 - Span-by-Span and Balanced Cantilever Construction Spans 100’ to 200’
- Box Pier Cap Segment Dimensions
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!
Chapter 8.0 Segmental Substructures 15 of 17
feSi laBe rtigs
tf
StquM
m<is Ce#n
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PIER
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Figure 8.17 - Span-by-Span and Balanced Cantilever Construction Spans 100’ to 200
- Precast Box Pier Details III
STYROFOAM
/ SLOCK
5^11
BOTTOM OF
STEEL PIPE A 1%*0
HOLE
PE PIPE i.
DETAIL 2
-
Figure 8.18 Loop Tendon Details in Footings
(Drawing courtesy ofDywidag Systems International, Inc.)
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i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Essential features of a casting yards utilizing short line forming are shown in Figures 9.1a and 9.1b.
The planning and decisions made at the start of a project can set the tone for the remainder of the
job. Many preliminary decisions regarding the location and setup of a casting yard for a
segmental bridge project should have been made during the bidding process. One or more
potential locations should have been examined for acreage, existing site conditions, requirements
for site preparation, required equipment, site access both in and out, and site clean up at the end of
the project.
Once the project has been awarded, the preliminary decisions have to be expanded to ensure a
smooth and efficient start up. This chapter will outline the several “incidentals” that tend to be
overlooked before the first casting cell arrives on site. As with most construction projects time is
always the driving factor. This means almost immediately after award, long lead items need to be
ordered. This can be anything from casting cells to batch plants to steam generators and cranes.
The idea behind segmental bridges is to have the segments themselves waiting at the casting yard
to deliver as required by the erector.
The most obvious long lead item is the casting cells. These can take anywhere from twelve weeks
to six months for delivery, depending on the number of forms required and the complexity of the
segments. It is during this time that the casting yard needs to be finalized and prepared to accept
the casting cells for erection upon their delivery. Site preparations can be as simple as
clearing/grubbing, and leveling and grading, or may include drainage installation, consideration of
wet land issues, zonage requirements, utility installation, and docking issues if delivery is to be by
water.
Another item that requires early consideration is personnel for the project. Project Managers
and/or Plant Managers are typically known at the outset of a project. However, the supporting cast
will take time to assemble. The supporting cast will include the QA/QC inspectors, Surveyors,
Form Crews, Reinforcing Steel Cage Crews, Crew for Transverse Post-Tensioning and Grouting,
Finishers, Operators, and the many auxiliary employees required to complete the daily work.
The property size required depends on a variety of factors, including: segment length and width,
the gantry crane width ( determines storage area aisle layout), amount of space between stored
segments for work crews, whether the segments will be stacked, batching needs, and shipping area
layout are factors that require consideration. Identify the various work stations and the anticipated
footprint for each component of the casting yard. Assumptions concerning space requirements
should be conservative, and all assumptions should be clearly stated in preparation of a bid.
Workstation placement should have some flexibility without impacting work flow and production
efficiency.
Zoning Restrictions
The property being considered should be discussed with local building officials to determine
property usefulness. Due to the temporary nature of the casting yard, a zoning modification may
be feasible in consideration of bringing jobs to the local economy.
9.1.2.2 Utilities
Since the casting yard setup is usually on the critical path of every project, the property’s utilities
(including locations, sizes, and rated capacities) are necessary information before making any
negotiations or commitments. An assessment of the existing utilities and anticipated casting yard
needs is vital to ascertaining initial setup costs and scheduling impacts.
Existing
Electrical - The contractor’s kilowatt requirements are necessary before discussions with the local
utility company can start. If a batch plant will be setup, it’s highly probable that a transformer
addition or upgrade will be necessary. This can be a long-lead item, so the need must be identified
early.
Water - The contractor must determine the precise casting yard needs before existing water
supply can be deemed acceptable. The batch plant needs, truck washout area, steam generator, and
sprinkler system requirements for any new buildings. Every work station and task should be
evaluated.
Telephone - The contractor, subcontractors, engineering and inspection firms all require a phone
system with multiple telephone lines.
Internet - Internet service may be required for the casting yard’s efficient operation, remote
monitoring and possible web cameras.
Required to be Installed
Once the contractor has successfully obtained the low-bid award, the list of utility upgrades must
be documented and each item addressed and managed. The list of utility upgrades should be
included in the casting yard schedule to ensure completion is monitored.
Any existing structures on the property can be a detriment to work flow and the importance of
protecting the structure from operational hazards. Obtain a plot plan of the property and determine
sensitive areas that impact work flow and storage capacity (i.e., septic tanks, catch basins, leach
fields, fire hydrants, overhead lines, etc.). Once all aspects of the building’s impact are shown on
a plot plan, determine whether the property can still fulfill the project requirements.
Some precast segmental bridge projects are over deep water. In such cases, a casting yard setup
with water access for barge delivery is a strong advantage. The contractor must review existing
marine haulout facilities within a reasonable distance from the project (Figure 9.2). It is helpful to
know segment size & weight, and delivery requirements of the project. This information will be
needed to evaluate barge sizes, since vessel displacement is an important factor in analyzing a
potential marine facility. The water depth analysis of a potential site must include tidal extremes,
currents, maximum wind and wave action to envision the circumstances that would avoid a fully
loaded barge from bottoming out or causing extensive structural damage to the dock facility. Also,
the contractor should have a good understanding of slip width requirements, because depending on
segment weight, the casting yard’s gantry crane could be modified to handle both casting
operations and marine haulout facility.
An existing docking facility is advantageous due to time restraints. For larger projects, a new
reinforced concrete dock with upwards of 150-ton gantry crane pier could be fabricated, if timing
allows for the permitting process.
Carefully research Coast Guard, Environmental Protection Agency, and Army Corps, of
Engineers, port authority, state and local ordinances to fulfill all the appropriate permitting
requirements for construction, renovation, and shipping.
Soil engineers should investigate areas proposed for development, analyze site and subsurface
conditions and make recommendations for septic systems, grading, earth support, drainage,
foundation design, concrete slab on grade construction, and site remediation (including problems
that may arise from expansive soil).
A soils report is typically required for building permits. During construction, the soils engineer
may need to make further tests to make sure subsurface soil conditions are compatible with those
i . j observed in the initial investigation, and modify the design recommendations as necessary.
A preliminary study of the drainage conditions at the casting yard property is necessary to
determine the existing physical conditions and structures which may contribute to flooding. The
study should include drainage calculations to identify any problem areas. If storm water retention
is necessary, arrange layout of retention basins to maintain work flow. Storm water retention
basins, piping and structures must be designed to meet the loading demands of the casting yard
layout. Consideration must be given to requirements for maintenance of detention basins.
A local geotechnical engineering company will have records of designated wetland areas and site
restrictions in regard to overall property usage. Outline the designated wetlands on the plot plan
and walk the property. Check environmental restrictions and logical assumptions as to actual
workable perimeters around the wetlands. Cranes and heavy equipment may not be compatible
with the environmental restrictions, and thereby render the property useless.
9.1.3.4 Security
Security needs and public safety are high priorities when considering a casting yard site. Local
unemployment and crime statistics could alert the contractor to potential problems. The town
board or city council members and the local chamber of commerce are good business alliances.
Evaluate all the data and implement conservative measures to provide a safe and secure
environment.
Once the marine haulout facility has been chosen, perform an audit of existing structural
conditions, both above water and underwater. The audit should detail the intended purpose and
operating limits of the dock area, including minimum and maximum vessel sizes. Also, the
contractor should prepare an Action Plan documenting the necessary upgrades, including work
safety, general maintenance, and vessel impact criteria. Each activity should be implemented and
tracked on the casting yard startup schedule, depending on the bridge erection timeframe.
9.1.4 Receiving/Delivery
Segment delivery is the primary determining factor for establishing the casting yard’s distance
from and allowable travel route to the project. Once the segment takeoff is complete, this shipment
aspect must be developed. The maximum size and weight of the segments will affect the proper
truck/trailer combination for delivery. The contractor can evaluate his existing fleet or discuss the
project with a reputable trailer manufacturer or local trucking company. The state and local
agencies responsible for transportation permits will need to be contacted. These agencies will
evaluate allowable axle loads, axle layouts, and height or width restrictions within their
jurisdiction. The contractor should convey the number of legally permitted loads anticipated and
shipments per day. If multiple jurisdictions are involved, the contractor will need to negotiate an
acceptable criterion. Also, discuss scheduling, signage, escorts, police details, convoy allowances,
hours of operation, bridge survey requirements and restrictions, and any upcoming construction
projects along the intended route.
Typically, means of site delivery to a project are via concrete truck. If the contractor chooses an
off-site concrete supplier, determine the concrete truck allocation needed to provide a steady
casting cycle for the casting yard.
If a batch plant will be erected at the casting yard, determine conveyance means to the forms. New
and used concrete tracks are readily available, acceptable truck criteria will depend on whether a
central mixer will be part of the batch plant. Other avenues to explore will depend on how the
concrete will be conveyed to the casting cells. There are concrete pumps (truck-mounted and
stationary), booms and conveyors, all available in a variety of sizes.
Allow sufficient space for rebar supplier trailers, as one-half to a full span of rebar for each casting
cell should be at the casting yard. Maintain trailers intact until proper ground storage of the rebar
or small rebar jig trailers come available. Detailed procedures will ensure an efficient operation.
The local building official and planning board can identify the necessary steps to achieve the
building permit and the assessment of fees, depending on the properties (i.e., history, zoning,
environmental concerns, easements, right-of-ways, and potential liens). If a zoning variance is
necessary, assemble the proper local firms to provide assistance. Recommend the contractor know
the number of jobs the casting yard will be bringing the community.
Prior to lease/purchase of the property carefully walk the site with the most recent plot plan in
hand. Identify all known and unknown elements on the property. Time is of the essence when
building a casting yard, any unknown old foundations, catch basin, tanks, etc. can be very
detrimental.
Take photos to keep historical record of property and to plan site remediation prior to handing the
property back to the owner after casting completion.
Before the site work starts, have a plan in effect that is based on the casting yard schedule. The
contractor needs to focus the clearing efforts on the property areas requiring foundations. All
surface objects, brush, roots, and other protruding obstructions, not designated to remain, and all
trees and stumps marked for removal, shall be cleared and/or grubbed.
Depending on property size and anticipated runoff, the project engineer might recommend a storm \
water catch basin system, pond or series of ponds. Either remedy can impact workflow and /
optimum land usage.
9.1.5.4 Foundations
Choose the best soil bearing locations on the property for the foundations, especially for the forms
and batch plant. Consideration should be given to whether the foundations are temporary or
permanent. Be sure to contact Dig Safe prior to commencing sitework.
For Offices
Unless the contractor anticipates a long project, a level area with stable soils or slab-on-grade will
suffice for temporary office trailers. Determine the total area required to house the project staff.
If a wood frame structure, pre-engineered metal building, or masonry building is planned, the soil
bearing capacity will determine foundation requirements. If the structure will combine office and
production, make sure proper firewall separations are incorporated into the design and the
financial implications are determined upfront.
For Forms
Determine soil bearing capacity and stability prior to receiving form layout and loads. Reviewing
all the data and cost analyses will determine the type of foundation and any impact on scheduling.
Since this activity is always on the critical path, the initial planning must be thorough.
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Chapter 9. 0 — Production of Precast Segments 10 of 55
Building Construction-Offices, Laboratories, and Inspector Facilities
The local climate, project size and duration will determine building needs for the staff. If a
substantial structure will be built, the early QC lab might be established in a temporary storage
unit to start concrete mix design testing, etc. A detailed assessment of early casting yard activities
and start dates for staff positions will provide background for an analysis of needs.
If dredging is required to regain water depth from an accumulation of silt and debris, once this is
accomplished assess the structural condition of all revealed dock components. Document any
additional renovations required and proceed with implementation of the Action Plan. The
contractor should advise supervisors of all inspection milestones with all necessary parties. Also,
the contractor should load test the facility and perform a ‘dry run’ of all operations.
Once the marine haulout facility is operational, maintaining and repairing infrastructure is
extremely important, so perform periodic inspections to maintain a good structural status and
functionality. To accomplish this task a maintenance program should be in effect with a detailed
maintenance schedule.
To the extent feasible, existing structures on the property could be used for office space, QC lab,
material storage, and casting operations. The climate and project length will determine the
investment cost-benefits of modifications. The cost factor of re-modification should be considered
if the property needs to be restored back to its original condition.
Employee Parking
Assign a suitable parking space with capacity for all employees and anticipated visitors. Use the
appropriate barriers and signage depending on proximity to work areas and security level. Choose
the site carefully; many aspects of casting yard operation are harmful to automobiles.
9.1.6 Procurement
9.1.9.1 Forms
Purchasing precast segmental casting cells may determine the profitability of the casting yard
operation. The contractor and casting machine manufacturers should thoroughly discuss what is
included in the “Form Package.” Items not included are unwelcome and expensive surprises
during the erection of the casting machines.
Short line casting cells require much less area than long line machines. Horizontal and vertical
adjustments are required for a short line machine. Geometry control requires the use of highly
skilled staff and technical instruments.
Typical segment machines are the most critical production item in the casting yard. Therefore, it is
critical to make sure the forms allow yard personnel to quickly and efficiently cast one segment
per machine per day.
Constant depth casting cells are the easiest forms to “turn” every day. The soffit width, and the
web wall depth are constant. Segment length may vary, requiring that the match cast segment be
moved on the soffit or that a soffit extension be used.
Variable depth casting cells require the most changes to the forms to cast each segment. Changes
in segment height and soffit width require additional time to prepare the casting machine for the
next pour. In order to cast one segment per machine per day, the panels in the core form should be
as light as possible so that the panels can be installed by hand. It is also recommended that an
additional soffit be purchased to allow crews to assemble a day ahead to decrease change-over
time each morning.
All typical segments have rolling soffits and mandrels. High capacity rollers or crane wheels are
used to position both pieces. The track and embeds to hold the rollers should be included in the
form package.
Soffits for the typical segments must adjust for horizontal curves and tight geometry control.
Discuss both horizontal and vertical hydraulic options. Manual adjustment of the soffit and
positioning frame generally requires too much time. Some casting cells come with two soffits and
positioning frames, while others come with two soffits and one moveable positioning frame that
moves from soffit to soffit.
Placement of bracing for the web and wing supports requires base plates to be anchored to the
foundation. The base plates and embeds should be included in the form package.
Stripping the wing walls is generally performed by lowering/rotating the web and wing forms
away from the segment. Make sure the forms will be able to move beyond any drain blockouts or
enlarged wing tips without having to physically remove panels. Determine whether the forms can
be moved manually or if additional hydraulics are required
Shear keys can be fabricated from different materials. The most durable and costly shear key is
machined from solid steel bar. Machined steel bar shear keys will withstand the abuse from the
rebar cage dragging across them, and can be cost effective if used many times. Bent steel plate
and ultra high molecular weight Polyethylene are other materials that may be used for sheaf keys.
Both materials work well but are more susceptible to damage from rebar cages and misuse.
The core form must be carefully detailed to ensure that a segment is cast every day. The ability to
rapidly configure the core for deviation segments, top blocks and bottom blocks is critical. Check
with the form manufacturer to determine if removing a “pour by” panel will provide the deviation
segment or if it is necessary to remove the core web panel and replace it with a panel that has the
deviation blockout built in. Make sure all panels in the core have a slight draft (slope)
incorporated to facilitate stripping. The core form may be retracted using hydraulics, moved
manually, or a combination of both methods.
Pier, expansion, and abutment segments require more time to set up for casting. The recess area of
these forms should be fabricated to facilitate stripping. Split Piers require a rolling soffit to move
the half segments individually.
-
Figure 9.7 Segmental Pier Form
Before evaluating the appropriate concrete supply method, determine the specific project
requirements and where the casting yard will be located. Review the concrete material
specifications and compare them with available local material resources. The project authority
may publish a list of approved concrete material sources, including admixtures.
Portable batch plants are a convenient way of quickly setting up for casting. There are a number of
national manufacturers that will provide the correct setup. Identify the number of cementitious
materials you will be using. Judge the best available delivery method to the site and plant silos
requirements, based on quantity per week usage and length of project. The quality and volume of
concrete required for the project will determine cement and aggregate storage capacity needs,
along with central concrete mixer capacity. Review all the options of the computerized batching
control system. Local climate will dictate optional water chiller, ice machine, and boiler needs.
Proper component choices and concrete material resources are the major requirements for
producing high quality concrete. Proper component choices and concrete material resources are
the central focus for consistent quality product and plant resale value.
Carefully review the local climate to avoid the pitfalls of excessive heat or extreme cold, both will
need to be considered when present. Review state and local ordinances that can restrict batch plant
design (i.e., height restrictions, noise ordinances, hours of operation, dust emissions, etc).
When the project is located within a town or city, review the cost benefits of having the concrete
supplied by a local concrete plant. Make sure the local plant can provide the concrete mix using
the specified material resources and be able to do so with equipment that meets project criteria.
Determine any batch plant components that will need to be upgraded to handle segmental batching
requirements (i.e., central mixer size, cement silos, aggregate bins, admixtures, etc).
Size (BTU’s)
The steam-curing method typically used is live steam at atmospheric pressure for precast
segmental concrete units. Steam curing at atmospheric pressure is generally done in an enclosure
to minimize moisture and heat losses. Insulated tarpaulins are frequently used to form the
enclosure. A typical steam-curing cycle consists of: (1) preset period, (2) a period of temperature
ramp-up, (3) a period for holding the maximum temperature constant, and (4) a period for
decreasing the temperature.
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Chapter 9. 0 - Production of Precast Segments 15 of 55
The steam generator size and output capacity will be determined by quantity of forms, form
layout, and maximum concrete cubic yardage cast per day. In colder climates the concrete cubic
yardage quantity should include the matchcast segments, since their temperature must be similar to
concrete placement temperature. A 1,000,000-5,000,000 BTU unit will service most casting yard
applications, with larger custom units available. The manufacturer will provide a piping design to
optimize the unit; any variation on this design will drastically affect performance. The units can be
outfitted with a variety of options ranging from simple manual controls to sophisticated
computerized systems using thermocouples at each form. The latter can be programmed to start
the unit after concrete preset, provide the correct ramp-up to optimum temperature, and ramp
down the unit for proper release strength. Some computerized systems can be operated from the
QC lab. Carefully weigh the cost benefits for each option, especially whether or not the equipment
can be expensed over multiple projects. Also, check the hardness of the local water in case a water
softener is needed as mineral deposits can gradually fill the steam lines and plug valves.
Some project specifications allow Type 3 cement usage during the winter months, which could
allow a reduced heat source and form insulation techniques to achieve accelerated curing.
Fogging and water sprinkler methods should be used to maintain a humid environment. A fine fog
mist is frequently applied through a system of nozzles or sprayers to raise the relative humidity of
the air over flatwork, thus slowing evaporation from the surface. Formwork can be economically
insulated with commercial blanket or batt insulation that has a tough moisture proof covering.
When insulated formwork is used, care should be taken to ensure that concrete temperatures do
not become excessive.
Other options to investigate are electrical, hot oil, microwave and infrared curing methods which
have been available for accelerated concrete curing use for several years. Electrical heating is
especially useful in cold-weather concreting. Hot oil may be circulated under steel forms to heat
the concrete. Portable hydronic heaters may be used to thaw subgrades as well as to heat concrete
without the use of an enclosure
Selection of a particular type of crane(s) for the casting yard depends on a variety of issues
including casting yard complexity, productivity and overall cost-benefit analysis. Equipment
choices largely depend on the daily tasks assigned to each piece of equipment.
• —
Lifting Gapacity Determine the maximum segment weight prior to selecting a crane. Also,
make sure the crane will handle other uses or projects in the future.
• Overall Height - Identify any casting yard problems associated with the crane’s height.
• Wheelbase -This criterion will establish the storage area lane width. Decide on how
segments will be stored and the maximize lane capacity.
• Maximum Hook Height - Determine the maximum height a segment will have to be lifted
above the ground, making sure to add the strongback and rigging. To lift a segment over |
segments in storage or lift a segment over a segmental form, these items will determine the
hook height necessary.
• Turning Radius - Carefully determine casting yard component layout using radius data,
• Traveling Speed - Useful information for understanding task timeframe and critical
coordination factors.
• Drive Train - Casting yards typically have rough terrain; consider cost-benefits of all-wheel I
drive. |
Every aspect of the casting, storage, and shipping operations will be controlled by the above
factors. The particular aspects of the project requirements must be considered, any areas left
unchecked could be costly. Review all federal, state, and local safety ordinances.
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/cranehoistsafety/
Purchase
Regardless of the type of crane selected, there are many foreign and domestic manufacturers.
Check product availability, service requirements, setup requirements (secondary crane), and
include a manufacturer’s list of recommended replacement parts in the contract. For smaller
projects, a used crane might be suitable, especially a manufacturer’s reconditioned unit.
Lease I
A new or used crane can be leased making the payments fully tax deductible operating expenses.
For a larger crane size and relatively short duration, this option might be preferable.
Auxiliary equipment is available on the foreign and domestic market that will increase
productivity and enhance coordination efforts. Analyze the cost-benefit data (i.e., purchase price,
availability, longevity factors, parts and servicing, and warranty information) before making
choices. Determine all safety requirements and mandatory training programs required for the
casting yard. The website for OSHA is: http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/poweredindustrialtrucks/
Telescopic Forklift
The rough terrain aspects of a casting yard are the perfect environment for telescopic forklifts. !
There are a number of manufacturers which produce telescopic boom forklifts. Their versatility is
enhanced by numerous attachments applicable to casting yards (buckets, work platforms, rigid and
extendable booms). Check maximum load height, load charts, specialized maneuverability
options, precise load placement controls and ease of operation.
Front-end Loaders
Front-end loaders are excellent all-around machines, especially with quick-disconnect bucket and
options. This machine can keep the batch plant aggregate bins full, and by adding forks can load
and unload tractor trailers. Front-end loaders may be used to keep the storage area and
construction roads flat. Finally, they will move the air compressor, post-tensioning and grouting
equipment around the storage area. With a variety of manufacturers and equipment sizes, front¬
end loaders are a versatile machine that is a strong asset to the casting yard.
Compressors
There are many uses for compressors in the casting yard, including air tools at the segmental
forms, batch plant needs, QC lab, and sandblasting needs. Since using air tools will increase labor
productivity, a centrally located compressor with a suitably sized holding tank is warranted. After
the casting yard layout has been determined, locate air supply line routes to each work zone.
Determine where you will be sandblasting segment joints, etc., and whether it will be at one
location or whether a trailer-mounted compressor should be purchased. Review all OSHA, state,
and local ordinances regarding installation requirements.
A one-second accuracy theodolite is used for centerline checks and elevation readings with a
builder’s level capable of reading to O.OOI-foot using an invar rod. Project specifications should be i
carefully reviewed for requirements. Monopod setups for the instruments are normally used. In
certain applications a station that covers the entire project may be advantageous.
i
Winches, Screeds, Vibrators |
Winches are a popular method for moving the matchcast segment to and from the casting position
along the rails provided by the form manufacturer. Usually a pulley system is utilized on the I
opposite side of the form so that only one winch per segmental form is needed. The winch size is
based on segment weight and coefficient of fiction of the rollers running along the rails, with an
appropriate safety factor.
Screed manufacturers produce a variety of screeds that operate on air, gas, diesel, and electric.
Each has benefits if used with manufacturer’s recommendations. Carefully review the specific
needs of your casting operation. It is important to remember that the concrete should already have
been vibrated using other methods. The screed’s purpose is to level and consolidate the top
surface only.
Two types of vibrators can be used in precast segmental (internal and external). Typically, only
handheld internal vibrators are used, preferably in 18” maximum lifts. If the contractor is casting
complex segments or congested rebar configurations, the additional use of external vibrators can
ensure proper consolidation and an aesthetic form finish. A small roller screed or air screed system
to finish the deck surface is desirable.
Generator
Generators come in a variety of sizes to assist startup and daily casting operations. Many casting
yards are setup in remote areas where a small generator will be necessary to get the workers
started. Have the electrical contractor estimate total kilowatt usage of the batch plant, casting yard,
and office needs. This information can be used to evaluate back-up generator requirements. To
ensure productivity in rural areas (especially areas subject to frequently black/brown outs), a large
back-up generator can eliminate project delays.
Sandblast Equipment
The chief usage of the casting yard sandblaster is for light cleaning of the segmental matchcast
joints prior to shipment. The joint faces must not be altered by this process. Depending on
contractor preference, this task can be accomplished by a stationary or mobile setup. Review the
project specifications and epoxy joint adhesive manufacturer’s recommendation for required
surface preparation to determine sandblasting equipment, compressor capacity, and sandblast
material’s composition and grit size.
Computers I
Desktops and/or laptops serve many uses at the casting yard. The most vital usage is maintaining
the daily geometry control software input/output to keep casting on target. The batch plant will
have its own computer, tracking batching operations and material usage. Office staff will be
coordinating submittal status of a host of startup submittals for casting yard layout, equipment,
materials, concrete mix designs and ongoing shop drawing approvals. Field personnel will be
monitoring material inventory and purchasing requirements. The proper computer systems,
software, and well-thought-out networking and internet linking requirements will promote a
successful operation.
The concrete specifications will detail the AASHTO, PCI, and ASTM standards to be followed
during the approval and day-to-day casting operations. Since most projects are of short duration
concentrate the on-site lab focus on the daily aspects of quality control. Specialized testing by an
AASHTO-Certified Laboratory will be required for petrographic analysis of the course and fine
aggregates, alkali-silica reaction tests, modulus of elasticity test, and creep and shrinkage tests;
visiting the AASHTO website will list local certified labs.
Prioritize the lab setup depending on the casting yard requirements. Usually the concrete mix
design is the first task. Determine post-tensioning and grouting testing requirements. Some
projects will require plant certification by PCI or NPCA. Both organizations will be helpful in
concrete lab setup, preparing a quality control procedures manual, and addressing QC personnel
certifications. The website address for each organization is as follows:
http://www.aashto.org/
http://www.aci-int.org/
http://www,astm.org/
9.1.7 Facilities
Unless the property has an existing office space that can be economically configured to the project
needs, explore the availability of mobile office trailers which come in a variety of sizes and
accommodations. Also, these trailers can be grouped together easily with stairs and decks to
produce a useful working environment
Troubleshooting and quick resolutions are key components of a well-run casting yard. The office
complex should be suitable for all parties; in proximity to each other, close to the center of the
casting yard, and near the QC lab.
