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 Advanced Optical Communication
Systems and Networks

Cvijetic_CIP.indd i 11/15/2012 3:25:56 PM

viii Contents

Chapter 2: Optical Components and Modules 39

2.1 KEY OPTICAL COMPONENTS……………………………………………39

2.2 OPTICAL FIBER…………………………………………………………….42
2.2.1 Optical Fibers Manufacturing and Cabling ……………………………..43
2.2.2 Special Optical Fibers…………………………………………………... 46
2.2.3 Optical Fiber Types with Respect to Transmission Properties…………. 49
2.2.4 Multicore and Few-Mode Optical Fibers………………………………. 54
2.3 THE LIGHT SOURCES ................................................................................. 56
2.