Inspectors
Inspectors should have sufficient office space to review plans and specifications, each should have
a desk, chair, locking file cabinet, phone and fax on larger projects, mobile radios, computers and
web access might be required. The larger and/or more complex projects will require detailed task
assignments and close monitoring by senior staff.
Surveyors/Engineers
These staff members will require everything listed above plus the use of custom computer setups
with specialized software depending on project specifics. A ‘Geometry Control Manual’ should be
issued to monitor daily operations. The precaster’s surveyor and the inspector’s surveyor should
each have their own geometry control programs to be able to make independent checks against
each others set up numbers.
QA/QC Personnel
The ASCE Manual of Professional Practice “Quality in the Constructed Project” defines and
discusses Quality Assurance and Quality Control as follows:
The quality control personnel will need to be near the QC lab and require plenty of work space
depending on the casting yard workstations. Determine where the concrete will be tested, since
many of the daily tests are made on plastic concrete. Many filing cabinets will be needed for
cement and rebar mill certifications, individual segment files, shop drawings, submittal records,
pre-pour and post- pour records.
The QC lab will be outfitted with a compression machine for testing hardened concrete and grout
cube testing. If the project specifications require 28-day concrete cylinders lab tests, a moist cure
room is an economical alternative.
A ‘Quality Control Manual’ and ‘Repair Procedures Manual’ should be issued to provide daily
operational procedures.
Each segmental form will require some servicing by crane and material handlers on a daily basis,
thus, the casting yard layout needs to accommodate many tasks. Casting yard layouts will be
controlled by the choice of equipment purchased.
Foundation Requirements
A casting yard location is usually chosen based on proximity to the project or due to availability of
the appropriate size parcel. Once the property choices have been made and prior to casting yard
layout, walk the property and examine soil classifications, water runoff patterns, and any evidence
of existing contaminants. Next, excavate trial pits for soil samples and check bearing capacity to
determine whether groundwater observations are necessary. When the ultimate bearing capacity is
known from each of the trial pits, the casting yard layout can be developed. During the shop
drawing phase of the casting forms and batch plant, the structural loads and layouts will be
available to ascertain the correct foundation construction method for these structures. With the
critical nature of the geometry control process, the casting forms must remain stable, so a
conservative foundation design is mandatory.
The diversity of site conditions can make it difficult to estimate a casting yard budget. Discussions
with the local building inspector, site contractors and a geotechnical engineering firm will usually
be helpful in this process.
Survey Tower
Review geometry control provisions to optimize survey equipment setup requirements, and devise
a survey tower layout. Keep the survey tower layout simple, depending on the casting yard layout.
Ensure the proper foundation depth and footprint is covered. When setting up multiple forms, try
to utilize each survey tower for more than one form. This will reduce survey equipment needs,
surveyor time, and speeds the casting cycle.
Casting yard layout is based on workflow efficiencies obtained by creating an assembly line
environment. Rebar jig assemblies can be constructed of wood or steel depending on a variety of
factors. A minimum of two rebar jigs is recommended for each casting form. Typical rebar jig
assemblies must operate in a simple manner for daily cycling requirements. However, these jigs
must adapt to the versatility of the casting form they serve. Prior to fabrication of rebar jigs
analyze every segment configuration requirement to ensure smooth transitions. Most pier and
expansion joint segments can be pre-tied to the top of the webs. This will accelerate the casting
process, especially when the piers are starter segments for each span.
Rebar Delivery/Storage
The rebar delivery method will depend on two factors: the economic restraints of the rebar
fabricator negotiations, and the skill level of the contractor’s work crews. Rebar can be delivered
by the segment, a series of similar segments, or by the span. Additional options can be derived
depending on fabricator’s computerized order software. The rebar can be ordered by span, but
anchor block reinforcement can be tagged for individual segments. Upon delivery, the various
rebar bundles can be stored in a manner to ease transport to the rebar jigs. The rebar storage area
should be close to rebar jigs.
In smaller casting yards the rebar is transferred from the storage area to the rebar jigs by a forklift.
Larger projects utilize utility trailers or tower cranes to increase workflow. A rebar list for each
segment should be used as a check sheet for delivery to each rebar jig.
During the early stages of casting, sufficient laydown area should be established for quality
control checks of initial rebar deliveries and spot checking throughout the project.
In segmental construction, many of the embedded items are steel. These items require proper
storage areas between delivery and usage to prevent corrosion. Depending on the climate zone,
many manufacturers produce fabric structures, pre-engineered buildings, steel storage trailers, or
an existing structure modified to meet demands. Proper organizational skills and inventory control
procedures will maintain production casting sequencing needs.
Steam generator placement is critical to operational efficiencies. The steam creation chamber and
the first six feet exiting the steam generator will be 250 degrees, which means building and worker
protection is necessary. After initial steam pipe layout has been optimized, do not alter fabrication
without discussing with manufacturer. In colder climates the steam generator will need protection
from freezing temperatures. Shutoff valve layouts on multi-zone systems are critical for steam
flow efficiency for remaining segmental forms in the curing cycle.
The proper OSHA, state, and local statutes will have to be followed to find the minimum
requirements for the number of employees at the casting yard. In addition, identify congested work
zones that may need additional facilities to keep productivity levels. Depending on number of
employees and length of project, a large restroom facility with septic system may be cost effective.
Propane, diesel, and gas storage on-site requires significant precautions. Research the proper
storage area distance from the work zone mandated by OSHA, state, and local ordinances.
Carefully follow all regulations, perimeter safety requirements, security fencing, and impact
restraints. Sufficient total tank or tank farm capacity will depend on equipment usage, local
In keeping with sustainable guidelines, a ‘Construction Waste Management Plan’ should be issued
for each segmental project. The casting yard will produce wastewater from the batch plant, excess
concrete, excess rebar and strand, miscellaneous wood and paper products. Carefully identifying
approximate quantities of these recyclables during the project will assist your waste management
procedures.
Once casting is complete there is still much work to be done to the segments before they are ready
for delivery and erection. Once the concrete has reached a predetermined strength the transverse
tendons require stressing and grouting. Inevitably, some cosmetic work will be required to ensure
the segments meet appearance requirements. This cosmetic work could range from rubbing the
segment and lightly grinding the edges to any structural repairs that may be necessary. The final
step is to lightly sandblast the faces to remove any laitance, dirt, debonding agents, etc. before
segments are delivered for erection.
i
To avoid multiple handling of the segments, much of this work can be done in the storage yard.
Ideally, the segments of the same span should be stored together. This makes it easier to track
spans that are ready for delivery, as well completion of the finish work a span at a time without
frequent relocation of crews and equipment.
The key to setting up the yard is leaving enough space between segments to allow a scissor lift or
man lift to maneuver between the ends of the segments and to have access to the transverse
tendons with a stressing jack and pump. The crew will also need to get to the ends of the
segments for grouting. The equipment being used will dictate the amount of room required
between the segments.
It is not unusual to have to rub the segments to repair unsightly bug holes. Leaving enough room
to work around the segments with small hand tools is helpfill. The worker should have access to
the faces of the segments to allow lightly running a grinding wheel around the edges to remove
any “fins” or burrs that may later create spalls when the segments are pulled together during
erection.
As with most segmental construction projects, the casting schedule is driven by the sequence of
erection. It is helpful to designate a row or series of rows in the storage yard layout for individual
spans. This will make finishing much more efficient and will allow the loading crews to locate
segments more quickly at time of delivery.
The overall purpose in setting up the storage yard is efficiency. The more efficient the yard crew
and equipment operators are, the less money it costs to nm the yard. Since there is never
unlimited access to equipment there is a risk of having a crew waiting for the crane to address their
needs. If the yard is organized, it will not be necessary for workmen to spend time looking for
segments at time of delivery. Efficiency is the key to a well-run yard.
The long line method refers to casting all the segments of a run by moving the form from one
segment to the next without moving any segment.
The long line method was the first method used for precasting segments as it has the obvious
advantage that all the geometry control is done when constructing the soffit, thus simplifying this
process during segment production. Traditionally, the soffit is fixed for the entire length, and the
ground support is stiff enough that the settlements of any segment do not affect the achieved
geometry. The long line forms used for the San Francisco-Oakland East Bay Bridge provided for
adjustment in the soffit geometry as well as slight horizontal curvature.
A recent example of the traditional long lines is the Pakse Bridge across the Laos-Thailand border
(see Figures 9.18 and 9.19). The cantilevers were cast on a stiff substructure consisting of
longitudinal concrete beams placed under the deck web, with external forms and core form
traveling on side rails maintaining the horizontal alignment. In this case, the geometry of the
cantilever was controlled simply by setting the bulkhead to the correct height.
Figure 9.19 - Pakse Bridge — View of the Soffit Support Structure and Form Guide Rails
(Photo courtesy of Parsons)
For the curbside expansion at BWI Airport (Figures 9.20 and 9.21), the segments have a non-
traditional shape as they consist of two lateral solid concrete beams with a large deck slab
supported on steel transverse floor beams. The geometry of each run is different and complex, but
a run consists of a maximum of four segments. The alignment is set prior to each run by fixing
curved rails to a stiff concrete platform following the theoretical alignment shape. The forms are
then fixed to these rails and can be adjusted in height.
Figure 9.20 — BWI Curbside Expansion Ramps — General View of the Long Line Bed
(Photo courtesy of Parsons)
For the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Skyway Bridge replacement project, 44 cantilever arms are
cast with the long line method, out of which 10 have a curved alignment (see Figures 9.22 and
9.23). The soffit form consists of individual forms for each segment, individually supported on
short shoring towers which are set on a concrete slab but not fixed. Due to the weight of each
segment (750T), the settlements are not negligible and must be considered to account for geometry
control.
A custom-made geometry control software was used to track the as-cast geometry and provide
adjustments for the segments.
Figure 9.23 — San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge Skyway — General View of a Long Line Bed
(Photo courtesy of Parsons)
The short line casting bed is shown in Figures 9.24 and 9.25. With this method, the form is
stationary while the segments move from the casting position to the match casting position and
then to storage.
The disadvantage of the system is that the match casting segment must be very accurately placed.
There is no tolerance for large casting errors.
Illustrations of short line forms in use are shown in Figures 9.26 through 9.31.
Bulkhead
Movable beams
to carry core
forms
Figure 9.28 — Wing Form Supports, Lee Roy Selmon Crosstown Expressway Tampa, FL
(Photo courtesy of Southern Forms, Inc.)
This is a method where fresh concrete of the new segment is cast against the already hardened
concrete of the old segment. A bond breaker (usually a mixture of wax, soap, and talcum powder,
but there are also chemical compounds) is applied to the hardened concrete surface in order to
ensure that the segments will come apart. The match casting technique, as applied now on
thousands of segments, is based on the fact that, provided proper precautions are taken, the
segments will come apart cleanly, and, upon erection, will join together perfectly with the one
joint being almost invisible.
The precautions are merely the careful application of the bond breaker and the avoidance of
jamming protrusions which make it physically difficult to break the bond.
For correct fit at the time of erection, the joint faces must not have been altered, except for a light
sandblasting. This generally means that no work can be done on the joint faces, and that segments
must be stressed in such a way that differential deformation cannot occur.
1. The required geometric profile, which is actually the horizontal and vertical curvature and
super-elevation shown on the plans, and
2. The compensation of deflections. Both the deflections which occur during construction and
the long-term deflections.
The deflections which occur during construction are shown in Figure 9.32. While erecting the
five-segment cantilever shown in Figure 9.32(a) in the five steps required, both self-weight and
post-tensioning deflections increase as the cantilever increases. Figure 9.32(b) shows the
deflections after each step. The situation at the end of erection is shown in Figure 9.32(c). The
combined effect of self-weight and post-tensioning will result in some deflection. To have a
horizontal profile after this erection takes place, a casting curve should be provided which is
precisely opposite the calculated deflection line.
In Figure 9.33, structural deflections are shown combined with the geometric profile. The
required geometry of the structure is shown in Figure 9.33(a). The deflections occurring during
construction are shown in Figure 9.33(b). The structural deflections are compensated in Figure
9.33(c), and finally added to the geometric profile of Figure 9.33(a) to form the casting curve in
Figure 9.33(d).
A casting curve should be shown on the contract drawings based on the details and construction
methods assumed in the design. The casting curve is verified and modified as necessary by the
Contractor based on the details and construction procedures selected for the project.
£25310213
Figure 6.1 ~(a)
Casting curve
Required
final profile
De fisction
due to
seifwefghi
and post-
tensioning.
—
Chapter 9. 0 Production of Precast Segments 38 of 55
9.5 Fabrication of Rebar Cage with Post-Tensioning Ducts and
Hardware
Prefobrication of the rebar cage, preferably with post-tensioning ducts and as much as possible of
the hardware installed, is needed in order to achieve a production of one segment per day. This is
readily accomplished by means of custom-built jigs and templates. A possible jig for a complete
typical segment is illustrated in Figure 9.19. At times, it is more convenient to use partial jigs
(i.e., one for the bottom slab and webs, and another for the top slab). By having several jigs, it is
possible to fabricate rebar cages well in advance for segment production.
Figure 6.18(b)
Camber^(-Deflections)
Figure 6.18(c)
Figure 6.18(d)
For pier segments, abutment segments, and expansion joint segments, the typical segment jig
could be modified or a separate jig made. Sometimes the pier and expansion joint segments are
cast in separate casting cells. In such cases, it might be convenient to fabricate the cage directly in
the casting cell itself.
It is advisable to periodically check the accuracy of jigs and templates as they can deteriorate with
repeated use and adjustments.
Special care is needed when using epoxy-coated rebar in order to avoid damage to the coating
during fabrication. The use of padding materials in the jigs and templates and padded slings will
help. Damaged epoxy coating must be repaired using a “paint-on” epoxy.
All aspects of installation of post-tensioning ducts and anchorages should be in accordance with
-
Chapter 3 Post-Tensioning Duct and Tendon Installation of the FHWA “Post-Tensioning
Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual.”
The rebar cage should be securely fabricated with adequate tie wire to maintain as much rigidity as
possible.
Once the form has been thoroughly cleaned out and oiled, the rebar cage with the post-tensioning
anchors is installed. The important items to watch for during anchor installation are orientation of
the distribution plate, connection of plate to trumpet and of trumpet to duct, and also the position
of bursting reinforcing. Ensure that the congested anchor zone can be concreted properly without
fear of honeycombing.
The orientation of the distribution plate is provided on the shop drawings, usually by providing
angle offsets to the plane of the form. Based on this information, recess pockets are to be made.
In the case of many repetitive uses of the form, these recess pockets will be made of steel plates.
Once a steel recess pocket has been checked for dimensional accuracy, it will consistently provide
the correct orientation. Wooden recess pockets are for one-time use only, and these always need
to be checked. Figure 3.15 in the FHWA “Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting
Manual” shows installation of an anchor and the proper alignment of the anchor with the duct.
The required bursting reinforcement is shown on plans (i.e., see Figure 3.11 of the FHWA “Post¬
Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual”). The location of the bars should be strictly
adhered to. Spirals should be centered properly in respect to the ducts and begin right at the
distribution plate of the anchor. Dimensions for placement of hairpins are important, and these
should be within one inch. Particularly at the anchors, drawings should be integrated and show all
reinforcing, tendons and hardware present in the area. All conflicts between tendons and
reinforcing should be resolved by use of integrated drawings during the design process. Spirals
are supplied closely wound, and should be stretched out to the proper pitch as shown on the
drawings.
Since anchor zones are densely reinforced, judgment should be made beforehand whether or not
concreting will cause problems. If problems are anticipated, the Owner’s Engineer (Construction
Engineering Inspector) should be consulted.
After placing the rebar cage and anchorage in the cell, all post-tensioning ducts are securely
connected to their respective anchorages and standard duct locations and alignments are checked.
Care should be taken to provide adequate bottom support of the rebar cage. Final inspection of the
tendons should be performed after the connection with anchors and match cast segments are made.
Mandrels are installed as stiffeners in each duct and should extend through the entire length of the
segment to prevent deflection during concreting operations.
Good concrete placing practice will ensure a good product. Some of the important points to watch
for are:
1. First, make sure that the forms are thoroughly cleaned, all joints are tight and sealed, all ducts
are aligned and secure, and everything is in its proper place. The form should be lightly oiled
for stripping, and the face of the match cast segment given a coating of a suitable bond¬
breaking agent.
2. Place the concrete in the specified sequence (see Figure 9.36). A good placing procedure
should prevent the concrete placed in the bottom of the web from spilling into the bottom
slab. This movement of the web concrete can easily displace rebar and ducts and can pull
concrete away from heavily reinforced bottom anchorages or the web itself, causing
honeycombing. Some flow of the concrete is unavoidable, but it can be minimized by using
the following procedure, which is considered good practice. Other sequences of concrete
placement have also been used successfully, and the procedure presented here is not intended
to prohibit other practices which have provided good results.
(a) The first concrete should be placed in the middle portion of the bottom slab, leaving about
six to twelve inches clear of the side forms at the bottom of the webs. It is possible to do this
by a delivery chute through a trap in the top slab soffit or by a chute through the bulkhead
end. Concrete consistency needs to be flowable enough to fill congested areas, while stiff
enough to avoid blowout of bottom slab during pours four and five (Figure 9.36).
(b) Place the second concrete in the webs and compact it around the bottom comers to
complete the bottom slab. Concrete lifts in webs are recommended to be no more than 24
inches in height.
(c) Finally, place the concrete in the top slab working from the center and outside edges
towards the web. Strike off the top surface and finish as described below.
3. Use skips, chutes or pumps to deliver concrete, and do not let it fall from a great height as this
causes segregation, and the impact can damage ducts and displace rebar. Concrete placement
should be in accordance with approved procedures and specifications.
4. Keep as continuous a delivery as possible; avoid holdups which can allow the concrete
already placed to take on an initial set. Sometimes deliberate short waits are necessary,
especially after placing the bottom slab and web comer concrete so that it can stiffen just
enough to take the weight of the rest of the web concrete, but be careful that this waiting is
not overdone to avoid cold joints. Often, use is made of retarders in the concrete mix to
simplify the casting operation.
5. Make proper use of the internal “poker” vibrators to thoroughly consolidate the concrete.
These types of vibrators should be pushed into the concrete for no more than two feet or so,
and should slowly be withdrawn from the same location. Do not move the vibrator sideways
while still in the concrete. Do not use the internal “poker” vibrators to move concrete around
or to drag it from the webs into the bottom slab, for example, as this will cause poor
compaction and honeycombing. Avoid contact of the vibrator with rebar and post-tensioning
ducts, as this will cause damage or displacement (Figure 9.37).
7. The finish on the top surface should be accomplished by a screed. As this is usually the riding
surface, great care is needed in finishing. In spite of this being the last job for the day, it
should not be hurried.
8. Consult specific DOT requirements for placing and finishing concrete tolerancy and
procedures.
Opemng for
—
vibra tot sea I
with trap. amount into
bu t tom co mor
t horough ly
to 12?" clear of
bottom of inside web form
for 2nd. and 3rd loads.
•concrete
DO NOT move
around Use internal
frith internal vibrator lo
vibrators-it can disturb interface
easily cause voids. between loads
and consolidate 2nd.
Risk of voids NO Ihoroughly «
1st. Load
•(ItAvoidcanletting vibrator go too deep.
cause aeration or voiding To consolidate concrete: push
of earlier placed concrete which vibralor vertically into concrete Lo
has perhaps already started the depth of no more than 2fT (:l)
selling process.) and withdraw slowly, in steps, at
the same point.
• Also. vibrator can easily get stuck. Withdraw vibralor from concrete to
move to another point -DO NOT
•and
Avoid too much contact
rebar.
with ducts drag vibralor through concrete
Vibrate at intervals of about rf’t. to
r-6n.
A good quality finish of the top surface is essential as this is also the riding surface. The primary
opportunity to achieve this properly is in the casting operation (Figure 9.38). A 1/2-inch
sacrificial thickness for grinding or planing is now specified by some states, followed by
mechanical grooving of the riding surface.
To achieve a good finish by mechanical means, the equipment must be used properly by trained
and experienced operators. Care is needed to make sure that all depressions are filled and all high
areas removed to give a very uniform, dense and even surface. The surface must be accurate and
should be as smooth as possible prior to applying any required riding surface treatment. After
such treatment, the surface must still be even and accurate. Undulation should not be permitted.
Hand finishing has been used successfully on many segmental structures in the past. Hand
finishing requires that a good strong, straight screeding board be used extending from the top of
the bulkhead to the top of the match cast segment to strike off the surface to an accurate level.
Mechanical screeds also work very well. Good results have been achieved with both rolling and
vibratory screeds.
Mechanical screeding should be followed by a straight edge, usually a substantial, stiff aluminum
beam, worked by hand and used to check and correct any low and high spots to give an accurate
and straight surface from the bulkhead to the match cast segment
After surface wetness has disappeared, the surface may be very lightly “touched up” with floats to
produce a finer and smoother surface. Floats should not be used in such a way as to move
concrete or disturb the accuracy of the straight surface.
When finishing a concrete surface, it is important to keep the concrete live for working by proper
vibration, tamping and floating, and leave as if not to add water to wet any stiff areas. This will
create patches of weaker surface material which will dust and wear badly in use. In order to take
advantage of workable concrete, the initial leveling and finishing should following immediately
after placement. This is the best time to get the surface level. The best quality can be achieved by
finishing the segments to a smooth finish, and then providing a transversely grooved riding surface
cut after erection of the structure. A small amount of extra cover is specified to allow for the
depth removed by the grinding process prior to grooving.
Be careful not to spoil the top surface when and if the concrete is to be covered for curing. (Use
means to support tarps and prevent contact with top surfaces, etc.)
The top surface of the bottom slab should be finished in a similar manner, although the appearance
of the surface finish is not so critical, it should, nevertheless, be accurate. Mechanical screeds
need not be used on the bottom slab.
9.12 Curing
In order to achieve a production rate of one segment per day from one casting ceil, it is essential to
ensure that curing is proper and sufficient to provide the necessary strength and control of
shrinkage, etc. Project Specifications or Special Provisions prescribe the curing procedures to be
followed.
Curing procedures depend upon the type of concrete, its chemical hardening processes,
temperature and exposure conditions. It is common practice to cover the segment with tarpaulins
and apply steam to maintain a controlled temperature and humidity. Other methods have been
used, including burlap, blankets, water, etc.
With a production rate of one segment per day, clearly the curing process in the casting cell cannot
be more than a few hours from the completion of the casting in the evening to the start of survey
and stripping the next morning. This is why a controlled environment is essential. The segment
curing may be obtained with chemical compounds or water, and should be in accordance with the
contract documents.
Stripping of forms should not start until the concrete has reached the required strength. This is
usually specified at 2500 psi. At this strength, it is normally possible to ease off the side forms,
remove the core form, and pull back the match cast segment provided that the top slab is self-
supporting. At this strength, the segment could also be moved on its pallet but not lifted. In case
the reinforcing provided is incapable of carrying the weight of the unsupported top slab at 2500
psi, then transverse post-tensioning must be stressed in full or in part. This would require a higher
strength often specified at 4000 psi. It is customary to break cylinders in order to verify that these
strengths are in fact obtained. Transverse post-tensioning of the top slab in the storage yard is
illustrated in Figure 9.39.
Stripping the forms should be done with care, as it is very easy to cause spalling and other damage
when the concrete is young.
Figure 9.39 - Transverse Post-Tensioning of the Top Slab in the Storage Yard
Most casting cell forms are removable in whole pieces (Figure 9.40), but it is advisable to leave
removal of any special block-out forms for as long as possible, as it is very easy to break the edges
ofblockouts.
Stripping and pulling back the match cast segment should be done with particular care. If the
bond breaker has not been properly applied, portions can be broken off either segment. The shear
keys are especially vulnerable. Also, the movement mechanism on the pallets must be examined
and understood by the stripping crew. Loosening of jacks and tilting of the pallet can “lift” the
newly cast segment (see Figure 9.41). This motion can easily damage the shear keys and must be
avoided. Segments may be separated by the following methods:
—
Figure 9.40 Stripping Forms
—
Chapter 9. 0 Production of Precast Segments 48 of 55
Inside form work
Bulkhead
New Old
segment segment
This key
will not
jam CAUTION;
In order to break the bond
This key will between the match-cast and
jam A break bulkhead, it is normal to
release the rearward screws/ jack
to allow segment to tilt back.
Point of This can cause damage to shear
keys. Great care is needed with
this operation.
It may be necessary to try a
few techniques depending upon
the form mechanisms. There is
no simple solution.
Figure 9.43 — Precast segment with northbound and southbound plinths to CIP on-site
9.14.1 Rail Construction
The rails (commonly continuous welded rail) may be directly fixed to the guideway with elastic fasteners
or raised above the deck by using concrete plinths. Direct fixation rail will necessitate tight construction
control. If plinths are shown, the contract documents will specify the design criteria, usually CIP once the
structure is erected. Alternates to allow rebar couplers to avoid projected rebar or to allow the plinth
construction at the casting yard may be present. The plinth layout will detail intermittent gaps to provide
deck drainage. The requirements for concrete surface treatments for secondary plinth pour areas can prove
costly. Also, some upcoming projects are requiring the concrete plinth rebar to be fiberglass. Carefully
review project specifications.
The locations of specialwork, switchgear, high strength rail, rail expansion joints and rail anchors will
require close shop drawing detailing. Address clearance issues with an RFI to avoid casting yard delays.
Identification of the design, location and installation requirements of all LRT features will be crucial. The
system integration placement requirements will probably necessitate a fulltime electrician at the casting
yard.
Methods used for traction power system electrification include a third rail or installing a series of overhead
catenary lines (OCS) to operate the trains. Either option will add to the standard coordination factors at the
casting yard. The industry does utilize AC and DC traction power systems. Most modem light rail projects
are using DC traction electrification system (TES), so our focus is DC current.
An aerial guideway with northbound and southbound tracks will detail a cross-over at certain intervals. The
crossover area will be congested with additional rebar and systems integration requirements. Clarify the
tolerance requirements during the early stages of the project to avoid casting delays and QC/QA shortfalls.
The segments in these tight construction control areas may not meet the daily casting cycle. A pre¬
construction meeting with the project LRT consultants is warranted prior to casting these segments.
DC stray current can cause corrosion of the transit system infrastructure grounding safeguards will be built
into the structure. The post-tensioning system and concrete reinforcement may have grounding system to
eliminate the cumulative effects of the stray current to increase the longevity of the structure. These
measures will also ensure personal safety of the passengers, operators and maintenance crews. Proper
training of production crews and QC/QA staff will ensure competent work procedures are maintained.
• Post-tensioning
The contract documents may require grounding the post-tensioning system due to stray current migrating to
the PT tendons. Each tendon will normally require grounding only at one post-tensioning anchorage. One
method is to prep an area on the backside of the post-tension anchor and attach the ground wire with an
exothermic weld. The individual copper jumper wires can be crimped together and attached to the topslab
reinforcement mat.
• Topslab Reinforcement
The upper layer of reinforcement of the topslab may require grounding. One method requires tack¬
welds on all or a portion of this reinforcement mat. This will entail the use of ASTM A706 weldable
rebar, which should be specified in the contract documents. A ground wire is then attached with a
crimping tool.
• Miscellaneous Metals
Project specifications could require all metallic embeds to be grounded, including patron barriers, hand
rails, expansion joints, access hatches, etc. Grounding continuous items like handrails may mitigate
the grounding requirement to every 40 feet. These requirements can be project specific. Verify if a
copper jumper wire is necessary or addition rebar pieces and tie-wire will suffice. An item checklist
with specific requirements and frequency will mitigate cost and inspection needs.
No. 1 in the picture above shows the exothermic connection of the copper grounding wire.
No. 2 is a styrofoam blockout that will enable the ground wires to be connected to the conduit system
within the precast structure.
I
TABLE OF FIGURES
The lifting bars, couplers and nuts are usually reused. The number of reuses should be per the
manufacturer’s and/or specialty Engineer’s recommendations. The lifting bars, couplers and nuts
should never be reused if they have been over stressed, bent or otherwise abused.
The high strength lifting bars should never be welded or exposed to arcing. The bars should be
removed prior to performing any welding on the lifting frame.
Typically lifting holes are positioned through the top slab near the inside or outside of the webs.
\ The holes may be formed using corrugated PT duct pieces, tapered inserts, or other methods may
- be specified by the Engineer.
The exact positioning of these lifting holes is critical. It is important to develop a proper
positioning and restraining device that will hold the forms in place during the concreting
operations. More than one positioning device might be needed to accommodate the variations in
the lifting hole layout. It is important to develop a quality control procedure to insure that the right
layout is used. The bars may be overloaded, the segment may not hang properly or the lifting
frame may not fit if these holes are not positioned correctly, or if they move during the concrete
pour.
The lifting frame is secured to the segment through the formed holes with PT bars (Figure
10.1(a)). The slope and cross fall of the segment can be adjusted by changing the connection
points on the lifting frame, by varying the sling length, or by hydraulically adjusting the relative
position of the frame and the segment.
It is essential the proper stressing requirements of the PT bars is followed when securing the frame
to the segment. The system could be designed to rely on the friction developed between the frame
and the segment to insure that the bars are working in tension. If the bars are not stressed properly,
the frame could slip and shear the PT bars.
After erection of the segments, the lifting holes should to be plugged with an approved non-shrink
grout, or as specified by the Engineer. The hole forms used in the casting yard should provide a
surface that will insure a proper bond between the plug and the segment, and prevent the plug
from falling out.
10.1.2 Inserts Embedded in the Segment Webs and Protruding Above the Top Slab
Lifting devices that could be embedded in the web include high strength bars, looped strand
bundles, or special inserts.
The high strength bar, plate, nut and coupler assemblies are encased in a PT duct. Care must be
taken when placing the assemblies to ensure that the bottom nut and upper coupler are fully
engaged on the bar.
Because of the lack of visual confirmation, this system poses a risk of accidents if the nuts,
couplers and bars are not properly engaged and secured. However, with proper quality control, it
has been used successfully on many projects. The lifting bars, couplers and nuts typically cannot
be reused because they are embedded in the concrete. High strength lifting bars should never be
welded or exposed to arcing.
The lifting frame is secured to the embedded PT bars. The slope and cross fall of the segment can
be adjusted by changing the connection points on the lifting frame, by varying the sling length, or
by hydraulically adjusting the relative position of the frame and the segment.
It is essential to follow the proper stressing requirement of the PT bars when securing the frame to
the segment. The system may be designed to rely on the friction developed between the frame and
the segment to insure that the bars are working in tension. If the bars are not stressed properly, the
frame may slip and shear the PT bars.
After the segments are erected, the bars may require trimming to provide adequate concrete cover,
and the PT duct encasing the bars has to be grouted.
The bars and couplers should to be protected from damage throughout the project, and could cause
tripping hazards when they are protruding above the deck, or recessed in holes.
Special precast handling inserts may also be used to lift the segments. When using these inserts it
is important to follow the recommendations of the manufacturer.
When looped strand bundles are used to lift the segments, the loop embedment length and details
must be properly designed. The top of the loop should be encased in a metallic light weight pipe
section and then bent in a U shape. The pipe section is used to make sure that the load is evenly
distributed among the strands. The bottom of the loop should be properly secured to the web rebar
as detailed on the shop drawings. The strand loops should be properly positioned in the segment
and a recess form should be used around each loop penetration. The proper positioning of this
recess form may be problematic and hard to maintain during the pour.
After erection, the loops are trimmed inside the recess to provide the proper concrete cover. The
recess is then filled with the specified grout or patching material. The recess detail should be
analyzed carefully in order to keep the patch from popping out under traffic.
This method is not suitable for balanced cantilever erection, or in situations where the segment
must be placed in its final position prior to disconnecting from the erection equipment.
Slings are commonly used to lift the segments for precast segmental erection using underslung
trusses or falsework. Wood, plastic, or rubber softeners or shoes should be used around the
segment edges to prevent any damage to the segment or slings.
Another segment handling system that does not require the use of lifting holes or embedded inserts
is the C hook lifting frame (Figure 10.1(c)).This lifting frame can get quite heavy when handling
large segments and could affect the selection and size of the erection equipment.
In some situations, a combination of lifting devices might be used on the same segment. The
segment could be lifted with a sling in the casting yard and during transport, and then erected with
a lifting frame at the erection site. The segment structural integrity should to be verified
regardless of which lifting system is used. At least one lifting option that is acceptable to the
designer should be shown on the contract drawings.
Turnbuckles or
Jacks for control
of crossfall
Profited shim
1) The sides and bottoms of the inner core form are loosened up. The concrete should
have attained the minimum strength requirements identified in the casting manual
before performing this operation. None of the form elements supporting the concrete
should be disturbed. The segment should not be exposed to excessive vibration.
Typically no post tensioning is required to perform these operations. It is essential
that the as-cast survey of both new cast and match cast segments be performed
before starting any loosening or stripping activities on the forms.
2) The match-cast segment is broken free from the new-cast segment. The segments
should be separated as indicated in the casting manual and in accordance with the
recommendations of the form designer. Typically, the soffit table under the match
cast segment is tilted slightly as the tables are pushed apart using horizontal
hydraulic or mechanical jacks. It is important to keep in mind that the segment
separation takes place while the concrete is still relatively green, and the shear keys
are especially vulnerable to breakage.
3) The match-cast segment is rolled away on its soffit. Once the segments are separated,
the match cast segment is rolled on its table using a winch, a hydraulic system, or a
loader.
4) The inner core form is lowered and retracted and the wing forms are lowered. When
the concrete has reached the appropriate strength and, if required, the transverse PT
is stressed. The transverse PT may be stressed in stages. The form elements
supporting the concrete can be removed, the core form is folded and retracted, and
the wing forms are lowered.
5) The new-cast is freed from the bulkhead. Depending of the form design, the new cast
segment may be separated from the bulkhead using the same method as for the
separation of the match cast segment. The segments should be handled carefully in
order to avoid shear key breakage.
6) The new cast segment is rolled on the soffit form. Once the new cast segment is
separated from the bulkhead, it is rolled on its table using a winch, a hydraulic
system or a loader. Later, after the rebar cage installation, the new cast segment is
rolled again, and is set and adjusted in the match cast position.
10.2.2 Handling and Transporting of Precast Segments From the Casting Area
to the Storage Area
Depending on the yard set up, point and patch needs, PT requirements, grouting, transverse PT
pour backs, and other finishing issues, the segment will be moved to either an intermediate
finishing area or directly to the storage area where it will be finished.
Before lifting the segment, the concrete should have reached the specified lifting strength and the
required transverse PT should be stressed.
Storage areas should be properly prepared to prevent any settlement under the segments.
Once the segment is connected to the lifting frame or to the slings, it can be moved to the storage
yard.
Figure 10.2 — Straddle Carrier Transporting Segments to Storage, New Baldwin Bridge, Connecticut
(photo courtesy of Perini/Homsi)
Safety details such as wheels guards equipped with automatic engine kill switches, travel alarms,
air horns, proper communication between the operator and the spotters, and other safety devices
are essential to the safe operation of the large handling equipment in the narrow runways of the
storage area.
Some of the typical methods used to move the segments in the yard are:
The path and turning radius of straddle cranes must be considered when laying out the
casting yard. The straddle crane manufacturer should be made aware of the soil
conditions and terrain topography in order to properly size the drive and steering systems.
Crane mats or concrete pads may be needed to spread the load. The segments should be stored on
hard timber blocks using a three-point support configuration (Figure 10.4) in order to avoid
warping the segment during the storage period. Warping of the segments would cause
complications in fit up of the segments during the erection and the final geometry of the bridge.
Variable depth segments require more complex cribbing due to their sloped bottom soffits, in
order to keep the segments vertical and provide proper stability.
The storage area should be monitored periodically, especially after heavy rain, to check for any
settlement of the segment supports. If a settlement is observed that would jeopardize the stability
of the segment, or if the three-point support configuration has been compromised, the segments
should be relocated, and the settlement problem should be corrected.
Double stacking of the segments is not always permitted, but is possible depending on the design
of the segment (See Figure 10.5). It is essential that the designer check the effects of localized
loadings due to stacking to avoid cracking. Double stacking requires the approval of the Engineer.
The segments should be periodically checked for any damage resulting from the double stacking.
Barrier rebar projections must be considered when double stacking. Double stacking of severely
variable depth segments is not recommended.
When double stacking is being considered it is essential to check that the segment handling
equipment has the clearance to clear two segments with rebar projections on dunnage, as well as a
segment with a lifting frame and rigging under the hook.
Non-symmetrical segments may crack under their own weight, and may require special attention
for storage.
Finishing of the segment could be done in the finishing area or in the storage area. Access should
be provided for transverse post-tensioning and grouting, cleaning of the joint faces, point and
patch, secondary pours, and repair of small defects. If secondary pours are needed, it is important
to provide runways wide enough to accommodate concrete trucks or other delivery methods.
Depending on the site conditions, and the location of the casting yard relative to the erection site,
the segments may be transported by water or by land.
10.3.1.1 Loading
If the casting yard does not have access to a navigable waterway, the segments will be transported as
described in section 10.3.1.2 to a location with access to a navigable waterway.
) If the casting yard has easy access to a navigable waterway, the following items must be considered:
1) Any permitting issues that would restrict access to the waterway from that property.
2) Water depth adjacent to the edge of the project. Dredging permit requirements, and
buried utilities in the vicinity of the property shore line.
3) Abutters issues
4) Waterway width and the potential for blocking the channel during the loading of segments
10.3.1.2 Transport
The barges used for segment transport must be checked by a qualified Engineer or Marine Architect to
certify the integrity and fitness of these barges. Figure 10.6 shows barge transportation of a segment
hauler. Another view of segment transport by barge is shown in Figure 10.7.
Depending on the wave action and swells in the area, connecting the lifting frames to the segments could be
difficult and might require special attachments to guide, hold and secure the frame to the segment as the
lifting bars are being tightened and stressed. Pinch point type injuries and falls are a serious concern during
this operation.
Due to the potential of bouncing of the frame on the segment as it is being secured, the proper alignment of
the winch cables inside the block sheaves should verified prior to lifting the segment off the barge.
Proper access and fall protection should provide safe access to reach the top slab inside the box, the top of
the segments, and the areas to be pressure washed.
If the segments are being stored on barges near the erection site, proper mooring must be provided.
Mooring should be properly permitted and designed to withstand the local wind, water flow, waves, and
swell conditions.
10.3.2.1 Loading
The segments could be loaded on the hauler with the same straddle crane used in the storage yard.
Typically a section of the storage yard is designated as the loading area. This section should have easy
truck access and gantry crane rail crossing.
10.3.2.2 Transport
Several issues should be considered when analyzing the segment transport to the erection site:
i) The weight and dimensions of the segments often exceeds the legal load allowed on the local
streets and highways.
ii) The over-weight or over-dimension permitting procedures vary from one locality to another,
iii) The existing bridges in the immediate vicinity of the project, and sometimes the only access
to the erection site might be derated and load restricted.
iv) The haul route might be crossing overpasses, buried utilities, underground box culverts, etc. ..
all of which might have different load rating.
v) In some regions, no over-weight permits are issued in the spring due to ground thawing
concerns. No segments, heavy loads or equipment can be moved outside the project limits
during this period.
vi) Police and special escort vehicle might be required.
vii) Some locality with traffic congestion concerns or sensitive abutters may impose additional
restriction on the hauling time.
viii) Overhead clearances such as underpasses, power lines, traffic lights, overhead utility lines,
etc... along the haul route should be checked. The barrier rebar on top of the segments is
usually the controlling element.
ix) The distance from the casting yard to the erection site and the availability of haulers could
require the setting up of a staging area at the erection site.
Depending on the segment load and the permit requirements, multi-axle tractor trailer combination might
be used to haul the segments. For extra heavy segments, special self leveling, all-wheel steering hydraulic
haulers can be used. Special tractors, weighted down with massive counterweights for extra traction, are
typically used to pull the special haulers. Some of these special haulers are self propelled, however, they
move at very slow speeds and could be restricted from travelling over highways. Under certain conditions
and if rail sighting are available at both the casting yard and at the erection site, transporting the segments
by rail might be a feasible solution. However, the unreliability of the rail system schedule and the lack of
control over the railroad operations make this solution a very risky choice.
Figure 10.9 — Truck and Segment on Trailer, New Baldwin Bridge, Connecticut
(photo courtesy of Perini/Homsi)
Figure 10.11 - Segment Lifted by Launching Gantry, New Baldwin Bridge, Connecticut
(photo courtesy of Perini/Homsi)
The main factors that influence the selection of erection methods and equipment discussed below are:
Project schedule and construction duration
• Superstructure design
• Access and site conditions
• Project team
• Equipment availability
Superstructure Design
The geometric characteristics of the superstructure including span length, pier height, horizontal curvature,
) maximum grades and cross slope, and the degree of consistency and repeatability of these characteristics
throughout the project have a major impact on the erection methods used. Projects with small segments or
very tight radius curves require the use of cranes while large projects with repetitive span layout would
favor underslung trusses or overhead gantries. Short projects with very high piers and heavy segments
might require a beam and winch set up to erect the heavy segments.
i
It is important to verify that the superstructure is capable of carrying the additional construction loads
introduced by the erection equipments. Ground or barge mounted cranes introduce minimal construction
load into the structure while overhead gantries tends to introduce some of the most significant loads the
bridge will ever see during the construction stages.
When working over land, the factors that should be considered range from environmental issues such as
wetlands and protected habitats to interferences with local traffic, businesses and railroad crossings.
When working over water, the factors that affect the selection process include:
• Water conditions (depth, flow, ice, etc.)
• Required permits
• The feasibility and cost of constructing access trestles
• Wave action and barge bounce must be taken in consideration when connecting the lifting beams
to the segments
• Salt water splash on the match cast faces and inside the PT ducts must be addressed.
• Proper design, analysis and certification of transport barges must be performed
x • Loading and unloading facilities must be studied and permitted.
The route from the precast yard location to the erection site will dictate the size and type of segment that
can be transported, especially if the route includes low overhead clearance or weight restrictions. Local
ordinances and permit requirements and costs also must be considered when selecting the casting yard
location.
The transport route from the casting yard to the erection site must be checked for overhead clearances
(power lines and overpasses) and for underground structures (utilities and culverts, etc.).
Transport permit requirements vary widely from one location to another and seasonal restrictions may
apply.
Project Team
The experience of the project team, which includes the Owner, Designer, CEI, Contractor’s engineer and
the Contractor is another major factor that may affect the selection of the erection method. The more
experienced the team, especially the Contractor, the more open he will be to considering a sophisticated
erection method if it is deemed to be 1he most efficient way to construct the project.
The availability of skilled labor in the project market is another factor that should be considered during the
selection of complex erection methods.
Equipment Availability
The availability of erection equipment (cranes or specialized equipment), new or used, the competition
among the suppliers and the availability of steel fabricators during the selection process will affect the cost
and delivery schedule of the erection equipment, and will influence the selection process.
The additional costs associated with the mobilization, assembly and commissioning of new specialized
equipment, and the cost of refurbishing and modifying existing equipment, should not be underestimated as
it is a major component of the cost and time analysis in the selection process.
The more expensive specialized equipment will benefit from the economy of scale of larger projects where
the initial investment can be depreciated over a large project.
The erection methods used for the construction of Precast Segmental bridges discussed in this section are
classified according to bridge type as follows:
This is a relatively economical solution if ample room when access is available at ground level.
Access along the bridge alignment must be maintained for the following operations:
- Foundations and substructure construction
- Pier bracket installation and relocation
Segment delivery
- Erection crane access and swing radius
— Material delivery
- Support operations
Access must be maintained throughout the erection phase. This could be quite costly if working
over the water mainly due to trestle and /or barges and tugboat costs.
This method is quite dependent on the weather conditions especially when working on the water.
This method is governed by the maintenance of traffic rules when working on land.
If working over water, special loading and unloading facilities must be provided.
The pier brackets supporting the trusses are typically cycled and erected on the leading pier by the
erection crane.
The relocation of the underslung truss can be accomplished by one of the following methods:
- Winches and self launching of long trusses: In this method, the long trusses are designed
to be self contained and are capable of self launching from pier to pier using winches
mounted on the deck or on the trusses.
- Jacks and grips to push long trusses forward: In this method, the long trusses are designed
to be self contained and are capable of self launching from pier to pier using a hydraulic
jacking mechanism mounted to the superstructure and a perforated rail attached to the
trusses.
- Crane and C hook to relocate short trusses: In this method, the short trusses are fitted
with a C hook allowing the trusses to be relocated by cranes from span to span.
- Crane dragging trusses on pier brackets rollers or on C hook trailers: In this method, long
trusses can be relocated from pier to pier using a ground based crane that will partially
support the nose end of the trusses while the tail of the trusses are rolling on the pier
brackets. The trusses are pulled forward toward the next pier. For short trusses the trusses
can be fitted with a C hook attached to trailers on top of the deck. The trusses can be
relocated from pier to pier using a ground based crane that will partially support the nose
end of the trusses and pull it forward toward the next pier while the rear of the trusses are
supported by the C hook on Trailers. This method should be avoided although it is
sometimes shown in the contract drawings. Dragging the trusses with cranes is a very
delicate and risky operation because of the high potential of side loading the crane boom.
- Combinations of the above
The precast yard location and distance from the bridge site has a major impact on the erection
operations. If the continuous delivery of segments using a reasonable number of trucks cannot be
maintained, the segments will have to be delivered to the site off shift and stored near the erection
site. This operation will result in added cost due to the double handling.
Figure 10.15 - Span-by-Span Erection on Underslung Trusses with Crane or Derrick/Lifter on Deck
(drawing courtesy of Flatiron Constructors, Inc.)
Access the pier locations must be provided for the following operations:
Foundations and substructure construction
- Pier bracket installation and relocation
Access must be maintained throughout the erection phase.
Segment delivery by special carriers or trucks
Need to check that the deck can handle the construction loads from the crane and the segment
deliveries.
Trusses can be relocated using the same methods described above.
The Precast yard location and distance from the bridge site has a major impact on the erection
operations.
The bridge length and the distance that the segment haulers have to back up on the bridge deck
also impact the erection operations.
Self-launching of the pier brackets is difficult with underslung trusses so it is likely that separate
ground or water based equipment will be required to install and remove the brackets.
Access to the pier locations must be provided for the foundations and substructure construction.
Depending on the Over Head Gantry (OHG) design, all major segment erection operations could
be performed from the OHG and/or the constructed deck.
Typically OHGs are more complicated and more expensive than underslung trusses.
The segments can be delivered from ground?water level or from behind OHG on the newly erected
structure.
In order to speed up the erection operations the segments could be stored under the OHG on the
bridge alignment.
Span-by-Span erection using and OHG method is typically an efficient solution for light rail
applications where the total span weights are relatively low, but it has also been used successfully
on highway bridges.
Some OHGs are hinged to accommodate tighter radii.
The use of an OHG typically provides a greater clearance envelop under the structure
Must check for overhead clearances: overpasses, power lines, etc.
This method is also a good solution for the erection of short spans and abutment spans if the OHG
is already on site to erect the balance cantilever spans.
During the relocation from pier to pier, OHGs are typically self contained and are self launching.
In special situations, the OHG may need the assistance of a crane to relocate some of its supports.
Figure 10.18 -
Full Span Overhead Erection with Winches
(photo courtesy of Flatiron Constructors, Inc.)
Access along the bridge alignment must be maintained for the following operations:
— Foundations and substructure construction
- Casting or assembly of superstructure
— Winch assembly, installation and relocation
- Segment or concrete delivery
— Construction equipment access
—— Material delivery
Support operations
Access must be maintained throughout the superstructure construction phase.
This is not a very common construction method.
The superstructure could be PC segments, assembled on the ground under their final position or
CIP full span, either cast on the ground under their final position or delivered on barges.
This method also requires additional temporary bottom slab PT to carry the span self weight
during the lifting
Access to the pier locations must be provided for the foundations and substructure construction.
This type of erection equipment is typically used on light rail projects where the span weights are
relatively low. However it has also been used on larger structures.
The initial investment in equipment for this method is quite significant. To be economically
feasible, this method must be used on very large and repetitive projects where the cost of the
equipment can be depreciated over many spans.
Access along the bridge alignment must be maintained for the following operations:
- Foundations and substructure construction
- Shoring assembly and relocation
Segment delivery
- Erection crane access and swing radius
- Material delivery
- Support operations
This method can accommodate very tight radii
The use of commercially available scaffolding and cranes minimizes the investment in specialized
equipment; making this method very competitive for small projects
It is quite labor intensive: ground preparation, tower bases construction, towers erection, towers
adjustment, towers bracing, header beams installation, jacks installation, dismantling the system
after erection and relocation to the next span.
This method is also slow relative to SBS erection with either overhead or underslung trusses if
only one span of falsework is used. To match the speed of a gantry or truss at least two sets of
falsework will be required.
This system is feasible where the maintenance of traffic is not an issue. A more complex
falsework system will be required to erect over traffic or railroads.
Figure 10.23 —
Balanced Cantilever Erection by Crane
(drawing courtesy of Flatiron Constructors, Inc.)
Access along the bridge alignment must be maintained for the following operations:
• Foundations and substructure construction
• Pier bracket installation and relocation (if needed)
• Segment delivery
» Erection crane access and swing radius
• Material delivery
• Support operations
Access must be maintained throughout the erection phase. This could be quite costly if working
over the water mainly due to trestle and /or barges and tugboat costs.
This method is quite dependent on the weather conditions especially when working on the water.
This method is governed by the maintenance of traffic rules and ground access conditions when
working on land.
If working over water, special loading and unloading facilities must be provided.
Personnel, material delivery and post- tensioning operations are less efficient when working over
water
The use of readily available cranes eliminates the investment in specialized equipment making this
method the most economical solution for balanced cantilever erection where easy ground access is
available.
This method imposes the lightest construction loads on the superstructure.
It can accommodate tight radii and steep grades.
The cranes should be sized to erect the pier segments (typically the heaviest) and all other
segments.
Typically the crane works from the end of the cantilever. Special attention should be paid to the
midspan segments where the crane could get boom bound while erecting from the side of the
bridge.
By using ground based cranes, the erection can proceed from pier to pier without having to wait
for the closure pom and continuity post-tensioning activities.
With multiple cranes the erection could proceed simultaneously on several headings.
Chapter 10.0 Procedures for Handling, Transporting and Erecting Segments 31 of37
10.4.2.2.2 Balanced Cantilever Erection by Overhead Gantries
(Figures 10.26, 10.27 and 10.28)
Access to the pier locations must be provided for the foundations and substructure construction.
Depending on the Over Head Gantry (OHG) design, all major segment erection operations could
be performed from the OHG and/or the constructed deck. These would include:
- Personnel access to work area
- Pier brackets erection
- Pier segment erection
- Installation of post-tensioning platforms
- Overhead service cranes
- Material deliveries
- Pier access
— Closure pour forming, pouring, and stripping support
- Integral finishing bridges
A cost-benefit analysis is needed to determine what options make economic sense.
It is a very cost effective method if:
• The bridge is long with repetitive spans.
• Restricted access at ground level
• Existing gantries are available and require a minimum of modifications.
The possibility of reuse of the gantries is much greater if they are properly designed with
versatility for future projects in mind.
The project alignment including assembly area must be checked for overhead obstructions such as
power lines and overpasses.
OHG tend to be manufactured overseas. Adequate time should be anticipated for shipping, custom
clearances and trucking to the project site.
Due to the long lead time on certain components, the major spare parts should be ordered in
advance and available on short notice.
Local electricians, hydraulic mechanics and suppliers of metric odds and ends should be identified
early on and should be involved in the commissioning of the equipment.
Access along the bridge alignment must be maintained for the following operations:
- Foundations and substructure construction
- Segment delivery
Material delivery
- Support operations
Access must be maintained throughout the erection phase. Each segment must be delivered right
under its final position. This could be quite costly if some of the segments are over shallow water
or land obstructions.
For spans over water this method is quite dependent on the weather and water conditions
Special loading and unloading facilities must be provided to transfer the segment on barges and
vice versa.
Personnel, material delivery and post- tensioning operations are less efficient than when working
with an overhead gantry.
By using a winch and beam, the erection can proceed from pier to pier without having to wait for
the closure pour and continuity post-tensioning.
By increasing the number of winch and beam setups the erection could proceed simultaneously on
several headings.
A large crane is needed to relocate the winch and beam from pier to pier. A typical assembly could
weigh as much as segment.
i.
On certain projects, the typical erection methods discussed above are not well suited for the site conditions.
In these situations, special equipment must be developed designed and fabricated. As with any other
erection equipment proper review for conformance with the applicable US codes, by a qualified designer, is
a necessity. Furthermore these special erection methods tend to be prototypes and as such longer
fabrication, commissioning and debugging times should be anticipated.
—
Figure 10.31 Special Erector
(drawing courtesy of Flatiron Constructors, Inc.)
Safety
Post-tensioning stressing operations create very high forces in the tendons and surrounding
concrete. Therefore, precautions must be taken to prevent personal injury or damage to the
structure. Prior to starting stressing operations, inspect anchorages and surrounding concrete.
Clear the work area of debris to allow for unobstructed movement of the stressing crew.
Read and understand all operating and safety instructions for the stressing equipment before
stressing tendons. Make sure that all safety stickers applied to the equipment are intact, legible
and understood by the stressing crew. Comprehensive discussion of safety issues related to
stressing of post-tensioning tendons is presented in Section 11.3.
Calibration
The FHWA Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual requires that all
calibrations be performed with specific service gauges and a master gauge as a system. Gauges
are often damaged on the job sites as a result of impact or shock, and often two service gauges do
not last the normal six-month period between recalibrations. Recalibration of jacking systems is
time consuming and expensive, but can be avoided if the service and master gauges are calibrated
at a dead weight indicator to read true pressure. The dead weight indicator must be calibrated and
traceable through the National Bureau of Standards. The contractor should seek approval from the
engineer prior to beginning stressing operations to use dead weight-indicated gauges in order to
replace damaged gauges without having to recalibrate the ram and gauges as a system.
Details on post-tensioning systems available for use in segmental bridge construction in the United
States are presented in Sections 11.1.1 through 11.1.8.
Anderson Technology Corporation (ATC) was co-founded by Dr. Arthur R. Anderson, a pioneer of
prestressed concrete in North America. The Anderson Post-Tensioning System (APS) has evolved from the original
American system to include a variety of PT materials and methods developed around the Pacific Rim.
^Transparent sheathing for external tendons inside bbk girders is one of the special methods employed by
APS. Visual inspection both during and after grouting can be done by virtue of the transparency (85%) of the
sheathing, which is composed of Ethylene Beased Ionomer (EBI). Double casing at both the anchor (Fig.l) and the
deviator makes it possible for the tendon to be replaced. The available EBI transparent sheathings are shown in
Table J.
I j
Joint
Head Office : Onarimon Yusen Bldg. 2F USA Office : Old Brolin Place Anderson Island,
3-23-5 Nishi-Shinbashi Minato-ku Tokyo, WA 98303
105-0003 JAPAN Phone ;253-606-6097
Phone +81-3-3437-1999
Fax: +81-3-3437-9581 Fax : 253-884-5683
<gijutsu-bii@anderson-tech.co.jp> <ri ckan derson@harbornet com>
• Figure 6 illustrates Supro Multi-Strand Tendon tor stay cables, as used in the extra-dose bridge in Japan shown in
Figure 7.
SuproRgsia .
(Perfect Atihesicn)
Multi Plane (MP & MPR) for fc min. 4,500 psi dimensions are indies
No. of Anchor
E Edge Dist
Anchorage Strands A B bC D OF G NxP
O.D. Spacing
0.6"O
MP 9.6 9 9x9 7 6 3 3 10 #4 5 turns @ 2 7 11
MPR 12.6 12 09 20 7 3/8 3 3/8 31/2 11 1/4 #5 6 turns @ 2 7 3/4 12 1/2
MPR 19.6 19 011 26 8 1/4 4 41/4 141/2 #5 7 turns @ 2 91/2 15 1/2
FM Anchorage
All listed systems use 0.6“ diameter strand per ASTM A 416, 270 ksi low relaxation
The above AVAR systems are currently or have earlier been installed on the following segmental bridges:
Rosecrans and Kramer Bridges in Los Angeles, CA, Big I in Albuquerque, NM - Spaghetti Bowl in Las Vegas, NV
Oyster Point, So San Francisco, CA.- Benicia-Martinez Bridge in Benicia, CA - New Bay Bridge Skyway Structure
in Oakland , CA.- Richmond-San Rafael Bridge, CA - Smart Highway Bridge, VA - Los Angeles River Bridge, CA
Riverside Bridge, Mount Vernon, WA
Plate Anchorage SD
Bond Head AnchoragnZtVZR " * i
Loop Anchorage HV 9 C » O • • a ® » 0 O
Hat Anchorage ftt " '
♦/ J 7-”‘ S'*'- ’
Coupler
Coupler p C' .
• <•' .;A?
DSI System 100 e 8 0 0
System drawings ere avaihble on request for each type anebcmgc slwwmg details end assemHy rnstructions.
All DSI Systems are domestically produced and meet all requirements of the 'Buy America' regulations.
Connection Details
SkteVkw
\Wte.PFEX2 Ffestc Duct Meets FOOT Specif
Versatility
The system is designed for a wide range
of applications with the same anchorage
type:
Accomodates all internationally Size A B C D H -,1 ->2
available sizes and grades of 3C15 150 HO 120 85 50 40 45
1 5mm strand (15.2 and 15.7 4C15 150 120 125 95 50 45 50
mm), including galvanized and 7C15 ISO 150 186 110 55 60 65
unbonded strand; 9C15 225 185 260 150 55 65 70
Applicable for internal and 12C15 240 200 165 150 65 80 85
external post-tensioning tendons: 13C15 250 210 246 160 70 80 85
o Bonded 19C15 300 250 256 185 80 95 100
o removable 330 275 430 220 90 105 110
22C15
o removable and 25C15 360 300 400 230 95 110 115
adjustable 25CI5P 350 290 360 220 95 HO 115
o removable, adjustable 350
27CI5 290 360 220 100 115 120
and detensionable.
31C15 385 320 346 230 105 120 125
37C15 420 350 466 255 110 130 135
Compactness 55C15 510 420 516 300 145 160 165
These very compact anchorages provide efficient transfer of the prestressing forces into the concrete, facilitating
more, economical designs by:
- reducing web thicknesses in beams and box girders, reduced blister and rib dimensions;
allowing for a greater concentration of anchorages and prestress force at the anchorage zones;
reducing post-tensioning anchor blocks dimensions thereby' minimizing strand deviations.
FREYSSINET
44880 Falcon Place, Suite 105
Sterling, VA 20166
(703) 378-2500 FAX : (703) 378-2700 freyssinet@freyssinetusa.com
acts «H 7CIJ 9CI.5 nets t 'CIS 19Ci5 12CB 25C1S 2KIISP 2IC15 jlClS 37C1S 3015
JACKS
Two Jines of high performance and durabi lity DEL jacks exist for the stressing of strand cables, with or
without automatic gripping and release, of adequate weight and size for their function and the size and length
of cables.
T Jacks
Equiped with automatic front gripping/releasing and wedge sealing devices, they perform a.
stresaingAvedge operation in less than 10 minutes and require strand t^ only for
normal tendon sizes. They are the recommended option for short tendons and precise stressing
operations, including wedge seating loss control. Seat loss is limited at 3 mm.
E Jacks
The lightest, easiest to handle and maintain multistrand jacks. They feature rear hand operated
gripping and semi-automatic releasing. Seat loss is limited at 10 mm.
PUMPING UNITS
DEL Multistrand Pumping Units include all the hydraulic control devices for the operation. They have been
ergonomically designed for heavy duty and low maintenance. Electrical or gas power, optionally.
T Pumps Three circuit, for Stressing, Retraction and Wedge Seating, they feature 2 gauges for superior
control. Used with T jacks.
E Pumps Two circuit, for Stressing and Retraction- They work at mid-high oil pressure for lowest
maintenance, in accordance with their corresponding E jacks.
GROUTING MACHINES
The mixture of cement, water and admixtures must be done under a strict mixing time and
velocity control and must not contain lumps nor any air bubbles during injection into the
ducts.
DEL grouting machines include the mixing and injecting operation in a single piece of
equipment, easily handled, with pressures of up to 25 bar. without the presence of air
bubbles, using any type of cements and admixtures.
Av. Nativitas 429 * 16090 Xochimilco, D.F. * Mexico * Phone +(52)(5S) 5675 7561 * Fax 5676 6620
Email mexpresa@mexpresa,com * www.mexpresa.com
ANCHORAGES
AS Active, Standard
Active or Stressing anchorages are those located at the stressing ends of tendons, DEL AS
anchorages are supplied including wedges, wedge & bearing plates, transition arid grout
port. Grout caps, whether and as required.
Design may specify active anchorages on both ends of a PT tendon even though stressing
is carried out at one only. For wedgeseating Ipss recuperation, shims can be placed
between wedge plate and bearing plate, through a lift-off.
AR Active, Adjustable
For tension adjustment after lock-off. They are supplied complete as for AS type,
including adjusting nut
ARAActzxaso.
COUPLERS
F Fixed
Used for prestressed concrete elements’ post-tensioned connection. Also called
Continuity Anchorages, they are supplied complete with standard bearing plate & trumpeL
coupler body, swage heads, strand concentrator, shell and grout ports.
For multistrand cable extension. Used mostly in repair jobs for big size cables. They are
supplied complete with strand concentrators & deviators, single couplers, shell and grout
ports.
MCccpiM
Ths SDI Multistrand System is She tot ail-raw post-tension¬ SDI Post-Tensioning hardware has been proven through the
ing system to be introduced in over a decade. The system rigorous testing and approval procedures of the California
was designed From the ground up to address today's design Department of Transportation and other regulatory agencies
and construction practices, including theuse of lightweight, both domestic and intemaSonat
high-strength concrete mixes and the need for compact Developed in collaboration with AVAR Construction
anchorages in structural elements with congested reinforcing Systems, lite, of Campbell, California, a total of at new SDI
steel. The system is extensively tested arid approved, and incor¬ anchorage systems have been selected and approved for use
porates numerous technical advances that simplify field place¬ on the new San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge Skyway
ment stressing and grouting. Structures, the new Martinez-Henida Bridge in California,
SDI furnishes comprehensive hardware solutions for and the Sakhalin Offshore Oil Platform currently under con¬
post-tensioning projects worldwide, including a broad range struction near Vladivostok, Russia, SDI was awarded tire
of anchor heads and bearing plates forito 37 o.frrnch diam¬ post-tensioning supply contracts for these three major engi¬
eter strend tendons, all rams, duct, hydraulic equipment, neering structures, totaling over 40 million pounds of mate¬
grouting equipment and liftings. Combined with SDI's serv¬ rials. For the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge Skyway
ices for design and supply of temporary erection structures, Structures. SDI also designed and furnished the Self
the new post-tensioning system provides a practical and Why Launching Erection Devices (SLEDs) that are lifting the
integrated solution for the construction of segmental bridges Boo ton precast deck segments from barges into position
and other engineering structures. ds the superstructure.
VSLAB*® System
SA 4.5 4 X
'
E 1to55 1to55 X X • X
ES -
12,19,31,43, 55 7,12 19,22,31,37 X X X .
ECI - 7, 12,19,22, 31 X X X
Email: williams@wiltiamsform.com
FORM ENGINEERING CORP. Web: www.williamsform.com
Applications
Williams All-Thread-Bars were developed for use as Pre-Stressing bars. Over the years many other
applications have been adopted such as:
•Pile Test •Transverse Post Tensioning •Pre-Stressed Block and Brick Construction
Anchors •Longitudinal Post Tensioning •Seismic (earthquake) Restrainer Systems
•Rock Anchors •Structural Steel Frame Ties •Wood Structure Post-Tension Bars
•Concrete Ties •Bridge Retrofit Applications 4
Temporary High Strength Connections
•Hanger Bolts •Ground Anchors and Soil Nails •Tower Base Plate Anchor Bolts
Jacks •Sheet Pile Ties and Tie-backs High Strength Concrete Reinforcement Bars
•Shear Pins •Multiple Corrosion Protection Anchors
• EfFedrva cross secicnsJ areas shown are as required by ASTM A 722-98. Aetna! areas may exceed these v^ues.
• AC! 355JR secfcn 3.2,51 instates an ultimate strer^Lh in shear has a range of .6 to .7 of Sie inmate tensile strength. Designers should provide adequate
safety factors for safe shear strengths based on the condjtfon of use.
» Per PTI recomnwndatfons for Post Tensioning, systems should be designed so that
• Iha design toad is nd more than 60% of the specced minimum tensSe streng& m the prestressing steel.
Pie lock-^ load sh<xiid not exceed 70% of the spedf^ nTswwni lensSe strength of ihe prestressi^f steel
* The
* maxsnum test toad should net exceed 80% of the spedfed minimum ter site strength Of the prestressing steel.
Properties Threads
Williams 150 KSI Bars are manufactured in All-Thread-Bars are cold threaded to close tol¬
strict compliance with ASTM A-722-98 and AASH- erances under continuous monitoring procedures
TOM275 Highway Specifications. The prestress¬ for quality control. Threads for Williams 150 KSI
ing steel is high in strength yet ductile enough to Bar are specially designed with a rugged thread
exceed the specified elongation and reduction of pitch wide enough to be fast under job site condi¬
area requirement Selected heats can also pass tions and easy to assemble. They also have a
the 135’ supplemental bend test when required. smooth, wide, concentric, surface suitable for
Testing has shown Williams 150 KSI All-Thread- torque tensioning. This combination offers tremen¬
Bars to meet or exceed post tensioning bar criteria dous installation savings over inefficient, hot-
as set by the Post Tensioning Institute including rolled, non-concentric thread-forms.
dynamic test requirements beyond 500,000 cycles Williams All-Thread-Bars are threaded around
of loading. the full circumference enabling the load transfer
Williams 360° continuous thread deformation from the bar to the fasteners to occur efficiently
pattern has the ideal relative rib area configuration without eccentric point loading. Williams fasteners
to provide excellent bond strength capability to easily meet the allowable load transfer limitations
grout or concrete, far better than traditional rein¬ set forth by the Post Tensioning Institute (of the
forcing deformation patterns. United States). Williams 150 KSI All-thread-Bars
and fasteners are machined to tight tolerances for
Accessories superior performance and mechanical lock.
Williams All-Thread-Bar fasteners are machine Precision machining greatly reduces concern of
threaded (no cast threads) to specific tolerances fastener loosening or detensioning. 150 KSI Bars
for precision adjustments. The All-Thread-Bar fas¬ meet or exceed the deformation requirements
teners below are designed to develop 100% of the
under ASTM A-615 for concrete reinforcing bars.
All-Thread Bar ultimate strength meeting all criteria
set forth for anchorages by the Post-Tensioning
Institute, U.S.A, and ASTM A-722-98 specifica¬
tions.
With most forms of precast segmental construction, it is common practice to use temporary post¬
tensioning to secure the erected segment or segments before the main longitudinal post-tensioning
is installed (Figure 11.1). The purpose is:
(a) To provide a rapid means of transferring the weight of the segment from the lifting equipment
to the structure within the allowable setting time called “open time” of the epoxy jointing
material.
(b) To allow a fairly even stress to be applied over the whole joint face in order to bed down the
epoxy and let it set under uniform conditions. It is normal to provide 30-50 psi average
compression for this purpose. If the compression is significantly non-uniform from top to
bottom, especially in cantilever construction, then the epoxy joint thickness tends to vary,
which, after several segments, can affect the desired alignment.
(c) In some cases temporary post-tensioning bars are used to control a temporary stress condition
in the structure. For this case, the bars can only be removed after construction has reached a
stage at which the stress condition no longer exists. If this is necessary because of some
design feature of the bridge, the amount of temporary post-tensioning and its sequence of
installation and removal are shown on the contract plans. If, on the other hand, the temporary
post-tensioning is required to control a stress arising specifically from the contractor’s elected
method of operation, equipment, construction loads, or his own sequence of erection, then
clearly the temporary post-tensioning should be designed by the contractor and approved by
the engineer within the shop drawing process. In any event, the sequence of installation,
stressing and removal of the temporary post-tensioning should be clearly shown on the shop
drawings and/or erection manual.
Temporary post-tensioning bars may be overlapped so that individual bars or coupled bars extend
only a few segments or they might be continuously coupled throughout a cantilever or span. With
continuous coupling, it is advisable to evaluate in advance the likely cumulative effect of bar
extension and concrete shortening, as the point of coupling can “drift” significantly and eat into
tolerances of the space within the blockouts (Figures 11.2 and 1 1.3).
It is normal practice to limit the stress in temporary post-tensioning bars to fifty percent of the
breaking strength of the bars. This will allow many re-uses of the bars and the anchors.
Sometimes, however, it is necessary to exceed this figure, and, if so, then these bars should not be
re-used without the express permission of the post-tensioning bar manufacturer. Visual inspection
of bars prior to reuse is always required. If there is any doubt, it is safer not to re-use the bars. In
case bars are permanent or cannot be removed for re-use, it is acceptable to stress the bars up to
seventy percent of the guaranteed ultimate tensile strength.
When using couplers with post-tensioning bars, it is critical that the couplers are properly engaged
on each bar before stressing. Bars being coupled should be marked one half the coupler length
from the end of each bar and the bars engaged to the mark prior to stressing. Insufficient
engagement of the coupler could result in failure of the connection during or after stressing and
possible damage or injury.
In cantilever construction, the temporary bars are only normally needed for the last two or three
segments of the cantilever since permanent tendons are installed for most segments. Occasionally,
when using continuously coupled bars, it may not be possible to retrieve them after the closure has
been made at the midspan. In this case, it is advantageous to plan the temporary post-tensioning
so that most of the bars can be recovered prior to adding the last cantilever segment. Temporary
bars and particularly their anchors and couplers are expensive, so maximum reuse is desirable.
—
Chapter 11.0 Erection Details 20 of 34
Anchors Couplers IT. bars (external)
Direction
of erection
Elastic shortening of
concrete from aj] P. T.
An alternative to a
recess would be to
use o larger diameter
duel in order to clear
coupler
—
Chapter 11.0 Erection Details
21 of34
Final joint
L— (SI)
—|u_ rw (Snpo
position
(Sl)~ Final elastic
— (L)bar
. —
shortening at Initial
first joint at joint
p“
completion of position
cantilever
(L)Cegment Direction of erection
/
Figure 11.3 - Coupled Post-Tensioning Bars (Continued)
11.3.1 Introduction
A 0.6” diameter strand is stressed to a force of 23 ton, the equivalent of a truck load of steel. Such a force
can be dangerous to jack-operators or on-looking personnel if proper precautions are not taken. Post¬
tensioning work should only be carried out by people who have the expertise in this field and operators
who are trained under the direct supervision of competent PTI certified instructors. When potential hazards
are understood and carefully considered, and combined with preventive measures, the occurrence of work-
related injuries can be prevented. In this chapter safety issues in handling and stressing of post-tensioning
tendons are described.
1. When cutting the steel bands that bind the tendon coils, remember that the coils are under
pressure and will want to open up and uncoil like a spring when the bands are released.
Strand coils (packs) must always be contained in a proper dispensing unit prior to cutting the
bands. Use extreme care when pulling the loose strand end out of the pack center as the
spring force induced from coiling tends to push the strand out of the pack.
2. The cut ends of the strands/bars can be extremely sharp and care should be exercised when
handling tendons. Deburr ends of the strand/bar.
3. Do not weld or bum near post-tensioning materials to prevent sparks or hot slag from
touching any portion of the strand or bar which will be under stress.
4. Do not use any part of strand/bar as a ground connection for welding.
5. Avoid using a torch to cut the stressed strand/bar. Use an abrasive saw, shear or plasma cutter.
6. It is not recommended to re-use temporary PT bars stressed to more than 60% of guaranteed
ultimate tensile strength (GUTS). Usage is typically limited to 20 times. Check internal
threads of nuts and couplers before stressing.
All stressing jacks to be used at job site must have correct and current calibrations. Gauges should be
independently calibrated. Generally, specifications require that the jack and the gauge be calibrated as a
unit. Do not interchange them. Make sure the gauge being used is labeled and corresponds to the jack.
Most specifications require that a master gage be sent with post-tensioning equipment. The master gage is
used to verify accuracy of the service gage. In some cases, specifications allow the use of the master gage
in lieu of recalibration of the jacks and gages as a unit.
1. Prior to use, visually inspect the jack for signs of oil leakage or damage.
2. Prior to use, check and read all safety instructions and stickers. Any stickers that are not intact
must be replaced prior to anyone using the jacks.
3. Free cycle the jack for operation, check and bleed air. All air must be purged from the jack or
seals may be damaged.
4. Some twisting of the pulling head can occur during shipping or handling. Be sure that internal
jack parts are aligned. The jack cannot be installed unless all tubes are in line. If a center hole ram
is used the check no 4 will not be needed.
5. Jacks arrive with reusable pulling wedges in good condition. Consult equipment supplier
regarding scheduled change, replacement or maintenance.
1. Observe all relevant OSHA standards e.g. use of protective clothing and devices, grounding
of electrical equipment, control of work area, etc.
2. All system components must be in good working condition prior to use. Inspect daily for
signs of wear or damage. Do not use if grippers are wom excessively, hoses are cracked,
pressure gauge is in operable, or other defects are observed.
3. After inspection, test run system (see operating instructions) to insure all components are in
proper working order.
4. Make sure that the jack is in the fully closed position when moving from tendon to tendon.
Do not activate pump while moving the jack.
5. Proper lifting equipment for jack must be available prior to commencing. Lift equipment by
lifting harness only. Never use hydraulic lines for moving, or adjusting of equipment.
6. Do not attempt to service the equipment beyond that described in the operating instructions.
All other servicing should be referred to qualified supplier’s service personnel.
7. Proper and complete connection of the hydraulic lines is vital to the safe operation of the
equipment. Improper or incomplete coupling of hydraulic hoses may cause injuiy or death to
personnel, or severe damage to equipment. Check occasionally to ensure that the quick
couplers are closed.
All equipment should be properly maintained and equipped with manufacturer-recommended safety
devices. Disabling or removing safety devices is dangerous and should be avoided. All unsafe or inoperable
equipment should be marked as such to prevent further use of the equipment. Post-tensioning operation
involves high stresses and proper care is vital. All workers should be trained and tested by the manager or
superintendent before operating any equipment. Knowledge of the hazards associated with specific
equipment is the first line of defense against injury.
1. Install pattern plate on tendon and slide to anchor head, secure outer strands and then slide back.
This assures strands are in correct holes. Misalignment of strands will cause damage to jack and
tendon during stressing.
2. Check alignment of anchor head hole-pattern (Figure 11.4) with that of jack. Confirm second
stressing end is also aligned.
3. Install dead-end keeper plate if required. This may eliminate the need for a man watching the
dead-end during stressing, and keeps the anchor plate wedges and strand tight.
4. Be sure the jack piston is in the full return position. In this position, the automatic stressing head
tube will be protruding and the wedges will be open. Lift jack and align axis of jack with that of
the tendons, slide jack over the strands to anchor head. Jack support must contact the wedge plate
surface before stressing begins.
1. Appropriate warning signs should be clearly displayed. Warning signal (i.e. horn) shall be used to
alert personnel in area that stressing operations are active.
2. People not involved with this work should keep clear and follow any safety instructions from
competent operators. Safety Rails / Barricades shall be present to prevent other personnel from
entering an area where stressing operations are going on.
11.3.9 Communications
It is extremely important to establish proper communication among the stressing crew, especially, when
simultaneous stressing operation takes place. Proper communication devices (i.e. radios) shall be present
for communication among stressing crew.
Detailing the segmental box girder access dimensions, should accommodate access for stressing jacks.
Providing adequate and safe access to the work area is vital.
Always tie off both the pump and the jack when stressing tendons on an elevated deck
)
Chapter 11.0 - Erection Details 27 of 34
11.3.13 Stay clear of the jack
On should keep in mind that the forces are almost as high at the fixed-end anchorage as they are at the
stressing-end. Always stay clear of the jack.
Figure 11.7- Stressing Personnel Located Away from the Stressing Ram
Do not exceed the estimated jacking pressure. Overstressing to achieve required elongations is absolutely
unacceptable under any circumstances.
11.3.15_Fall Hazard
The number-one leading cause of construction-related injuries and fatalities is attributed to falls from
height. In work areas with unprotected sides where employee could fall six feet or more, wear safety
harness and connect to lanyards with deceleration device. Personnel should be tied off 100% of the time
that they are subject to fall hazard.
It is crucial that extra precaution is taken while coupling the bars. Bar ends should be marked with half of
the coupler length (Figure 11.9). The end of the bars should be engaged in the coupler up to mark. Bar
supplier should instruct about the minimum engagement. If enough thread is not engaged in the coupler, the
bar will fail when stressed.
When erecting a cantilever, it is necessary to lift the segments in such a way that they hang
precisely in the position of the previously erected segment in order to align the shear keys and
temporary post-tensioning bars during the epoxy jointing process. If the position of the two
segments does not match, the segment will bear temporarily only on a few keys, which might lead
to cracks when jointing. It is quite easy to align the segments if two lifting points (i.e., beam and
winch) are used, one over each web. With a single central lift, it is necessary to lift slightly off
center so that the segment hangs at the required crossfall. This can be done by using a lifting
frame with laterally slotted holes for the attachment of the slings (Figure 7.1 (a)). In any case, the
lifting device used for erection must have the means to adjust the position of the segments.
Lifting segments at a present crossfall is not necessary when they are to be placed on an erection
truss as with span-by-span construction.
After the first few segments, stability should be provided by some other means. Temporary
towers as shown in Figure 11 .11(a) can be used either “wrapped around” the pier, with support
provided to both sides of the cantilever through the system of hydraulic jacks, or by a tower on
one side of the pier only. With the latter system, the cantilever should always be kept out of
balance in the same direction so that the tower is always loaded. Another method of providing
stability is through an overhead launching gantry. Figure 11 .11(b) shows how the cantilever is
suspended from the gantry. The hanger bars are repositioned to be always next to the last erected
segment.
With these systems (towers and gantries) control can be exercised over the amount of rotation of
the cantilever. This is advantageous when it comes to aligning cantilevers for midspan closures.
PT. bars
stressed
to 50%
Pier
segment This type of connection
is O.K. for up to one or
two segments each side
Profiled packs of pier only unless
secured by (b) specified or designed
snug tight otherwise. - Physical limits
horizontal of bars control.
P. T bars
P. T. -Post - tensioning
Figure 11.10 - Erection Systems: Setting of a Pier Segment and Start of Cantilever
k* Pier footing
To support A
-
Figure 11.11 Erection Systems: Means of Stabilizing Cantilever
Usually the midspan closure is a nominal two- to five-foot gap. Sometimes, however, it can be
larger, and might be as long as a segment, in such cases, the added weight of concrete can cause a
deflection and rotation at the closure. For the precast segments, this effect is compensated for in
the casting curve. The cast-in-place joint itself requires careful placement of the concrete working
from one end of the segment to the other to avoid any tendency to “crack” or open up at the
bottom of the joints between the segments and the cast-in-place concrete. If the anticipated
deflection or rotation is likely to be very large, such as with a very large closure, then
consideration should be given to casting the bottom slab first and applying a nominal post-
tensioning force (say, 1 00 kips) through it prior to completing the rest of the pour. This will help
to avoid cracks in the joints.
The weight of the first cast-in-place joint connecting two cantilevers causes an unbalance which is
usually controlled by the stability tower (Figure 11.12). This tower will deflect under the effects
of the additional load. This deflection will lower the elevation at the cantilever end where the
cast-in-place splice is poured. The amount of this deflection should be carefully predetermined
and compensated for. Cantilever tips also move because of the effect of sun radiation on the deck.
The effect of temperature effects on the casting of midspan splices is described in Section 13.9.2.
Stability tower
This increase in camber is caused by concrete creep. In segmental bridges where spans can be
longer, this creep effect may amount to several inches. In order to compensate for these creep
effects, they are calculated based on the contractor’s construction schedule.
The construction sequence is also very important. First, the sequence details when certain spans
will be built. In addition, the sequence indicates when continuity post-tensioning will be applied.
This is the post-tensioning provided in the span to connect two adjacent cantilevers. The
continuity post-tensioning has the tendency to camber the span in which it is stressed, but will
deflect the adjacent cantilever end. These deflections are carefully compensated for in the casting
curve. If the sequence was changed so that the continuity post-tensioning in the span with the
deflecting cantilever were stressed first, the span would go up instead of down, and the
compensation would be wrong. An example of this is given in Figures 11 .13(a) and (b), where
different sequences are used to construct the same bridge requiring completely different
compensation of deflections caused by continuity post-tensioning.
During the design process (pre-bid), the designer must analyze this structure for compliance with
specifications based on the construction sequence clearly shown on the contract drawings. During
construction, the contractor or the contractor’s specialty engineer will calculate deflections based
on the anticipated construction schedule.
A
o
A
31 : 7 tzj
A A
A Three- span structure showing C'. Close mid- span splice and
mid -span and tailspan splices posttension mid— span
B. Erect cantilevers D'. Deflection caused by "C"’ above
C. Close tailspan splice and E' Compensation of deflections by
post - tensioning “C" above
1). Deflection caused by "C" above F' Completed structure
E. Compensation of deflections by
“C" above
F. Completed structure
La) lb)
12.0 Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 3
12.1 Purposes of Epoxy 3
12.2 Types and Application of Epoxy 3
12.3 Duct Coupler Devices 6
12.3.1 FREYSSINET Post-Tensioning Systems 7
12.3.2 VSL Segmental Duct Coupler 8
12.3.3 General Technologies, Inc. Precast Segmental Duct and Duct Coupler 9
12.4 Prepackaged Grout 10
12.4.1 BASF Construction Chemicals - Building Systems
Epoxy and Prepackaged Grout for Segmental Bridge Construction 13
12.4.1 BASF Construction Chemicals - Building Systems Epoxy
and Prepackaged Grout for Segmental Bridge Construction 14
12.4.2 SIKA Corporation Epoxy Resin for Segmental Bridge Construction 15
12.4.3 SIKA Corporation Prepackaged Grouts for Segmental Bridge Construction 16
—
Chapter 12.0 Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 1 of 16
TABLE OF FIGURES
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 2 of 16
12.0 Epoxy Jointing, Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged
Grout
The purposes of using an epoxy resin in the joint between the segments are:
• To maintain the structural integrity of the joint and maintain a monolithic concrete
segment
• To completely fill any minor surface imperfections and irregularities between the match
cast surfaces
• To provide a water and grout tight seal, preventing chloride intrusion
• To act as a lubricant when erecting the segments
• To ensure a tight fit between the segments so that the compressive and shear stresses are
transmitted directly across the joint
Epoxies are formulated as two-part compounds consisting of a resin and hardener. When mixed
together, they begin curing which can take anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours,
depending on the formulation, the ambient and storage temperatures, and the mass of the epoxy.
The cure time will be shorter when epoxies are mixed in higher temperature conditions and in
larger masses. For some applications, such as in span-by-span erection, it is desirable to have a
long pot life to allow for the erection and stressing of a complete span, which may take several
hours. Details on the commercially available epoxies for use in segmental bridges are presented in
Sections 12.4.1 and 12.4.2.
-
Figure 12.1 Mixing segmental bridge epoxy
—
Chapter 12.0 Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 3 of 16
Segmental bridge epoxies are specially formulated as either normal or slow setting resins. For
segment-by-segment erection, the normal set epoxies are typically used and for span-by-span
erection, the slow set epoxies are typically used. In addition, they are formulated for use in
different temperature ranges, from 20°F to 115°F. It is important to use the correct pot life and
correct temperature range to ensure adequate working time and proper strength gain of the epoxy.
Prior to application, the joint surfaces must be clean and sound. They may be dry or damp, but
free of standing water or frost. It is important to remove dust, laitance, grease, oils, curing
compounds, impregnations, waxes, foreign particles, disintegrated materials and any other
contaminants before applying epoxy.
Mixing of the epoxy is typically done in the pails. The pre-proportioned units allow for all of Part
A (base resin) to be mixed with all of Part B (hardener). The units should never be batched down
on site. The epoxy should be mixed for a minimum of 3 minutes with a low-speed (400-600 rpm)
rotary drill fitted with an appropriate mixing paddle. The sides of the pail should be scraped down
during mixing to ensure there are no streaks of unmixed epoxy in the container. When fully
mixed a uniform gray color should be achieved.
Application requirements are stated in the specifications. Application is typically done by hand,
using protective, disposable rubber gloves. Since the application time may be short, sufficient
labor should be available to coat the joint in the time allowed. The epoxy should be applied to
both faces of the segments to a thickness of approximately 1/16 in. on each face. This is sufficient
to lubricate the segments and ensure against joint leakage in the completed structure.
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 4 of 16
When the segments are brought together and stressed, excess epoxy is squeezed out. For joints
over traffic, procedures must be implemented to avoid dropping epoxy on automobiles. The epoxy
should be left approximately 1 in. clear around any ducts and approximately '/2 in. shy of the
outside edges. Once the segments have been joined and stressed, all excess epoxy should be
cleaned. Leaving it to harden may make it more difficult to remove later on. It is essential to
swab all the ducts before the epoxy cures so that any epoxy squeezed into them does not create an
obstruction for the tendons. The use of duct coupler devices simplifies the placement of the epoxy
and ensures that the epoxy will not be squeezed into the duct when the segments are stressed.
When bridge piers are constructed with pre-cast concrete boxes, epoxy should also be used
between the segments for the same reasons described above. The only difference in application is
the epoxy is applied in a horizontal and overhead orientation, rather than in a vertical orientation
as on the spans (see Figure 12.4).
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 5 of 16
Figure 12.4 — Epoxy resin being applied to precast bridge pier segments
Details on commercially available epoxies are presented in Sections 12.4.1 and 12.4.2.
Duct coupler devices insure the watertightness of the duct across the joint between segments, and
eliminate the problems related to squeezing epoxy into the joint. These devices also eliminate the
need to swab out ducts after the segments have been pre-stressed together. Details on three
commercially available duct coupler devices are presented in Sections 12.3.1, 12,3.2 and 12.3.3.
Plastic duct is also shown in Sectionl2.3.2.
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 6 of 16
12.3.1 FREYSSINET Post-Tensioning Systems
Advantages of LIASEAL:
• Leak-light connections prevent ingress of segment epoxy during segmental erection and the ingress of external aggressive
agents (water, chlorides, etc.) over the service life of the structure.
• Leak tight connections prevent cement grout leakage and crossovers during grout injection.
• LIASEAL components are non-metallic, cannot corrode and offer permanent protection to internal tendon prestressing Steel
at segmental bridge joints.
• LIASEAL can be used with HDPE/HDPE ducts to provide a complete leak tight plastic encapsulation ofthe tendons.
—
Chapter 12.0 Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 7 of 16
12.3.2 VSL Segmental Duct Coupler
Segmental Duct Coupler
7455-T New Ridge Rd., Hanover, MD 21076 - 888-489-2687
www.vsl.net
Bulkhead
Design Features:
Coupler Housing
• Complete encapsulation of
post-tensioning tendons
Inflatable Mandrel
through segment joints
• Small form factor - does not
require increased duct spacing PT Plus™ Duct
Casting Features:
• Uses conventional inflatable
mandrel to support duct
• Duct does not need to be
precisely cut to length
• Uses standard bulkhead
Erection Features:
• No components projecting
from segments during segment
erection
• Segment shimming does not
impact coupler performance
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 8 of 16
12.3.3 General Technologies, Inc.
Precast Segmental Duct and Duct Coupler
13022 Trinity Drive, Stafford, TX 77477
888-255-0440 www.gti-usa.net
Shipping
23-145mm
Round Deaf
23mmFlow
Channel Duet
Full Line of Round and Flat Plastic Duct
21mm
Grout Duct /Anchor
Tube i Coupler 21mm
23mm Grout Tube
FlowChannel
Duct Zero Void®
Intermediate 21mm
Encapsulation Grout Zero Vo/d®
Tube Bonded
with Vent Monostrand
23mm Flow Encapsulation
ChannelDuct
Duct/ Anchor
Coupler
Duct /Anchor
Zero Void® Coupler
Pocket Former, 2' Zero Votd®
Bonded Monostrand
Encapsulation Zero Void®
Zero Vo/d®
w/ Metal Ring Cap
Cop
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 9 of 16
12.4 Prepackaged Grout
Prepackaged grouts were developed to reduce or eliminate bleed water voids in the ducts, and to
achieve complete filling of the duct with a cementitious grout. Prepackaged grouts are
recommended for use on all segmental bridge projects. Even when prepackaged grouts are used,
it is necessary to inspect all anchorage areas for bleed water voids within 24 to 48 hours after
grouting, until the inspection agency is assured that there are no bleed water voids. Subsequent
spot inspections of one or more anchorage per span may be conducted provided no voids are
found. Any voids discovered must be filled immediately with cementitious grout, preferably by
vacuum grouting.
The cement grout injected into a post-tensioning duct is often the last line of defense against
corrosion of the steel tendon. Inspection of the tendons is often difficult, and therefore severe
corrosion may go undetected for a long period of time before failure occurs. The steel tendons
are susceptible to corrosion damage because of the high steel stress and the small wire diameter,
and if allowed to corrode, there is a danger of structural distress. This underscores the need for
the use of quality prepackaged cement grout during the construction of the post-tensioned
structures.
Prior to the use of prepackaged grouts, site blended grouts were typically used in post-tensioned
applications. The biggest problem with the site blended grouts was the bleed water that would
form in the ducts. This bleed water migrates towards the upper end of the duct where it
accumulates, and is subsequently absorbed into the matrix. This in turn leaves large voids within
the duct containing the cable, and this makes the cable more vulnerable to deleterious chemical
attack and/or coirosion. In addition, bleed water itself, and deleterious chemicals that are
sometimes admixed, migrate with the bleed water and accelerate strand corrosion. For these
reasons, site blended grouts are not recommended for use on segmental bridges.
Post-tensioning techniques
There are two types of post -tensioning methods: unbonded and bonded (grouted). An unbonded
tendon is one in which the prestressing steel is not actually bonded to the duct/concrete that
surrounds it except at the anchorage points. In this form of post-tensioning, the tendon (seven¬
wire stand) is simply coated with a corrosion inhibiting grease and encased in a plastic protective
sheath. In bonded systems, two or more seven-wire strands are installed in steel or plastic ducts
in the concrete. The strands are stressed and anchored at a common site. After the tendons are
stressed surrounding duct is filled with a prepackaged cement grout that provides corrosion
protection to the strands. As seen in Figure 12.5, bonded post-tensioning offers multiple layers
of corrosion protection to the steel tendon. Protective measures include surface treatment of the
concrete, the concrete itself, the duct, the grout, and possibly, strand or bar coating such as
epoxy or galvanizing.
In order for the grout to provide protection to the steel, it should form a good bond between the
duct and the steel. A grout having good bond characteristics, transmits forces from the concrete
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 10 of 16
Figure 12.5 - Multilevel Corrosion Protection for Bonded Post-Tensioning Tendons
to the steel over its length, and thereby relieves load stress fluctuations at specific sites. As a
result of site-specific load stress fluctuations, grout sections having poor bond characteristics
may crack easily thereby creating easy access for the ingress of moisture and deleterious
chemicals such as deicing salts. The grout functions to provide corrosion protection by
passivating the steel strands due to its high alkalinity, which in turn is provided by the hydration
of potassium, sodium and calcium ions in the Portland cement. Complete filling of the ducts
with a non-bleed grout ensures that there is no damage due to freezing and expansion of trapped
water/moisture, which in turn prevents damage to the external concrete. This can only be
consistently achieved with the use of prepackaged grouts having been formulated to have zero
bleed.
High permeability resistant characteristics of the prepackaged grout ensure that no deleterious
chemicals (deicing Cl ) have easy access to the encased steel. Chloride ions destroy the
passivating iron-oxide layer on the steel surface, which in turn exacerbates steel corrosion. In
addition, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, if allowed to penetrate through the cement grout,
could reduce the pH and thereby could lead to loss of passivity, and ultimately, corrosion.
Therefore, it is important that the prepackaged grout have a low permeability.
Prepackaged epoxy grouts are designed to seal and protect the anchorages of post-tensioned tendons
on segmental bridges. This is the area that is the most critical for post-tensioned bridges since it is
completely exposed to the elements. If site batched cementitious grouts are used for the “pour-
backs,” they can shrink and crack over time, allowing moisture and chlorides to gain direct access to
the steel strands, and over time, initiate the corrosion process.
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 12 of 16
12.4.1 BASF Construction Chemicals - Building Systems Epoxy and Prepackaged
Grout for Segmental Bridge Construction
4. Patching P-T block outs and inspection points use "Set 45 Hot
Weather" rapid set.
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 13 of 1 6
12.4.1 BASF Construction Chemicals - Building Systems Epoxy and Prepackaged
Grout for Segmental Bridge Construction
Bridge Repair
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 14 of 16
12.4.2 Sika Corporation Epoxy Resins for Segmental Bridge
Construction
Sika Corporation
201 Polito Avenue
Lyndhurst, NJ 07071
Tel: (201) 933-8800
Fax: (201) 933-6225
Email: info@sika-corp.com
Web: www.sikaconstnrction.com
Sikadur 31, SBA (Segmental Bridge Adhesive) has been used on most of the segmental
bridges constructed in the United States and around the world. The specially formulated
epoxies are available in Normal Set and Slow Set formulations for use in temperatures
from 20 degrees F to 115 degrees F.
Sikadur 31, SBA (20-45F) Sikadur 31, SBA Slow Set (40-6 IF)
Sikadur 31, SBA (40-60F) Sikadur 31, SBA Slow Set (55-75F)
Sikadur 31, SBA (55-95F) Sikadur 31, SBA Slow Set (70-90F)
Sikadur 31, SBA (80-115F)
—
Figure 12.8 Applying Sikadur 31, SBA on Central Artery Bridge in Boston, MA
Chapter 12.0 — Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 15 of 16
12.4.3 Sika Corporation Prepackaged Grouts for Segmental
Bridge Construction
SikaGrout 300 PT is designed for use in horizontal and vertical grouting of ducts within bonded,
post-tensioned structures. It can also be used to repair voids within ducts of post-tensioning
strands for corrosion protection. With its high fluidity, SikaGrout 300 PT can also be use for
grouting in tight clearances.
-
Figure 12.10a Post-tensioned strand terminus Figure 12.10b-
Sikadur 42, Grout-Pak PT mixed in pail
Chapter 12.0 - Epoxy Jointing, Duct and Duct Coupler Devices, and Prepackaged Grout 16 of 16
TABLE OF CONTENTS
13.1 General
The geometry control of precast segmental bridges is achieved in the casting yard. The "short-
line" casting system is based on making very fine adjustments to each match cast segment in the
casting cell, and therefore requires precision; more so than the "long-line" system where the
geometry control is mainly achieved when building the soffit. The following discussion
concentrates on the "short-line" system since it is more commonly used, although the principles
apply to both systems.
Precision geometry control has nothing to do with the sizes, thickness variations or tolerances of
the component pieces of the segments, important though as these are to the overall quality of the
finished product. The precision is required for measuring the relative as-cast position of the new
segment in relation to its match cast neighbor. These measurements are critical.
The setup required for this in the casting yard is shown in Figure 13.1. The alignment is
controlled by an instrument on a permanent base and a permanent target. Neither instrument nor
target should be disturbed throughout the production, otherwise control must be reestablished. For
this, adequate bench marks should be maintained. The casting cell is always plumb, level and
usually square so the geometry control is established, mainly by positioning the old segment as
prescribed by the casting curve and as shown in Figures 13.2(a) and (b).
As the first segment is cast and the top slab has been finished, four elevation bolts. A, B, C, and D,
as well as two centerline markers, E and F, are installed. The following morning, the elevations of
the tops of the bolts are recorded and the centerline is scribed onto the centerline markers. Now
the segment can be rolled forward for match casting.
After the first segment is moved to the match casting position, it is reset to the instructions
provided by the casting curve. The centerline will be as it was before, unless the bridge is curved.
In case of a curved bridge, an offset “0" is used as shown in Figure 13.2(a). The vertical curvature
is handled similarly. But even if the bridge is flat, it is necessary to adjust for the deflections
which occur during construction. As mentioned, the amount of adjustment to be made is
determined by the casting curve which can be part of the shop drawings. Note that if the segment
would be positioned in such a way that both centerline markers are in line with instrument and
target and the bolt elevations are the same as those measured before the segment was moved, the
segment would line up exactly with the next segment-to be poured.
Geometry control for precast segmental bridges requires an excellent surveyor. He should be on
the job daily and keep accurate records. In spite of his competence, his work should be
meticulously checked by the inspector since errors are expensive and time consuming to correct.
After the old segment is properly reset and the setup for the new segment is complete, the new
segment can be cast. The following morning, the surveyor marks the center line and records the
bolt elevations of the new segment. In addition, before the old segment is moved, the elevations
of its bolts and its centerline position are checked to determine if the old segment has moved
during casting the new segment. It is often noted that position changes of the "old segment" occur
due to settlement of the soffit rails by the segment weight, due to vibrating of fresh concrete
against it, or due to forces applied to it while closing the forms.
Old segment
Center line
A Segment rotation
'O'
E
Target
Note that all the critical readings are those after casting. While it is important to have an accurate
setup before casting, this is unlikely to remain so during the casting operation. Some movement,
however slight, will occur, so the true achieved geometry is recorded after casting. It is possible to
compensate for casting errors by adjusting the position of the next set up and so on. In fact, the
major challenge in geometry control lies in keeping track of casting errors and correcting for them.
Erection of the first segment, usually a pier segment, is critical and should be done as accurately as
possible. This segment should be placed to an accuracy of 1/1000 feet.
It is very important that all the information from the casting operations and the calculated "as cast"
actual relative positions of the segments be carried through the field erection process as well.
This poses some practical difficulties because it is by no means as easy to obtain the same
accuracy in the field as in the casting yard. However, the field setting is only required at each pier
segment or start of a successive run, and it is worthwhile doing this correctly. Placing a large
chunk of concrete with a crane to an accuracy of a few thousandths of a foot is difficult. In
practice, it is possible to use shims, packs and wedges to maneuver the segments to an acceptable
accuracy. Also, by installing supplementary transverse alignment markers while in the casting
cell, the horizontal adjustment of the pier segment can be set in the field using the base line of the
full segment width, thereby not relying solely upon the shorter, front to back; longitudinal
centerline marks (Figure 13.3).
During erection, elevations and horizontal alignment should be checked to see if they are in
agreement with the calculated as cast positions. If not, then adjustments may be necessary. Such
compensations include: re-orienting or rotating the cantilever after erection, calculating a
compensatory setting for the next cantilever, or shimming the joints. The latter should only be
used as a last resort as it can unpredictably lead to "correction of corrections," and so on.
Moreover, it is not effective for short cantilevers or deep girders.
Geometry control is achieved in the casting cell by means of a system illustrated in Figures 13.1 and 13.2.
The elevation control bolts A, B, C, D in Figure 13.2 are set over the webs as these are stable locations
where no vertical deflection occurs from transverse flexure or post-tensioning. For example, wing tips can
sometimes deflect upward by % inch from post-tensioning. Horizontal control is established by setting the
match cast segment at the necessary skew at offsets measured at centerline hairpins E and F. Vertical
alignment is set by adjusting jacks on the soffit carriage of the match-cast segment until the elevation bolts
are above or below the plane of the top of the bulkhead by a desired amount.
Normally, the geometry of a segmental bridge surface is defined by establishing three dimensional global
coordinates (easting, northing, and elevation) at the centerline and equidistant to the left and right over each
web at each joint (Figure 13.4). These coordinates are directly calculated from the stationing, instantaneous
radius of curvature, longitudinal profile grade and superelevation at each joint. Global elevations are
adjusted for camber (the opposite of deflection). Normally, camber adjustment for global structural
torsional twist is rarely needed but could be incorporated if necessary.
-
Figure 13.5 Match-Cast, New-Cast and Bulkhead Joint in Global Structure
—
Chapter 13 Geometry Control 8 of 19
If it is assumed that the after-cast coordinates of the match-cast segment are already known from previous
observations and calculations, it is a tedious but relatively straightforward mathematical process to imagine
setting the cell-bulkhead at the desired position of next (new-cast) joint in global space (Figure 13.5) and
transforming the global coordinates of the two known joints and the new desired (bulkhead) joint from 3-D
global space to the local coordinates of the casting-cell. The latter are defined by the bulkhead and cell
centerline (Figure 13.6). This transformation provides the set-up of the match-cast segment relative to the
desired bulkhead location for the new-cast segment.
To reference the new segment to the cell and facilitate after-cast observations, four new elevation bolts and
two new centerline hairpins are placed in the top of the new-cast segment, close to match-cast joint and
bulkhead. Those close to the bulkhead (bolts Ac and Cc and centerline pin Ec) define the position of the
bulkhead joint. Those close to the match-cast face (bolts Bc and Dc and centerline pin Fc) relate directly to
those next to them on the match-cast segment (Am, Cm and Em) and thus to the previous bulkhead joint.
Likewise, those at the far end of the match-cast segment (Bm, Dm and F,„) relate to the previous (A”, C” and
E” - not shown) and the previous bulkhead joint.
o
Chapter 13 - Geometry Control 9 of 19
Geometry Control: After-Cast Observations
-
Figure 13.8 - After-Cast Survey Observations General Case
Survey results are converted into coordinates local to the cell itself and then local to the cell-axes of the
match-cast segment when it was newly cast. Using these match-cast cell-axes as a reference enables
transformation from the cell to global space and provides the actual achieved “as-cast” location of the new
-
bulkhead joint The entire process is repeated for the next segment, and so on. This process “3-D
-
Coordinate Geometry Transformation Technique” was originally developed at the Linn Cove Viaduct in
1979.
For simplicity of construction and ease of operation, casting cells are almost always fabricated so that the
bulkhead is perpendicular to the cell centerline. Also, the soffit form is rectangular and the web and wing
forms operate parallel to the cell centerline - as in Figure 13.7. Horizontal alignment is attained by slewing
the match-cast segment in plan - holding the centerline offset at the match-cast face at zero - while
offsetting the far end face (remote from the bulkhead) by the desired geometric amount. This configuration
places the bulkhead joint face perpendicular to the chord connecting the centerline points of the new-cast
segment The resulting joints in the bridge are not on a radial line but are perpendicular to the chord - i.e.
slewed off-radial one way or the other depending upon the direction of casting. Such joints are often
referred to as “chord-perpendicular joints” as opposed to the alternative of “radial joints”.
For the general condition of any type of curvature, the calculation of global 3-D coordinate geometry is
relatively simple when joints are truly “radial” (Figure 13.4). However, in order that casting cells remain
simple machines it is necessary to modify coordinates generated on a radial to chord-perpendicular
coordinates prior to performing transformations from global space to the cell and vice-versa. The
mathematical exercise involves interpolating (in 3-D) along the longitudinal lines of the left and right
elevation control points, with some iteration, until the global coordinates of the joint lines are mutually
perpendicular to the centerline chords. Since the direction to slew the joint depends upon the necessary or
Contractor’s elected direction of casting, this part of the process may await the actual casting. In the
meantime, for information and geometry planning it is useful to have three-dimensional coordinates
generated for radial joints provided on design plans - since this is the first step in a general process.
The above is a basic introduction to geometry control needs and techniques. It is not the intent here to
present a full thesis. Geometry control calculations are tedious; they are best made by a computer program
and further explanation would add little to this guide.
Variations oh the basic process are possible to accommodate situations where occasional elevation bolts
and centerline hairpins cannot be placed in their desired locations to avoid construction details such as
block-outs - or to accommodate breaks in superelevation across the width of the segment or an offset
profile grade line - and so on. The key is always to respect that elevation bolts over the webs define vertical
control and centerline hairpins define horizontal control.
It is important that little or no twist is inadvertently introduced when moving a new-cast segment into the
match-cast position - a simple check is illustrated in Figure 13.9
Desired setting
Bulkhead
(1) Offsets: Centerline offsets are measured from the casting cell centerline using a metal
scale fitted with a center point which sits in a punch mark on the hairpins. A spirit level
should be attached to this scale so that it is set horizontal. Also, it should be held at right
angles to the centerline of sight in the cell (Figure 13.10).
(2) Elevations: Elevation readings on the bolts are made with a precision level placed on top
of the fixed mounting, reading onto a leveling rod fitted with a scale divided down to at
least .005 feet. In order to make sure the readings are taken at exactly the same point
each time, the leveling rod should be fitted with a center point which sets into a punch
mark in the top of the bolt.
(3) Lengths: A steel tape is used for length measurement. It is advantageous to measure
lengths between the center point marks on the hairpins, the distance between, adjacent
hairpins and similarly along the bolt lines between the leveling punch marks. Readings
should be estimated to at least .002 feet for length (Figure 13.8).
(4) Lateral offsets to the level bolts should be measured from the centerline hairpins. It is
preferable to have the bolt positions accurately marked on the bulkhead so that they are
always at the exact required offset from the centerline (Figure 13.8).
With care and precision, the readings obtained will allow precise processing using three-
dimensional coordinate geometry computations which are the most accurate when it
comes to defining curved surfaces in space. Good recordkeeping is essential as well.
There have been occasions when accidentally one or more of the geometry control
hairpins or bolts were lost. This is not irretrievable. It is usually possible to continue
construction by using known relative positions of adjacent undamaged markers. What it
means is merely a little less predictable control over the erection alignment.
-
Figure 13.10 Geometry Control Measuring Equipment
The first segment of a run or a cantilever is cast between the bulkhead and a temporary bulkhead.
Consequently, it has no match cast segment to which its geometric position can be referenced.
When moving this segment from temporary storage into the match-casting position, it is simply set
to the same position it had after casting by reading the same elevation on the bolts and the same
offsets on the markers. This gives a starting point from which all other segments can be
subsequently referenced, assuming that there is no casting curve adjustment to be made. If there is
a casting curve adjustment needed, it can be made at this time. The bolt and centerline marker
readings are also used for setting the first segment in its required attitude in the erected structure.
The technique is again part of regular geometry control procedures and will not be elaborated
further here.
The main feature of the first segment which, if it is a pier or abutment segment, is usually shorter
than the typical segments, is to establish a transverse horizontal control line on the surface of the
segment in the casting cell (Figure 13.11). This provides a greater base line length to align the
segments in the field. The normal procedure is to determine either a radial line or a line parallel to
the bulkhead and establish this on the center of the segment with horizontal alignment hairpins set
as far out on the segment wings as possible. This requires that this line be observable on the
bridge, either from above or from the ground below. In the latter case, the line has to be scribed
onto the end faces of the wings, and two observation stations must be established on the ground on
either side of the pier (Figure 13.13).
Precise setting and checking of the first erected segment is essential since any error in its position
is magnified proportional to the ratio of the length of the cantilever or continuous run of segments
and the transverse base line width.
A generous tolerance should be allowed for the vertical alignment since this is subject to all kinds
of variations due to construction loads, creep, shrinkage, temperature, post-tensioning variations,
and so on. However, the alignment should closely agree with the required alignment at the time of
erection when duly corrected for these effects. It is difficult to put a precise figure on this
tolerance as it depends upon the type of construction. For cantilever construction, the vertical
alignment should generally be within one- to two-inch per cantilever length of 100 feet, and
similar cantilevers should behave comparably. (This latter point is a guide to the accuracy of the
initial material assumptions and calculations).
Any substantial variations from line and level or any trends noticed early in the construction
should be subject to close study, and corrective action should be taken. The latter would include
checking procedures for errors, especially systematic errors, amending casting curves for future
segments and perhaps shimming the joints with glass fiber matting to adjust the alignments. The
use of shims is a "last resort" since it causes stress concentration on the segments and prevents the
joints from closing properly, which may cause problems during grouting.
Figures 13.13 and 13.14 illustrate the kinds of variations in cantilever and span-by-span profiles.
Figures 13.15 and 13.16 show the means of correcting a profile by shimming a joint. It is
emphasized that this should only be done if absolutely necessary as a last resort. It can lead to
complications and is not entirely predictable.
Figure 13.17 shows one technique of observations for the alignment control while casting precast
pier shaft segments. Other methods are possible by using inserts, plumb lines, leveling bolts, etc.
A rise or fall in temperature will cause a structure to become longer or shorter. Bearings and road
joints are designed to accommodate this movement.
In some cases this temperature effect may cause problems during construction. Figure 13.18(a)
for example shows a structure with a fixed pier in the center: After the cantilever on this fixed
pier is erected a connection is made to the remainder of the structure. The connection should be
able to pull the erected part of the structure over its bearings in order to take care of the
temperature movement. If the connection is not strong enough, the cast-in-place splice will crack
(Figure 13.18(b)).
Theoretical easting curve to compensate
for anticipated deformations
Cantal I
—4 — .* Cant #2
Required theoretical
final grade
Actual achieved profile at
time of construction Align 2nd. cantilever
to match first
_I.
Adjust rotational attitude
of cantilever in order to -
equalize these differences
4 Set 2nd side span
2. Set side span segments to segments to match
match cantilever 2nd. cantilever
Theret tea I
required
profile
If observed profile does not match desired and if it is clear that they
will continue to diverge, then some corrective action is possible by
shimming the joints with woven glass fiber matting embedded in the epoxy.
Usually the remaining cantilever segments have already been cast by this
time making corrections by casting compensations impossible
Shimming should be done only if absolutely necessary and then it should
be kept to a minimum because its effect is not predictable and the
thicker joints can lead more easily to intrusions of epoxy mto ducts etc
A temperature gradient or temperature differential exists when a part of the structure has a
different temperature than another part. This commonly occurs when the top slab of the box
girder, which is exposed to the sun, heats up faster then the webs and the bottom, which are not
directly exposed. Temperature differences of 30-40 degrees Fahrenheit can easily occur. As a
consequence of this temperature differential, (shown in Figure 13.19(a)), the top slab wants to
expand, but the bottom slab does not. As shown in Figure 13.19(b), a girder will camber due to
this temperature effect if supported at the ends. In case of a free cantilever, as shown in Figure
13.19(c), it can be seen that the tips of the cantilever deflect. The amount of movement noted in
the field increases with the length of the cantilever. A 1-inch deflection, however, is common.
Because of this effect it does not make sense to measure elevations any time after the structure has
been exposed for some length of time to sun radiation. The only suitable time for measuring
elevations during erection is at sunrise. The fact that the cantilever tips move as they are exposed
to the daily temperature cycle also affects the timing of casting midspan splices (see Figure 13.15).
The best way to do this is:
(1) connect the cantilevers at the tip by means of a strong back, as shown in
Figure 13.20
(2) cast the splice when the deflection at the cantilever ends is the greatest (say 3
p.m.)
(3) At sunrise, the next day stress as many tendons as allowed by the strength of the
"still green" concrete. Usually this is two or four tendons, which is enough to
compress the splice so that the subsequent temperature deflection will not crack
the concrete at the splice at the bottom.
If the splice were cast in the morning, it is possible that the temperature effect will crack
the bottom of the closure joint before the day is over.
temperature- T’
(a)
3t
Dnybreok
3 pm (approx )
][
10 p.m. (approx)
19 of 19
Chapter 13 - Geometry Control
TABLE OF CONTENTS
—
Chapter 14.0 Bearings and Expansion Joints 2 of 17
14.0 Bearings and Expansion Joints
Bearings and expansion joints are provided to allow the structure to expand and contract. In
addition, bearings transfer the loads from the superstructure to the substructure. In general,
bearings and expansion joints are the most vulnerable parts of a structure. Expansion joints are
subject to much wear and tear by traffic and cause many maintenance problems. Bearing and
expansion joint devices supplied by the D.S. Brown Company and Watson Bowman Acme
Corporation are presented in Sections 14.2.5 and 14.2.6, respectively.
Bearings and expansion joints are specified on the plans. Usually a drawing of the type of bearing
or expansion joint required is included with the note that an "approved equal" may be substituted.
In addition, special provisions should provide a detailed description regarding material quality and
tolerances.
Since the product supplied is seldom equal to that shown on the plans, the contractor will submit
shop drawings which will be provided to the inspector for his use in the field after they have been
approved.
Upon delivery to the site, the inspector needs to verify that the product is in agreement with the
shop drawing and is properly installed.
14.1 Bearings
There are two types of bearings commonly used on segmental bridge projects: neoprene bearings
with or without sliding pad, and pot bearings.
Neoprene bearings are more desirable bearings for their simplicity of installation and
maintenance-free performance, However, both load bearing and movement capacity limit the
application of neoprene bearings to short spans and short distances between expansion joints.
Neoprene bearings with sliding pads have more movement capability and therefore allow longer
distances between expansion joints (see Figure 14.1).
Pot bearings are available for large loads and movements and is therefore the type of bearing most
used. Pot bearings consist of a base plate containing a rubber cushion inside a low cylinder or ring
which allows a small rotation in the base plate. This is the reason for the name "pot" bearing. The
top plate rests on a piston which rests on the rubber cushion inside the cylinder. Since this rubber
disc is under high pressure, a seal is required to prevent the rubber from squeezing out of the
“pot.” The top plate can have one of three arrangements either allowing or preventing movement:
fixed, free or guided. A typical fixed bearing which does not allow movement, a free bearing, and
a guided bearing are shown schematically in Figure 14.2.
Bearings are usually bolted down to the pier and have dowels at the top to provide horizontal
fixity to the structure.
Fixed*
(No movement)
Sole Plate
Guide Bars
Piston
Masonry Plate
Uni-directional Edge-Guided
Teflon/Stainless Steel
Sliding Surface
Sealing Rings
Elastomeric Disc
MULTI-DIRECTIONAL*
(Movement in ail directions)
—
Chapter 14.0 Bearings and Expansion Joints 5 of 17
14.1.2 Mortar Pads
Bearings transmit heavy loads from the superstructure to the substructure. This means that the
substructure and superstructure concrete on both sides of the bearings is highly stressed. Uniform
distribution of flowable material or dry pack to assure uniform distribution of loads on bearings is
critical.
Both neoprene and pot bearings are usually installed with mortar pads both below and above the
bearing. The reason for this is that neither the top of the pier nor the bottom of the structure can be
built with a small enough tolerance to allow installation without these. The materials used for
these mortar pads are usually specialty mixes which have high early strength and low shrinkage
properties. The material is subject to approval. The mortar strength required when used with
Neoprene pads is 3000-4000 psi while 6000 psi is common when used with pot bearings. Most
importantly, the mortar pad should provide uniform bearing under and above the bearing and
should therefore be without voids. This requires both good workmanship and inspection.
Specifically in case of poured or grouted joints a full scale test of the grout placing procedures is
recommended.
This 1/8 inch space should be carefully divided into two equal amounts on each side, of the top
plate and preferably kept constant with wooden inserts until the bearing is placed. The guides now
have some movement capabilities both ways and some tolerance to turn.
-
Figure 14.4 Strip Seal Joint System
This joint sealing mechanism is widely accepted in the construction industry as an effective and versatile
expansion joint sealing methodology for movements up to three inches. The Neoprene sealing element is
The steel edge member(s) shall be A-588 or A-36 grade steel with a galvanized finish. The strip seal edge
member cavity which accepts the Neoprene sealing element locking lug shall be machined to fully engage
the sealing element and prevent leakage. The Neoprene sealing element shall be additionally adhered with a
single component moisture curing adhesive.
Proper grade and temperature adjustments shall be made at time of joint setting in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations as outlined in the shop drawing submittals.
The advantages provided by a Strip Seal System are simplistic design, movement versatility, armored edge
protection, and mechanically locked in place Neoprene sealing element.
14.2.2 Molded, Steel Reinforced Rubber Cushion Bolt-Down Systems, (Transflex or Waboflex)
The Transflex joint is shown in Figure 14.5.
The low profile design, large movement capacity of the Molded, Steel Reinforced Rubber Cushion Bolt-
Down System provides versatility in application. Current cartridge anchor technology enhances the
durability of the system in today's aggressive traffic environment.
Minimal blockout recessing, even for larger movement requirements, combined with basic design which is
devoid of moving or mechanical accessories may satisfy designers looking for product simplicity.
Disadvantages may encompass the proper temperature adjustment settings necessary during construction
and the force requirements to open and close the molded system.
Approximately 2,000 pounds per foot force is required to completely close the molded system on larger,
(greater than 6 inches of movement) systems. A normal bridge width of 42 feet would, therefore, require 40
tons of horizontal force applied at the top of the abutment backwall. This would require special design of
the end bent. Consequently, the Transflex or Waboflex Systems cannot be readily substituted for other joint
designs without end bent redesign considerations.
—
Chapter 14.0 Bearings and Expansion Joints 8 of 17
14.2.3 Modular Joint Systems
Throughout the past decade, manufacturers, researchers, and transportation officials have developed life
cycle performance fatigue standards supported by test procedures, which should be performed and
documented by any acceptable and reputable manufacturer of modular expansion devices. This program of
performance documentation assures the client of reputable performance based upon an acceptable industry
and design criterion.
Additional quality control initiatives should prohibit the subcontract manufacturing of modular expansion
devices, coupled with quality manufacturing initiatives by manufacturers.
Any product design considered for project utilization should be tested for individual and simultaneous
multidirectional and accelerated movements. Additional life cycle fatigue testing should be required, which
would verify performance capabilities in accordance with current design and industry standards.
Installation of Modular Systems should be performed in accordance with the requirements of the
manufacturer. Documented procedures should be provided to the contractor, preferably as part of the shop
drawing submittal process. It is recommended that a qualified factory representative be on site during the
initial joint placement, adjustment, and setting.
A finger joint consists of two steel plates either burned or machined to accommodate thermal movement
requirements, which are attached to the bridge and the end bent. The fingers of the steel joint traverse the
joint opening and are shaped to minimize the openings between the two plates.
It is recommended that any finger joint design incorporate a mechanically locked in place, sealing device to
prevent the intrusion of corrosive chemicals.
Finger joints tend to be generic in origin and manufactured by steel fabrication companies as per project
specific design requirements.
—
Chapter 14.0 Bearings and Expansion Joints 10 of 17
Careful placement and installation is required to assure appropriate structural support beneath the finger
plates. Additional care is necessary to align the fingers to assure linear movement and prevent
misalignment and possible damage.
The principal disadvantage of finger joints is trough location and the inability to effectively maintain and
clean below grade troughs.
• LOAD TESTING
Components to this system include: low profile SSA2 or SSE2 Steelflex® rail profiles and Delcrete '
Elastomeric Concrete.
Bearing Assemblies
D.S. Brown is one of the leading suppliers of structural bearing assemblies. With extensive experience and
utilizing the latest technologies, D.S. Brown can efficiently design, manufacture and test Versiflex™ HLMR
pot-style, spherical and elastomeric bearing assemblies for all
types of construction.
For more information on these products as well as the entire D.S. Versiflex™ HLMR Spherical
Brown product line: Bearing Assembly
Freyssinet LLC
- -
14221A Willard Road Suite 400 CHANTILLY VA 20151 USA -
Phone,: 4*1 (703) 378-2500 Pax ;+1 (703) 378-2700
Comnuarciai Cotati
^UpioiOW
sizes in mm
A » C D "Recess Anchors $
sizes in mm
A B RfCtSS :
I TYF£ Min max min max min max
ff
E L i
: WOSdSO 15 65 146 196 15 65 28.5 ISO 200^
: WGS475 0 75 ISO 225 12 87 30 ISO 200;
: WOSdiOO 0 100 150 250 12 152 30 11^.
200 j
QUALITY
CIPEC joints are designed for qualify, with a proven history of durability and reliability as demonstrated by the
satisfactory performance in a wide variety of structural projects for more than 30 years.CIPEC joints oflen
Excellent traffic comfort, Protection ofsurfaces under the joint.
•Long life, Good resistance io heavy duly and
• Low noise, frequent traffic loads.
Adaptability k> all surface materials*
High resistance io corrosion,
• No horizontal reaction, Easy installation on new or old structures.
Vertical movements of the structures (for jacking, etc j Minimal service and/or maintenance.
without the need to disassemble the joint,
sizes in mm
A B i? J&cess
min max min max mm max min max E F L j
WPJ80 2» 380 520 700 : 410 590 50 230 2S0 180 3501
IWP200 220 420 580 780 : 4S5 655 so 250 310 : 2023 3501
: WF250 270 520 510 760 370 620 50 300 270 160 350 j
IWP300 320 620 590 4W
890 710 50 350 310 180 350;
1 WP350 370 720 650 1000 470 220 50 400 340 210 350
LWP400 420 820 740 1140 540: 940 ; .50 450 390 245 350 :
; WP450 470 920 810 1260 550 1<X»; 50 500 420 250 350!
\ WP500 520 1020 890 1390 610 1110 550 460 280 350 j 50
1 WP550 570 1120 960 1510 670 1220 50 600 500 310 350!
! WP600 620 >220 1020 1620 720 1320 50 650 530 335 350!
sizes in mm
.
!
type 3
4 B
min max min max Min max
r~ i ni
• WK50 50 15 65 65 H5 15 65 toi
i WR75 75 15 90 65 140 J5_ _90_ 70j
sizes in mm
A £
TYPE 41 mini maxi mini maxi mini maxi E c £ f ; •
Background Information
Located in Amherst, New York, Watson Bowman Acme Corp, has been at the industry forefront of design
and manufacturing expansion control devices for the bridge construction industry. From its modest
beginnings in the 195O's, designing small movement pavement seals for concrete highway applications in
New York, to producing today's state of the art large movement seismically designed modular expansion
joint devices on the world's largest segmental concrete structures. Watson Bowman Acme has provided
technical support and product solutions for the most complex and challenging applications.
As an ISO 9001-2000 Quality Certified Company, Watson Bowman Acme quality initiatives provide a
focus on continual improvement and relentless customer objectives.
Over 90 employees are dedicated to design, manufacture, sales and service of bridge expansion control
systems, and related fabricated steel products, such as. hand rail, scuppers, drains, and miscellaneous steel
requirements.
Watson Bowman Acme provides product selection and related performance, sizing and costing
recommendations for engineering firms and contractors.
Watson Bowman Acme has been selected as a product supply partner on some of the most prestigious
segmental concrete bridges and design/build projects in North America. The Cooper River Bridge, New
Susquehanna River Bridge, and Four Bears Bridge are a sampling of projects utilizing Watson Bowman
Acme products and services.
1. Manufacturer shall provide shipping and lifting assemblies for jobsite handling of modular
expansion joint devices.
2. Temperature adjustment chart and placement instructions should be included in shop drawing
submittal package.
3. Manufacturer should identify lift points and lifting requirements for handling and maneuvering
modular joint assembly at jobsite. (Figure 1)
4. Hardware for opening and closing joint assembly in accordance with temperature adjustment shall
be supplied by manufacturer. (Figure 2)
Figure 1 Figure 2
5. Appropriate hardware for placement and grade setting of modular joint assembly must be
identified, communicated and agreed by the supplier and contractor.
6, Contractor shall inquire of manufacturer, any proprietary innovation or methodology to assist or
facilitate installation efficiencies.
7. After temperature adjustment and grade setting of modular joint assembly, the contractor must
effectively place formwork around joint assembly in blockout area in preparation of closure
concrete pour. (Figure 3)
8. Formwork must be placed to assure protection and integrity of support box openings, preventing
concrete intrusion within modular joint assembly support boxes. Rebar must be tied into support
boxes, (Figure 4)
9. All shipping and placement hardware is removed after closure pour is complete and cured.
15.1.0 General 3
15.4.0 References 19
J
—
Chapter 15.0 Lessons Learned 1 of 1 9
TABLE OF FIGURES
Interferences of embedded items, including rebar, post-tensioning tendons, and miscellaneous construction
hardware, are a common cause of construction problems, particularly during construction of heavily
congested areas at or near piers. Under the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design and Construction
Specifications®®*, responsibility for interferences between embedded items shown on the contract
drawings is the responsibility of the Engineer of Record. Extensive use of 2D and 3D integrated drawings,
as well as extensive use of cut sections, is necessary during the design process to eliminate interferences
between embedded items.
The Contractor assumes responsibility for interferences in embedded items to the extent that the
interferences result from changes made by the Contractor to the details shown in the contract drawings.
The presence of numerous internal tendons in balanced cantilever structures raises the potential for certain
types of delamination, where the tendon force causes a portion of the flange to separate from the segment.
The first type is in the upper and lower flanges, where segments near the pier segment or mid-span house
multiple tendon ducts. This translates to a significant portion of the flange that is effectively voided during
erection, as grouting is generally not performed until the cantilever is complete. The multiple voids create
a weak plane that can lead to splitting of the flange. This can be mitigated by adding “J” ties to secure the
top and bottom mats of rebar (see Figure 1 5.1). Generally, this is only a concern with longer spans, where
the ducts would constitute a significant fraction of the flange area. Particular care is necessary in long span
cast-in-place balanced cantilever bridges with a large number of ducts near piers.
-
Figure 15.1 Reinforcement to Prevent Deck Delamination
An area that requires particular attention is the toe of the anchorage blisters. This region typically includes
a relatively sharp deviation of the continuity tendon anchored in the blister (see Figure 15.3). As the
tendon deviates, it exerts a radial force on the concrete, effectively trying to straighten. This deviation must
be tied back into the segment flange to avoid cracking. It is the responsibility of the designer to provide
adequate steel for this force, and care should also be taken in the casting yard to ensure that the steel is well
distributed along the full length of the deviation.
These examples of common critical details do not constitute an exhaustive list. It is important that good
engineering judgment be used in developing segment details, and that critical details are clearly shown in
the plans and carefully implemented in the casting yard. Specific requirements for many of these details
are given in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Bridges, and in
the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. A
15.2.3 Cracking
Cracking occurs often in concrete structures for a variety of reasons. When noticed, cracking should
always be reported to the engineer so that the cause may be determined. Some common causes of cracking
are:
• pouring new concrete against old concrete
• the introduction of high forces, for example, at post-tensioning blisters
• cracks near post-tensioning anchors
• cracks caused by structural defects
Figure 15.4 shows the situation where new concrete is cast against old concrete. This, of course, occurs at
every cast-in-place joint. Cracks as shown may appear. These are shrinkage cracks which are difficult to
avoid. To control the cracking, additional reinforcing steel or transverse post-tensioning may be provided
near the joint faces in the cast-in-place concrete
Figure 1 5.5 shows crack patterns, which may occur at blisters where high forces are introduced into the
concrete. This type of cracking may be reduced or eliminated by locating blisters at slab-web intersections,
by limiting the force (number and size of strand) anchored in a single blister, and by use of rebar to control
crack width.
Figure 1 5.6 shows cracking at a post-tensioning anchor. Concrete at anchors placed on the edges of thin
slabs is susceptible to cracking. Tendon sizes should not be larger than 4x 0.6-inch-diameter strands on a
nine-inch-thick edge. The anchorage area is normally reinforced to control or eliminate this cracking.
Tendons
Tendons
Crack
omni
< )
A corollary to this is the effect of secondary post-tensioning forces. These are the forces caused by
restraining support conditions when the tendons are stressed. The state of the structure when the tendons
are stressed determines the magnitude of the secondary post-tensioning forces, which can be significant.
The cost of erection equipment significantly impacts the cost to build the project. There have been a number of
segmental projects in recent years where it became necessary to add erection equipment during the construction
process to finish the job by the project completion date. While this issue does not generally impact the quality of the
completed project, it does impact the commercial viability of segmental construction from the Contractor’s
perspective, and it represents a “lesson learned” in that context.
"Construction loads comprise all loadings arising from the Designer's anticipated system of
temporary supporting -works and/or special erection equipment to be used in accordance with the
assumed construction sequence and schedule.
Construction loads and conditions frequently determine section dimensions and reinforcing and/or
prestressing requirements in segmentally constructed bridges. It is important that the Designer show
these assumed conditions in the contract documents.
These provisions are not meant to be limitations on the Contractor as to the means that may be used
for construction. Controls are essential to prevent damage to the structure during construction and
to ensure adequacy of the completed structure. It is also essential for the bidders to be able to
determine if their equipment and proposed construction methods can be used without modifying the
design or the equipment.”
Since there have been some notable construction failures due to overloads, it is essential that the Contractor
determine precisely the weight of the erection equipment (particularly erection gantrys) and other loadings,
with respect to the assumed loadings in the contract documents.
One aspect of this system that is sometimes overlooked is the stability of the columns when loaded by the
gantry. This is of particular importance when the gantry includes a “pendular leg”, or a support that is
pinned at the top and bottom, and carries no moment. This type of connection can lead to a highly unstable
system for tall or flexible columns. The difficulty arises when the loading from the gantry causes a
longitudinal displacement in the column as shown in Figure 15.9. This, in turn, inclines the pinned leg, so
that an additional shear is applied to the column. In the worst case, this shear causes increasingly large
deflections, until the entire system becomes unstable.
This potential failure mode should be at the forefront of the construction engineer’s consideration whenever
this type of truss support is used. Full consideration should be given to potential sources of flexibility,
including but not limited to foundation stiffness and potential cracking of the column. Furthermore, the
possibility should be evaluated even when the initial loading is anticipated to cause no displacement (i.e„
loading at the center of the column), as small placement tolerances can lead to significant displacements for
flexible columns.
If discovered, this problem can be mitigated by altering the support conditions of the truss, or by bracing
the columns against longitudinal movement by mobilizing adjacent structures.
casting curves and geometry control procedure must be meticulously reviewed and double
checked
the position of the instrument, target and form bulkhead, which are all supposed to be at fixed
positions, should be checked frequently using independent bench marks
erection elevations and horizontal alignment controls should be provided for use during
erection to check whether or not the correct alignment will be obtained.
Gore regions are those areas where the roadway width varies significantly. This can sometimes be
achieved by varying the length of the overhang, but there are instances where this is not sufficient. In these
cases, the distance between webs may vary within a given span or casting set. When the separation
between the webs varies, it is a good idea to vary the position of the survey markers to remain near the
webs, so that they remain at a vertically rigid point. This can lead to a confusing set of casting coordinates,
which are generally set to accommodate a fixed offset. Good coordination between the construction
engineer and the casting yard survey team is critical in these cases to avoid casting errors.
excessive sandblasting
repair of surface defects (for example a broken shear key)
epoxy grouted cracks
Repair of surface defects should generally be delayed until after segment erection in order to avoid more
damage to the joint.
In event installation of one or more tendons is not possible, utilize alternative provisional ducts required by
the specifications for tendon installation.
As previously discussed, prestressing tendons exert outward pressures in areas where they are curved or
kinked. In case the curvature is by design, the designer will provide reinforcing to contain the tendon.
However, mistakes during construction can cause tendon pop-out. Figure 15.11 shows a slab which
contains a tendon which is supposed to be straight. However, due to insufficient support the tendon sagged
in between the joints, thus creating a possibility for tendon pop-out, delaminations or bending cracks.
Figure 15.12 shows two curved tendons at a diaphragm one over the other. When there is adequate
distance between the tendons, a large radius of curvature, and properly compacted concrete in-between the
ducts, no problems usually develop. However, during construction both the distance as well as the concrete
quality between the ducts may be less then intended. As a consequence, duct "b" can be pressed into duct
"a," spalling the concrete and causing a problem with the stressing of the tendon in duct "a."
Position of
tendon after
failure
Manhole
1) Good quality control on the mixing. It helps to color the hardener differently from the resin so
that proper mixing can be checked visually.
2) After soft epoxy has been noted, the cause established, and an engineering review indicates that
keys across the joint are adequate (which they may well be), no further structural repair is
required.
3) The material in the joint should be tested in order to find out if there may be a problem with the
durability.
1) Grout tendons and recess pockets, if possible, before the onset of frost. Note that grout can itself freeze and
that it does not help to grout when it freezes or at low temperatures.
2) If certain tendons and/or anchor pockets cannot be grouted, they must be emptied of water by:
3) If ducts are to be left ungrouted for a long period of time, temporary corrosion protection of the tendon
must be provided.
(1) AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification, American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., Fourth Edition, 2007.
(3) Muller, Jean M. and Podolny, Walter “Construction and Design of Prestressed
Concrete Segmental Bridges” John Wiley & Sons, 1982.
(4) Menn, C., “Prestressed Concrete Bridges.
(5) Muller, Jean M., “25 Years of Concrete Segmental Bridges Survey of Behavior and
Maintenance Costs”, J. Muller International, 1990.
(6) Controlling Twist in Precast Segmental Concrete Bridges, Breen, John E., PCI
Journal, V. 30, No. 4, July - August 1985, pp. 86-111.
Regardless of the input, the Owner is the ultimate decision maker. The Owner must weigh and
evaluate the technical merits of the advice of these sources together with their experience and
expertise to arrive at a decision that is in the best interest of the Owner. This decision process may
include factors other than those that are purely technical in nature.
The Contractor - The Contractor has the role with the most risk. While most engineers and
inspectors claim to understand the Contractor’s risk, many have no real grasp of its true potential.
With one bad decision on one project, the Contractor can put his firm out of business. The
Contractor’s goal is to build the project in reasonable conformity with the plans, specifications and
special provisions provided by the Owner while maximizing his potential for profit. As nothing is
assured, Contractors try to have a cushion to offset the unknown problems that will arise.
Successful Contractors usually adopt “the glass is half empty and I think it has a slow leak”
approach. The Contractor’s role also includes managing his workers; dealing with suppliers; as
well as interfacing with the CEI team and Owner. Often the CEI team focuses only on the
technical aspects of an issue and does not realize that the Contractor must weigh the technical
against many other aspects as well.
The Contractor’s Engineer - The Contractor’s Engineer role is strictly defined by his contractual
agreement with the Contractor, which outlines the specific tasks he is to perform. He bases his
submittals and decisions on his experience, which might be very extensive. He provides the
Contractor with specific engineering and technical advice. This input might not agree with the
EOR’s or Owner’s engineering opinion but the Contractor will rely on it.
The CEI Team - It is the responsibility of the CEI Team to administer, monitor, and inspect the
Construction Contract such that the project is constructed in reasonable conformity with the plans,
specifications, and special provisions developed for the project. The CEI team therefore needs to
coordinate the interests of the Owner, requirements of the Designer, the work of the Contractor,
the submittals of the Contractor’s Engineer and the issues and concerns of multiple jurisdictions,
utility owners and abutters. The CEI team’s ultimate objective is to ensure that the Owner gets
what he contracted for as indicated in the Contract documents, all regulations and permits are
adhered to, the project gets completed on schedule, the quality of the work meets or exceeds
industry standards, Contractor payments are processed timely and changes are promptly and
equitably addressed. The CEI Team is placed on the project to make decisions and to facilitate the
The Owner wants a quality project, completed on-time and within budget. He must represent and
be accountable to the public. He must also answer to levels of government above him. His
decisions will be challenged by the public or by other governmental levels therefore he must have
justification for these decisions. One State Construction Engineer summarized it best when he
remarked, ”it is very easy to say no and let the issue be decided at a higher level, but a good DOT
person will make a decision that best reflects the overall good for the project.” With human
nature, it takes a strong person to make the final call on issues knowing that they always stand the
chance of being second-guessed in the future.
The Contractor’s motivations are related to the fact that construction is a business and no one is
in business without the goal of making money. This does not make them evil or greedy, just good
businessmen. Contrary to the opinions of some, Contractors by in large want to provide a quality
work product. A large motivator for Contractors is the control of their own destiny. The potential
to make a profit is influenced by so many factors outside the Contractor’s control (weather,
material availability, review time, etc.) that it is imperative that they control as many other aspects
of the work as possible. Another motivator for Contractors is pride in their work plan. Often the
work plan is submitted and then the CEI team, the EOR or the Owner critique aspects of it that do
not conform to their preconceived ideas of how the work should progress. The submitted work
plan represents the Contractor’s best method based upon all of his knowledge and information.
Any critique or challenge of the work plan can be viewed by the Contractor as a critique of him.
The Contractor’s Engineer is often overlooked. It is often assumed that the Contractor’s
Engineer has identical motivations to the EOR and Owner and therefore will spend unlimited
amounts of time on an issue. The Contractor’s Engineer wants and deserves to make a profit. He
is engaged to perform a specific set of tasks. If he is required to perform these tasks multiple
times, he is often not compensated for the extra work. Furthermore he is often under a time
constraint imposed by the Contractor and as a result does not have the luxury to perform detailed,
refined analyses to engineer an element. He will therefore rely on solid assumptions and proceed;
because a conservative design done on time is more important than refined set of calculations that
addresses every possible load case. The Contractor’s Engineer does not get paid to revise work,
but often the EOR, or reviewer, gets paid for reviews of revisions. This costs the Contractor’s
Engineer and generates revenue for the reviewer and has the potential to generate conflict. The
CEI team and Owner should monitor the number of resubmittals required, and the reasons for
them, to reduce this potential.
Things to look for include, but are not limited to, a recheck on duct positions at the match cast
joints, exit orientation angles for embedded PT ducts, broken shear keys, crushed or out of
position PT ducts, bearing surfaces, embedded items etc.
It is important that information is communicated from the casting yard to the jobsite for any
repairs or corrections that need to be done after erection; such as repairs to match cast face.
If there are elements at the interface of substructure and superstructure that are dimensionally very
tight, as-builts should be taken for coordination with the subsequent casting.
Sometimes these devices must work in harmony with seismic restainers/buffers and each element
must be installed correctly and within specified tolerance if they are to work together. A thorough
review of all related tolerances is recommended prior to precasting and substructure construction
to make sure that all elements will be able to be installed correctly. The CEI team and Contractor
should reach agreement early on procedures for setting and verifying how this will be achieved as
part of the Quality Control Program.
16.16 Safety
The Contractor is responsible for overall site safety and for all persons and property on the site and
will normally have one or more full time on-site safety representatives assigned to oversee the
work and ensure compliance with all local and federal safety requirements. That being said,
Owners and CEI consultants who have been involved in post accident investigations and the
lengthy and costly litigation that can result from a serious accident fully understand the importance
of a detailed and comprehensive accident prevention program.
Attendance of the CEI team in Contractor toolbox meetings is strongly recommended particularly
prior to the start of any new operation. The submittal of construction work plans and review by
CM should address how the physical work will be performed including associated Job Hazard
Analyses (JHAs) that must be reviewed and fully understood by the workforce. The Owner may
provide or request the CEI team to include trained safety personnel specifically assigned to the
Owners need to consider whether to make environmental issues a separate bid item and if so
perhaps to include a provisional sum to be billed against on Time and Material as the requirements
of the regulatory agencies may be hard to gauge and may change during the course of the contract
resulting in disputes over unanticipated costs.
Based on experience from past projects, there appear to be some key ingredients needed for a
successful project. The CEI Team needs to take the lead in ensuring that these key ingredients are
in their project. These keys to success include:
• Teamwork - The Owner, Contractor, Designer and CEI Team must all be working for a
quality project that is built on-time and makes money for the Contractor. Many projects have
“Formal Partnering” events every quarter and then have adversarial relations on the day-to-
day business of building the project. Teamwork or Partnering must be a large aspect of the
day-to-day interaction between the parties on-site. Since the CEI team has the most daily
interaction with the Contractor, they have the most opportunity to foster teamwork.
—
Chapter 16. 0 Construction Engineering & Inspection of Segmental Construction 8ofll
• Respect of other points of view - For the project to succeed, egos must be checked at the
door. All too often, parties do not listen well to each other and refuse to acknowledge any
other point of view besides their own. That does not work. The CEI team should take the
lead in fostering good communication and understanding. They need to clearly state their or
the Owner’s understanding and then solicit the Contractor’s understanding. Then, if there are
any differences, all of the parties need to work together to come to a consensus decision that
best serves the project.
• Maximize project level decisions - The CEI team is placed on a project to administer it and
this includes making appropriate project decisions. If decisions are not addressed at the
lowest practical level, then the project suffers delays and usually claims result. The
Contractor places personnel at the project with the authority to make decisions and if the
Owner and CEI team also have on-site personnel with the authority and willingness to make
decisions, then the project stands a great chance of being a success.
16. 20 Summary
Quite simply, the CEI Team should be a part of the solution and not part of the problem. The CEI
Team can affect the project success by their actions or inactions! Inaction is not representing the
best interest of the Owner. There is no place for adversarial attitudes on part of the CEI team.
Further, it is imperative that the CEI team lead by example with a cooperative attitude. Also,
when the Contractor sees that the CEI Team is working with them on a daily basis, then positive
relationships result and the Contractor responds by working more with the CEI Team and Owner.
If the CEI Team is helping the project succeed, then the Contractor makes money and the Owner
gets the project he envisions. Everyone wins.
Each project starts with a sense of trepidation, since the project staff usually does not know each
other well. If the CEI team shows a willing attitude every day, then the Contractor will soon
reciprocate. Someone has to be the first to be cooperative and it is in the project's best interest if it
is the CEI Team.
Below is a list of some positive steps that the CEI Team should consider. While this list is not all
encompassing, it helps set the framework for project success.
• Be consistently fair - There needs to be a realization that it is much harder to tighten the
requirements once you have relaxed them. The project requirements should not vary
from day to day or from inspector to inspector. The CEI team manager need to ensure
that there is uniform inspection.
• There also needs to be a realization that there is interpretation to plans and specifications.
Often a Contractor has a different interpretation and it is the CEI team’s role to help
resolve differences between the different interpretations. Sometimes the Contractor’s
interpretation is different from the Owner’s but may still be valid. By being an open
minded thorough listener there is a much greater chance of resolving these differences
amicably and for the good of the project.
• Give the Contractor a “clean slate” everyday. The CEI Team can’t have their judgment
clouded by the past. Even if the Contractor is not being cooperative, the CEI Team has to
judge each issue on its merits alone. This is very difficult but it is also extremely
important.
• Be Proactive - The CEI Team needs to organize and hold meetings in advance of any
operation to ensure that all parties have the same understanding of the requirements. The
earlier that these meetings can be held the better, to allow more time to react to any
comments that arise.
• The CEI team needs to share ideas with the Contractor that might help him and the
project. This can be anything from alerting him to required submittals to a different way
that another Contractor performed an operation. The CEI Team needs to identify issues
before they impact the construction schedule.
• The CEI team also needs to hold meetings well in advance of any major submittals. The
goal is to develop clear consensus of requirements and acceptance criteria. If this occurs,
then resubmittals are minimized.
• Show respect to all Contractor personnel - The largest single mistake that a CEI team can
make is in thinking that the Contractor is stupid, greedy or wants to do poor quality work.
This is simply not true. It is also important to explain to the work force why certain
aspects are more critical. For example conveying the importance of accurate positioning
of confinement or bursting reinforcing behind post-tensioning. If the work force
understands the importance, then the quality will increase. If the work force thinks that
the inspector is merely being a “bad cop” who is beating them with the specifications,
then quality will suffer.
• Finally, the Contractor’s Engineer should be treated with the “Golden Rule”. They
should be treated like the CEI Team would like to be treated. There should be no
resubmittals for petty reasons.
• Provide Technical advice to the Owner - The CEI team should always hold meetings with
the Owner in advance of any meetings with the Contractor. At these meetings the CEI
Team and others can openly share information with the Owner so that he has the most
information to make decisions for the project on technical issues. This might not be in
line with recommendations from some advisors, but once the Owner has made the
decision, then the CEI Team needs to present this to the Contractor and maintain a
constant message. The Owner makes his decision based on many factors and, for the best
interest of the project, the CEI Team needs to support this decision once it is made.
As part of the discussions with the Owner, the CEI Team needs to realize that the
Contractor and his Engineer also have experience and expertise. It is very easy to simply
agree with the Owner but it is in their best interest to give an honest opinion. Sometimes
the advisor needs to play “the Devil’s advocate”. The CEI Team and all technical
advisors need to give honest opinion and, where possible, cite examples from similar
work elsewhere. Without good reason, no Owner wants to go outside the norm of
industry practice. Also the Owner will not want to make a decision based on incomplete
information.
• Do not surprise anyone- This seems obvious but it often occurs. If there needs to be a
strong letter to the Contractor about an issue, the CEI Team should have already had
meetings with the Contractor about that issue. If it arose suddenly, then the CEI team
needs to have a face-to-face meeting with the Contractor and discuss the contents of the
letter. If anyone gets a strongly worded letter “out of the blue”, then relations sour
quickly and the project suffers.
• Stoppage of work should be the last resort - The CEI Team has many tools at their
disposal to ensure quality and compliance. If an issue escalates to the point that the
project will be stopped, then things have gone very wrong. If the project is stopped then
it is likely that the project will not finish on time and there will be claims. This is
sometimes necessary but usually it is not in the “Best interest of the Owner”.
The CEI Team is in a unique position between the Owner and the Contractor to help the project achieve
success. The CEI Team needs to maintain professional distance from the Contractor but also take positive
actions to help the project. The CEI Team on successful projects is "part of the solution". The CEI staff is
engaged by the Owner and the EOR to help facilitate the construction process though coordination and
communication and not to be a “bad cop” that documents daily infractions. All Owners are urged to ensure
that the CEI staff who are present on-site be structured so that they help the project get completed with
quality, within budget and on time.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
The form should be reassembled as required to revise and verify dimensions of the section for all
variations in web and bottom slab dimensions (see Figure 17.2). Most balanced cantilever bridges
require thickening of the bottom slab, and sometimes thickening of the webs near the pier. For
this reason, forms may have to accommodate several section changes.
Dimensional location of any items attached to the form to secure their position during casting of
concrete, and requiring removal before shipping the forms should be noted.
The “old” segment needs to be placed in a certain position in respect to the form (see Figure 17.3).
After appropriate setting of the “old” segment, the position should be fine tuned to within a 1/16
in. tolerance. Mechanisms such as hydraulic jacks or screwjacks are used to accomplish this
adjustment. The position changes to be controlled by such mechanisms are: rotation in the
horizontal plane, rotation in the vertical plane through the bridge centerline, and rotation in the
vertical plane perpendicular to the bridge centerline. In addition, the “old” segment should be able
to move in, and perpendicular to the direction of the bridge centerline.
The seals between the various form panels themselves and between the form panels and the “old
segment” must prevent mortar leakage from the fresh concrete. Such leakage affects both quality
and appearance of the segments. The seals are a major feature of form design and, since they are
usually flexible rubber or neoprene gaskets, they require regular cleaning and maintenance.
Checking of seals is a continuous task during production. Of particular importance is the seal
between old segment and form panels, because the position of the old segment is not fixed and the
seal and form must adapt to the old segment’s rotated position. Any movement of the old segment
during closing of the form will cause errors in the bridge alignment.
Inspection of the forms during casting of the initial segments should verify that the form allows
for inspection of rebar, post tensioning duct and anchorages as well as other embedded items in
the form. Such inspections mainly relate to clearances, post-tensioning anchor-duct alignment,
and embedded item locations. The inspector should be able to enter the form for this inspection
prior to closing the inner form.
For concreting, it is important that the concrete can be brought to its final location without
dropping from a great height and without having to move it with a vibrator. Special chutes, slides
or openings in the top slab form are usually required to place the bottom slab concrete. For
finishing of the deck, it is important that the top surface can be screeded by placing a screed over
the “old” segment and the form bulkhead. The form design should minimize obstructions which
interfere with the use of the screed.
The initial inspection of form operation should verify that the form is provided with access ladders
and safe working platforms with railings all around.
Adjust segment
length
• Verify that the form is clean and that movable parts are oiled and greased as required. Because of
the many mechanical parts used in the form, e.g. for collapsing the inner form and adjusting the
position of the “old segment”, hardened concrete spills, not properly and regularly cleaned, will
make the form inoperable.
• Verify that seals are clean and flexible. Proper functioning of seals in preventing loss of mortar is
essential to production of segments of acceptable quality. It is essential that seals be cleaned daily,
and that any hardened concrete is removed. Seals are usually neoprene and are easily damaged.
They should be repaired or replaced as necessary.
• Verify that the form oil approved for use on the project is applied.in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
• Check to ensure that the form is adjusted correctly for the segment to be cast. This is particularly
important whenever there is a change in bottom slab or web thickness or other section variation.
• Inspect to ensure that recesses, attachments for embedded items, and holes in the bulkhead are set
up properly for casting the next segment. The only item that is sure to vary from segment to
segment is the post-tensioning. This variation occurs in both cantilever post-tensioning and
continuity post-tensioning. For this, anchor recesses may have to be removed or added. Holes for
tendon ducts in the bulkhead must be closed or opened. It is very demanding and important that
the contractor and inspector independently check the post-tensioning in each segment. If an error
is made here, the consequences are very serious.
• Check closure of the form around the bulkhead, between the bottom slab form and side fonn, and
around the “old segment”. Closing the form at bulkhead and at bottom slab form usually does not
present great problems since bolts through the form can exert enough-clamping force to achieve
) the seal. Closure around the "old segment" where clamping through the form is not possible, is
more problematic and this is where the effort should be concentrated.
• Check the temperature of the form immediately before casting concrete. The combination of low
slump concrete and forms heated by the sun to high temperatures may cause a condition where the
water in the concrete evaporates as soon as the concrete contacts the form. This leads to an
unsatisfactory surface condition. Forms should preferably be placed under cover from the
weather. Alternatively, the form can be cooled with water prior to casting. If this is done, excess
water must be removed prior to concrete placement, e.g. with compressed oil-free air. Care must
be taken in removing excess water not to remove the form oil.
J
Chapter 17.0 Construction Inspection Guidelines for Concrete Segmental Bridges 7 of 40
17.3 Recommended Practice for inspection of Cut and Bent
Rebar
Comprehensive information on all aspects of reinforcing bar detailing is available in “Reinforcing
Bar Detailing" Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, 833 North Plum Grove Road, Schaumburg,
Illinois, 60173. Topics of primary importance on this subject for segmental bridge construction
are discussed below.
• Ensure that the steel has passed all required tests and has been approved for use on the
project. This indicates that the quality and mill tolerances of the rebar are acceptable.
• Verify that the steel has been properly tagged and that the tags show bar diameter, bar number
and the segment it is intended for. This is the responsibility of the contractor, but should be
checked occasionally by the inspector.
• Check reinforcement for cutting and bending tolerances, and reject any reinforcement not
within tolerance.
Unless specified to the contrary, steel will be cut and bent in accordance with standard tolerances
set by CRSI (Concrete Reinforcement Steel Institute). These tolerances are as shown in Figure
17.4. For straight bars, only cutting tolerances apply. If important, a higher tolerance can be
demanded at additional charge, or alternatively, a lap splice provided. For normal segmental
design, the ± 1” cutting tolerance should be acceptable.
Bends are made around pins which are designed in such a way that the steel is bent to the correct
radius. The radius of bar bends is important and should be checked since bars lose some quality at
bends. If bent, the loss of quality can be dramatic, especially in case of thicker bars (#6 and up).
Bar bends are also important for the fit of bars. A badly bent bar may not function properly as
demonstrated in Figure 17.5. The location of bends is also very important as shown in Figure
17.6. The vertical bars shown rarely fit if bent in accordance with the standard tolerances. These
bars should either be made in two sections, or be bent to tighter tolerances at additional cost.
Check epoxy coating in accordance with special provisions. Epoxy coating can be damaged
during handling or by field cuttings. Corrosion will concentrate on uncoated areas. For this
reason, damaged areas of the coating must be repaired.
H-dimension plus
or minus 1/2
L pH- plus dr
< minus 0.02 L
for bar sizes
#6 and larger
o
Plus or
minus 1/2" S OJ
r--Plus or 2
minus 2
Bending Tolerances
Figure 17.4- Standard Fabrication Cutting and
1/4” tolerance
No tolerance
1“ standard problem
tolerance
not suitable
1/4” tolerance
On some projects there will be many different segment types each of which will have a different
cage. In order to match up cage and segment correctly, the contractor will have to design a good
identification system. All cages should be tagged in accordance with this system. The inspector
should identify the cage, verify the identification tag, and check to ensure that an approved shop
drawing was used for making the cage.
The cage should be inspected with reference to the items discussed below.
a. Segment dimensions. Inspection for segment dimensions, day to day, will be required on
projects where segments have a lot of variation on the bottom slab, web thicknesses and
length of the overhang. In this case, the template for making rebar cages must allow variable
dimensions and these dimensions should be verified.
b. Bar diameters. There is no tolerance on the use of bar diameters. For example, #4 bars cannot
be used instead of #5's and conversely. Any deviation in bar diameters should be checked
with the Owner’s Engineer
c. Number and spacing of bars. The spacing of bars (center to center distance of bars in the same
mat) shown on the shop drawings should be within a normal tolerance of 1". In some cases
larger tolerances could be allowed; for example, when openings or embedded items prevent
placement of a bar. Table 17.3 provides guidance to the inspector to judge the importance of
accurate rebar placement. Whatever the case, the total number of bars shown in the shop
drawings to be placed in a mat should always be present. Additional bars can usually be
accepted, at no additional cost, for the convenience of the contractor.
d. Number of ties. Ties should generally be wire ties unless the shop drawings indicate the use of
weldable steel, in which case the cage may be spot welded. The number of wire ties is
specified in the standard specifications. Spot welding should always be reviewed and
approved by the Engineer.
e. Length of lap splices. The minimum length of lap splices is shown on the shop drawings. The
minimum length should be verified in the cage. There is no tolerance on this minimum length,
but lap splices may be longer than required. In case field splices are required, dimensions of
minimum lap splices are provided in Table 17.2.
f. Number of distance keepers. Guidelines for the number of support chairs for top mats
provided in the standard specifications.
g. Size of distance keepers. Size of distance keepers is most important since it determines the
cover and therefore the durability of the concrete segment. In addition, it determines the
intended location of most structural reinforcement. In general, reinforcement is more effective
as it is placed closer to the faces of beams and slabs, and the position is determined by the
clear cover. The tolerance on cover is 1/4" and this is the tolerance for the location of the
rebar mat in respect of the outside and inside faces of the segment. This tolerance is not
required for the joint face of the segment. Once the structure is erected, the joint faces will not
come into contact with the atmosphere and cover on the joint faces will not have durability
consequences. The cover of reinforcement from the joint faces is shown on the shop
drawings. This is subject to the normal ±1" tolerance for bar spacing.
Dimensional integrity of a rebar cage must be maintained during transportation of the cage. For
this purpose, the cage can be stiffened with a frame (see Figure 17.9).
The rebar cage should be inspected for obstructions to the location of tendon ducts. See Figures
3.20 and 3.21 of the “Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual” for guidelines
on duct placement. Tendon ducts should be placed at their designated locations without cutting
any rebar. Ducts should preferably be placed in the cage before it is placed into the form so that
modifications to the reinforcement cage required to let ducts pass through can be made without
loss of segment production. For instructions regarding field cutting and bending of reinforcement,
see Section 17.7 "Recommended Practice for Solving Rebar Conflicts."
The cage should be checked for damage to epoxy coating, and damage to the coating should be
repaired.
This Illustrates a
Other types, including those
for special segments might
be needed
-
Class “A" Low stress splice, with no more ihan% areLAP spliced.
Class ‘"B^ -Lpw stress spfice, more than# bars are LAP spliced.
-Aigh stress splice, with no more than bars are LAP spliced.
Class "C” ~ High stress splice, more than S-bars are LAP spliced.
The shop drawings show dimensions of the individual pieces and how these pieces should be
assembled. There usually are at least two different tendon sizes, but sometimes more. All sizes
should be covered by drawings and all hardware sizes should be checked. For checking hardware,
the contractor must provide a sample of each item selected from the stockpile on the job.
Wedges and wedge seats for post-tensioning hardware are subject to machine tolerances which are
extremely small. These tolerances are the responsibility of the post-tensioning materials supplier.
The inspector should limit inspection to obvious details such as length and number of pieces used
to make up the wedge. Bearing plates are sometimes cut.
Many types of anchors are forgings or castings which may have gone through a number of
machine operations. The inspector is concerned only with a visual inspection of the surfaces. i
Casting errors are normally not visible. The conical surfaces for wedges in anchor head should be
smooth. The wedge should be able to easily slide into it. The anchor head, if any, should bear
flush against the bearing plate. The outside surface of wedges should be smooth and clean and the
inside surfaces serrated over their whole length. At the tip of the wedge, the teeth are usually filed
down for a short distance to ensure that the strand force is distributed over the length of the wedge.
Where the shop drawings indicate that the components should have drilled holes for attachments i
of any kind, their presence should be checked. i
All post-tensioning hardware and duct material should be stored in a manner so that it will be
protected from corrosion and entrance of foreign material. Wedges should be stored inside. Duct
material and anchorages should be stored on wooden platforms and protected from the weather.
Ends of ducts should be capped to prevent entrance of foreign material during storage. i
i
I
i
i
i
The inspector should verify that post-tensioning ducts can be placed in their correct locations in
the cage without major relocation or cutting of rebar.
The only post-tensioning hardware that can be placed effectively into the rebar cage is the ducts.
The advantage of placing the ducts into the cage before the cage is placed into the form is that
interference problems can be solved at this time without loss of production. Also the number and
approximate locations of the ducts can be verified, saving on inspection time at the form. Usually
the ducts are placed in their approximate location since they cannot be tied. Before connection
with the previous segment and the anchor, which must be made in the form. For resolution of
interference problems, see Section 17.7, “Recommended Practices for Solving Rebar Conflicts.”
When the shop drawing calls for grout vents, the vents can be placed in the rebar cage. Anchor
reinforcement such as spirals and hair pins should be placed in the cage. However, their final
position can only be adjusted after placement of the cage in the form and after the anchor has been
installed.
Conflicts in placement of rebar may be resolved by cutting, moving or bending rebar. Cutting of
rebar generally requires approval of the Owner’s Engineer (Construction Engineering Inspector).
Moving rebar is generally allowed. Bonding rebar is generally allowed, but sometimes requires
use of hairpins to secure the bond. As shown in Figure 17.1, bar 1 will tend to straighten, and a
hairpin is needed to maintain the shape of the bar. Geometry of bar 2 under tension is maintained
by the concrete. Recommendations concerning moving or cutting other bars in the cross-section
of Figure 17.12 are presented in Table 17.3.
T] through T3 Very important for strength of slab if deck not transversely - to face slab ± %”
prestressed. No cutting of T! through T3 allowed. If deck is
transversely prestressed, T1 through T3 can be cut in case of - parallel to face of
conflicts and lap spliced. slab ±1”
wbw2 Very important for strength of web. Cannot be cut to avoid - parallel to face of
conflicts but can be relocated as long as cover (with ± %" slab ± 1 ”
tolerance) is maintained.
w3, w4 Very important for strength of web and, in case deck is not - parallel to face of
prestressed transversely, also for strength of deck. Cannot be slab ±1”
cut or relocated. In case of conflicts, contact the Owner’s
Engineer. If deck is transversely prestressed, bars can be
relocated as long as cover (± !4" tolerance) is maintained.
Bi , B2 , B3 Very important for strength of bottom slab. Cannot be cut, - parallel to face of
but can be relocated as long as cover (with ± %" tolerance) is slab ±1”
maintained.
Duct should be rigidly supported at the proper location in the forms by ties to reinforcing steel.
Polyethylene duct and metal duct for longitudinal or transverse post-tensioning in the flanges
should be supported at intervals not to exceed 2 feet. Polyethylene duct in webs for longitudinal
post-tensioning shall be tied to stirrups at intervals not to exceed 2 feet, and metal duct for
longitudinal post-tensioning in webs should be tied to stirrups at intervals not to exceed 4 feet.
During concrete placement for precast segments, mandrels should be used as stiffeners in each
duct and shall extend throughout the length of the segment being cast and at least 2 feet into the
corresponding duct of the previously cast segment. The mandrels should be of sufficient rigidity
to maintain the duct geometry within a 1/2 inch tolerance within the top flange, 1 inch in webs,
and within a 1/8 inch tolerance at the segment joints.
The recess pocket (see Figure 17.13) determines the angle of the anchor plate and the distance
from the face of the segment. The connection between the anchor and the recess must be strong
enough to hold the anchor firmly in place during concrete placement, and it must also be mortar
tight. The recess pocket should be constructed within the tolerances shown in Figure 17.1. To
minimize friction losses when stressing tendons, ducts and anchors should line up perfectly. The
tolerance on alignment of duct and anchor is 2 percent as shown in Figure 17.13.
1GQ.
±2
Slope tolerance ±2% £ Anchor
* Material presented in this section was developed by Alan Moreton, Corven Engineering, Inc.
and reported in "Three Dimensional Geometry Control of Segmental Bridges with Special
Reference to the Linn Cove Viaduct," 1992 (unpublished)/
Computations are based on the assumption that the bolts and hairpins are at and define the
concrete surface at each joint. This means that the bolts must be placed very carefully in the fresh
concrete so that they are always very close to the level of the top of the bulkhead at one end and
the surface of the match cast segment at the other.
The bolts must also be placed exactly at the required offsets from the centerline. These positions
should be over the webs in order to be unaffected by deflections of the top slab. Also, the
elevation bolts should always be placed at the same, small fixed distance from the bulkhead and
match cast segment face. The centerline hairpins should be placed very close to, or if possible, at
the very ends of the segment. There is a danger here that both bolts and hairpins could be lost by
-
spalling a simple precaution is to use long legs set down at an angle down into the concrete.
Centcr-Tcja hakpkis
-
Figure 17.14 Geometry Control - Reference Hardware and Axes
)
Chapter 17.0 Construction Inspection Guidelines for Concrete Segmental Bridges 21 of 40
Figure 17.15 - Casting Cell Survey Control Arrangement
Accurate offset measurements to the centerline marks can be made with a steel scale fitted
with a leveling bubble (Figure 17.16(a)). It is not essential, but it is convenient to have a
surveyor's level mounted on the instrument tower to maintain a constant datum.
Elevations in the casting cell are related to the joint defined by the top of the bulkhead which
should preferably be horizontal and immovable. (All elevations used to calculate the as-cast
positions are actually relative to each other, with the top of the bulkhead joint as the common
reference).
With most segmental bridges, it is sufficiently accurate to measure the bolt elevations by standing
the leveling staff on the domed bolt head. However, with severe super elevation, it is always
necessary to measure the elevation at the same required distance from the centerline. At Linn
Cove the center punch marks for length measurements on the left and right bolts were
conveniently used for the elevations by attaching a hardened steel center point to the bottom of the
leveling rod (Figure 17.16(b)).
(a) The elevation on each bolt on the match cast and new cast segments. (Note: that all these
bolts must be at a constant distance (w/2) from the centerline for three dimensional geometry
controls).
(b) The offsets from the centerline of the cell to the centerline marks previously made on both
ends of the match cast segment (ocl and oc2) and new centerline marks must be made on
each hairpin of the newly cast segment. At the bulkhead, this is placed directly on the
centerline of the casting cell (offset = 0) and at the match cast face, at the same offset as on
the adjacent match cast hairpin (ocl).
(c) The exact length measurement of the newly cast segment at the centerlines of the left and
right elevation control bolts. These are essential to the 3D method. They are made by making
a center punch mark on each of the A and C elevation bolts and taking the lengths between
like bolts on the cast and match cast segments, (i.e. between A and Al and between C and
Cl).
(d) The small distances of the bolts and centerline hairpins from the joints (db and de
respectively). It is to be noted that on some projects, the joints were truly radial and not
perpendicular to the chords of the segments. This has implications for the casting machine
and the derivation of the joint geometry. See Section 17.10.
A sample data sheet for the recording and processing of observations using the three dimensional
geometry control system, is shown in Figure 17.18.
24 of 40
Figure 17.18 - Three-Dimensional Geometry Control Data Sheet
Project: Date:
Observing Engineer:
Output: Record new Alpha and Gamma for processing next casting:
-
Alpha = [ Al B] = . Gamma = [AI - B] = .
DC1 DC3
DC2 DC4
The recommended sequence for placing segment concrete is shown in Figure 17.19. This
sequence is valid only for regular segments. A different procedure must often be followed
for pier and abutment segments. The difficulty in pouring segments is due to the fact that
the bottom slab does not have a top form. Therefore, concrete that is placed in the web
will flow into the bottom slab if vibrated strongly. The pouring sequence shown allows
proper consolidation of concrete in die bottom of the web and finishing the surface of the
bottom slab. The most important issue for finishing the bottom slab is make sure that the
slab thickness meets the tolerances.
Concrete is placed first in the bottom slab. Placing this concrete is a little more time
consuming since it needs to be done through a chute or gutter. Then, concrete will be
placed through the web in the bottom comers. Upon vibrating the web concrete tends to
flow into the bottom slab. Care must be taken to minimize the flow and yet obtain good
consolidation. After completion of these pours, the webs can be filled. Workers go from
one web to the other in order to ensure that the concrete in both webs rises equally. High
webs must be poured through a chute.
The deck slab is poured last. One sequence for placement of concrete in a segment is
shown in Figure 17.19. Other placement sequences have also been used successfully.
The concrete should be vibrated in accordance with normal vibrating practice. Care
should be taken in vibrating pour 1 since the concrete will keep flowing out of the webs as
long as vibrating continues. Post-tensioning anchors should receive special care during
vibrating. The close windings of the spiral sometimes prevent the concrete from filling the
space behind the anchor and inside the spiral.
Ducts for post-tensioning tendons can be moved or damaged by concrete. This may occur
during placing of concrete or during vibrating. If tendons are located at the intersection of
web and bottom slab, the pressure caused by vibrating can easily move the ducts if not
properly secured. If a duct becomes dislodged at a location which is difficult to access, the
segment may be lost. Time available for repair is 30 minutes at the most. After that, cold
joints will occur which must be repaired acceptably.
Minor damage to ducts can sometimes be restored by chipping away the hardened
concrete around the ducts. This concrete must also be repaired.
The cylinder for checking strength for stripping should be stored with the segment under
the burlap placed on the deck. This duplicates early strength results closely. Remove the
cylinder just prior to breaking.
Match-cured cylinder mold or maturity measuring devices may also be used for
measuring early strength.
The curing process involves the following steps; each of which requires verification by
the inspectors.
• Upon completion of the four-six hour pre-steaming period, the segment is to be steam
cured. Specifications provide the details of the steam curing cycle.
• Upon completion of the steam curing cycle, check strength, strip forms and move
segment to "old" match cast position.
• While the segment is in the "old” (matchcast) position, continue curing by the
application of an approved curing membrane to all exposed surfaces except the end
joint faces. These should be coated with an approved bond breaking compound which
will also act as a "seal" for curing. Curing may continue in this manner until the
segment is at least 72 hours old and the strength is at least 4000 psi.
• When it is in the matchcast "old" position, the segment receives a second curing in
conjunction with casting of the next segment.
• After completion of the second steam curing cycle, check strength of old segment. If
the cylinder break is 4000 psi or higher, stop curing. If break is less than 4000 psi,
continue curing in storage until segment is 72 hours old. Curing in storage is by
placing wet burlap on top and hanging over all sides. Burlap is covered with
Polyethelene sheets.
2. Upon removal of inner form and outer form, check webs for casting defects.
If casting defects are present (honeycombing near anchors for example), this is the
most suitable time to determine whether or not the segment will be accepted. If not
accepted, it can be removed and a new one made. If it is likely that the segment can
be repaired, it should be accepted provisionally subject to acceptable repair.
3. After removal of forms, break bond between “old” and “new” segments.
Breaking bond is accomplished by the method or process shown on the shop
drawings. This process must ensure separation of the segment without damage to the
keys or the face of the segment.
4. Inspect joint between the “old” and “new” segment for key breakage.
The keys ensure that the weight of the last segment of a cantilever will be carried by
the cantilever. Generally, the margin of safety allows a small percentage of the keys
to be broken. Guidelines for the extent of the damage permissible to keys should be
submitted by the contractor and approved for use. It is not recommended that keys are
repaired prior to erection. Any repair made to the matchcast surfaces will lead to
fitting problems and usually to severe spalling upon erection. The better practice is
therefore to establish a guideline for acceptable key breakage and make the repair
after erection.
2. The inspector must verify that the required concrete strength for handling is
achieved. The concrete strength required for lifting the segments is provided in the
special provisions. If not, it should be proposed by the contractor and approved for
use.
3. The inspector must verify that that the lifting frame is safely attached to the
segment. These attachments are generally bolts (Figure 17.20) which go through the
top slab. These bolts should be evenly torqued. For lighter segments lifting loops are
sometimes used. These loops should bear evenly against the pipe or dowel passing
through the loops. Lifting loops should be placed with a template prior to casting to
ensure this. C hooks should be carefully positioned with the lifting line in the center
of gravity of the segment. If used, the contractor submits this location for each
different segment type and the inspector should verify that it is placed properly.
The appearance of the repair concerns color and surface finishing. Since most repairs are
darker than the surrounding concrete, it is best to make trial mixes of the mortars proposed for
repairs at the time of approval so that color differences can be judged. These trial mixes
should be made before they are needed. Much skill is required for making good looking
repairs. Part of the procedure submitted by the contractor should be names and qualifications
of the person(s) making the repairs.
Durability of repairs is determined by the quality of the repair material and the bond of the
repair material to the old concrete. Bond is determined by surface preparation, type of binding
agent and method of filling the void. The different types of voids require treatment. Figure
17.21 shows repair of a hole in the web which can be effectively repaired, more easily than
surface damage. Other issues to be addressed are curing and shrinkage of the repair.
. Structural adequacy is determined by the location of the void in the structure. Segmental box
girders are often over-designed. The high concrete strength of 5500-6000 psi is usually only
needed in the support area (bottom slab and webs) and in post-tensioning anchor zones. In
other areas, it ensures a high quality and durable product. Therefore, repairs may often be
judged by their durability rather than by structural adequacy. Structural adequacy is generally
assured by the composition of the repair mix. This mix should have adequate strength, and it
should be a concrete mix. This means that it should depend on cement and not on an epoxy
resin or similar material for strength. Such materials are strong but also more elastic than
concrete and cannot therefore always perform a structural function.
B. Repair of Cracks. Most cracks over a certain size are repaired by epoxy injection. This is
specialty work and the repair procedure should address:
C. An inspector should be present while a repair is being made. Any defect discovered in a
segment will be cause for delays, costs, meetings, etc. All are reasons for a well-meaning
superintendent to cover up the defect before it is discovered. This is unacceptable practice.
Repairs thus made should be removed and redone in the presence of an inspector. The
inspector should also be present when forms are removed from a segment so that he has first
hand information about defects when these occur.
D. The inspector should ensure that no repairs extend into the joint faces. Repairs of joint
faces and shear keys should not be made. If defects occur in the joint faces, the repair should
be postponed until after the erection of the segment. Any doubt about feasibility of repair of
voids or cracks should be resolved by consultation between the Construction Engineering
Inspector and the Construction Engineer.
The inspector should ensure that suitable material is used to support the segments which will
cushion the load evenly. Oak blocks are often used. Supports are placed under the webs because
the load bearing capacity there is much higher than at any other location. The bottom slab could
not handle the load without cracking. Three (3) supports are provided per segment - two under
one web near the ends and a third in the middle of the opposite web (see Figure 17.22). This
method provides predictable bearing forces and will support the segment evenly.
In case of double stacking, the support blocks should be placed correctly on the lower segment
(see Figure 1 7.22). If webs are not vertical, the second segment is supported on the top slab of the
lower segment. This will bend the slab. The contractor will take this bending effect into account
when he proposes double stacking, but it is important to realize that this proposal is based on
placing the supports correctly. The shop drawing should provide size of supports and exact
location and tolerances. A tolerance of ± 1” on size of support blocks and ± 2” on their location
should be workable.
Support
Paced
Correct
• Segments should have a uniform appearance. This means even color and few or minor surface
defects. The most common surface defect is that caused by air bubbles. This occurs when
plywood or steel forms are used but seems to be somewhat controllable. If size (more than
1/2" diameter) and number are such that the quality of the segment is clearly affected, the
bubbles have to be sealed in accordance with an approved repair procedure.
• Generally the bond breaker will adhere to the joint faces and will have to be removed by very
light sandblasting. The sandblasting also should remove the laitance. Thus, the epoxy will be
applied to strong material and will provide an excellent bonded joint with high tensile
strength. The sandblasting should be as light as possible to achieve this. Strong sandblasting
can remove too much material which would reduce the fit obtained with the matchcasting
procedure.
• Ducts should be checked for alignment and cleanliness and anchors and recesses for presence
of mortar. Recesses should be cleaned out so far that the jack will fit into it. Anchors should
be entirely free from mortar.
• The segment should be checked for cracks, spalls, damage to keys and repairs including
repairs on matchcast faces.
• Any defect should be repaired in accordance with the approved repair procedure, and the
repair should be approved before payment for the segment is made.
• The 28-day strength of the segment should be checked. If the 28-day strength is not achieved,
it should be decided whether or not to accept the segment.
Segments are usually handled and stored strictly according to the approved procedure in the
casting yard. The same arrangements, however, are required on site. The support conditions on
vehicles are the same as in the yard. Calculations of loading during transport by vehicle should
include an impact factor of 1.5. For transport on a barge, this is not required.
The inspector should verify that the contractor has obtained all the required permits for roadway
transportation and that the contractor has the means to honor the requirements of these permits.
Since this concerns heavy transports, permits are usually required for overloads and illegal widths.
These need to be obtained by the contractor.
If the transport involves maintenance of traffic problems, the inspector should ensure that there is
an approved maintenance of traffic plan. It is also necessary for the inspector to ensure that the
contractor has informed all the parties involved and enforce the maintenance of traffic plan.
Maintenance of traffic problems often occur in case of heavy transports, cranes and segments.
\ Usually these have been anticipated by the designer and are covered by special provisions.
The erection manual will indicate the type of equipment the contractor proposes to use. Usually
this will be cranes. The manual will describe lifting capacity of the crane at the maximum boom
required and where the crane will be placed.
In case of crane erection, erection manuals will be simple documents indicating erection
sequences, descriptions of basic operations, geometry control data and stressing data. In case of
erection methods using special equipment such as erection trusses, launching girders or gantry, the
erection manual will be more complicated. Inspectors should, however, not be asked to work with
erection manuals too complicated to implement, inspect or even understand. For an example, an
erection manual describing movement of a launching girder in 30 steps, each of which can lead to
problems if not executed correctly, should not be approved for use. In any case, the steps should
be clear.
The rated lifting capacity of the crane assumes that the crane has a firm place to stand, outriggers
can be placed properly and boom will not be exceeded.
The inspector should ensure that any custom designed equipment used for the project has been
inspected by inspectors qualified to perform such inspections. The inspection of special
equipment should be performed by qualified persons. The inspector should be familiar with
cranes, welds, or bolted connections as dictated by the erection equipment.
The inspector should verify that there is an operation manual for custom designed equipment.
Since neither the designer nor the fabricator of the equipment will operate it, a comprehensive
manual is required for this. The manual should be understandable to the operator. The manual
should preferably not only address how to operate the equipment correctly, but also what can go
wrong. Especially in case of heavy equipment, it is very important that operations are simple.
The inspector should verify that a test load program of the equipment has been planned and that
this program is implemented. This test loading program should be designed in such a way that all
operations are tested, not only lifting but also moving the equipment in both loaded and unloaded
conditions.
The inspector should ensure that the circumstances assumed for operation of erection equipment
are in fact, existing in the field. In some known cases, equipment failed during test loading or first
use. Often the reason was that design assumptions were not in agreement with field conditions.
The inspector should ensure that that the equipment operator is experienced in accordance with
project requirements, and is instructed to transfer loads from equipment to structure gradually.
Sudden release of the segment from the crane will magnify the effect of the segment weight and
will apply forces to the structure it has not been designed to support.
2. Ensure that the plans indicate assumptions for subsoil conditions and seek evidence that
these assumptions are met or exceeded in the field. Usually falsework is supported on
spread footings so subsoil conditions come into play. Geotechnical advice is required to both
ascertain safe bearing capacity as well as predicted settlements. Predicted settlements are
needed in order to be able to set the elevation of the top of the falsework. A tolerance for
settlements must be provided in the plans. If exceeded, the falsework designer must be
notified.
3. Check that the falsework is erected in accordance with the approved plans. Also have the
designer of the falsework inspect it. In case of specialty systems, ensure that the manufac¬
turer’s erection instructions are being followed. Because of the temporary nature of the work,
falsework plans are sometimes not treated with the same care as bridge plans. In addition, the
contractor often substitutes joist sizes and modifies the plans as he sees fit. This practice has
been the cause of serious failures. Inspection of the falsework by the designer should make
the contractor aware of his responsibilities. Erection of specialty systems requires strict
adherence to manufacturer’s instructions. Inspection of the erection by a manufacturer's
representative should provide the necessary assurances.
4. Monitor the falsework while it is being loaded and at regular intervals after it has been
loaded. When the falsework is being loaded, check for excessive member deflections and
shifting of members. Monitor jacks. Use an instrument to check settlement of footings. In case
the falsework is to be in service for a long time, monitor the condition of the falsework and
the settlement periodically.
5. Check that elevations of the top of the falsework are as required and ensure that
anticipated settlements are taken into account. Footing settlements cause the final
elevations to be lower. It is a good practice to estimate beforehand the amount of settlement
expected and compensate for this in setting the elevation of the top of the falsework. Such
estimates are made by geotechnical engineers and should be provided on the plans.
2. Ensure that the contractor is implementing the safety recommendations from the
supplier. Containers with epoxy resin carry warnings regarding toxicity of the materials and
instructions in cases of emergency. The contractor should point out the hazards to the workers
and should have the required supplies available on site in case of an emergency.
3. Ensure that a supplier’s representative is present at the time of first use on the project.
The consequences of errors made in mixing, application and removal of epoxys are costly and
generally unnecessary. The presence of a manufacturer's representative thoroughly familiar
with the product pays off, and the inspector should insist on it. For maximum benefit, all
persons working with the material should be present at this first application.
4. If there are several types of epoxy on the project, ensure that labeling is such that they
cannot be interchanged. Epoxy resins must be formulated specially for a variety of
conditions. The ambient temperature is most important. An epoxy resin formulated for use in
cold weather would set almost immediately if used in warm weather. Reversely, an epoxy
resin formulated for hot weather would cure only after a long time if used in cold weather.
Since weather conditions vary, epoxy resin suppliers formulate their product for a particular
weather condition and if erection over several seasons is anticipated, there will be several
formulations supplied. These should be kept apart.
5. Ensure that the two components of the epoxy are properly mixed. Epoxy consists of a
resin and a hardener, often referred to as components A and B. As long as these are kept
separated, the resin will not set. In order to function as designed, the two components A and B
must be very thoroughly mixed. If not, the resin will not set. Improper mixing has been the
cause of high repair costs. Good mixing is generally ensured by:
6. Ensure that pot life and open time requirements are adhered to. Although there is a
certain safety range, one should understand that epoxy will bind and cure only if used within
these specified time limits.
7. Ensure that joint faces are properly prepared. A good bond of the epoxy to the concrete is
only achieved if the joints are dry and clean.
(a) Dry is usually defined as "absence of surface water". This means that epoxy cannot be
used when it rains. Also, after a rain, the joints should be dried off (preferably with a
moderately hot torch).
(b) Clean means that the joint has been lightly sandblasted to remove cement paste and bond
breaker and that subsequent soiling is removed by wire brush.
9. Ensure that the epoxy is properly applied to the joint faces. Usually the Special
Provisions indicate the amount of epoxy per square foot of joint or the average thickness of
the layer, also whether or not the epoxy has to be applied on one or on two faces. Epoxy needs
to be placed in between tendon ducts so that a seal is formed at each duct which should pre¬
vent grout from crossing over into ducts other than the one being grouted. Usually workers
apply epoxy with a gloved hand. Though primitive, this is a most effective method.
10. Ensure that excess epoxy is removed from exterior joint faces. Since epoxy is applied to
the joint in a much greater quantity than required for filling the joint, much of it will be
squeezed out upon applying the temporary prestress. This excess forms a bead at the joint
faces, on both the inside and outside of the box girder. On the inside, this bead is usually left
in place. On the outside, however, this is unsightly and treatment is necessary. Treatment first
of all means that the outside should be accessible for work and inspection.
The treatment can consist of removing the epoxy with a tool as long as it is soft. This will
leave a mark accentuating the joint. In case the box will receive a surface treatment, this is the
simplest way to remove the epoxy bead. Alternatively, the epoxy can be removed without
leaving marks by chiseling it off after it hardens. This, however, is more time consuming.
11. Ensure that excess epoxy is cleaned from tendon ducts. As epoxy beads form on the
outside, the same occurs at the tendon ducts. Squeezed out epoxy will enter the ducts. This
epoxy is removed by inserting a brush with a long handle into each duct. This is done
immediately after applying the temporary post-tensioning and releasing the segment from the
crane.
12. Ensure that the curing process is being monitored. Epoxy will perform its function, which
is to provide tensile strength at the joint and seal the joint from moisture penetration, only if it
is cured. Normally the epoxy will cure, but on occasion, a bad batch or badly mixed batch will
not set. In order to monitor this, simple field tests have been devised such as gluing a small
concrete test cube against the inside of the box with the epoxy used for the joint. The next day
a firm blow with a sledge hammer will either fail the epoxy or the concrete. Although not
very scientific, this "test" surely indicates whether or not something is obviously wrong.
The special provisions may prescribe tests to be performed on the epoxy during erection. Such
tests usually apply to the strength of the epoxy.
If, for some reason, a segment cannot be erected and epoxy has been applied to the joint faces,
the epoxy must be removed. In order to avoid delays, the contractor should submit a pro¬
cedure for this for approval. The usual procedure consists of:
(a) Scraping off as much of the epoxy as possible while it is still soft.
(b) Bum off the remainder with a low heat torch.
(c) Sandblast the joint to thoroughly clean the j oint.
13. Ensure that tests prescribed by the Special Provisions to be performed during erection
are made.
14. Ensure that there is an approved procedure for removal of epoxy from joint faces.
)
Chapter 17.0 Construction Inspection Guidelines for Concrete Segmental Bridges 39 of 40
17.21 Recommended Practice for Tendon Stressing
All aspects of tendon stressing should be in accordance with Chapter 3, “Post-Tensioning Duct
and Tendon Installation” of the FHWA "Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting
Manual.” Special care should be given to observation of the safety guidelines for stressing of
post-tensioning tendons presented in Chapter 11.
Exceptions are those operations strictly related to the techniques such as geometry control,
segment handling, etc. which obviously do not apply.
Form tolerances for cast-in-place segmental bridges should be adhered to with great care. A form
which produces heavier segments on one of the cantilever arms will have a large effect on the
unbalanced moment. The geometry control for cast-in-place segmental bridges is less demanding
since it is almost "self-correcting." Curing on the other hand is more critical since the progress of
the work depends on the concrete achieving early strength. Post-tensioning generally occurs long
before the concrete achieves design strength and post-tensioning anchor sizes may have to be
adapted for use with lower strength concrete. The sequence of segment concreting has to be
adapted to the flexibility of the form carrier.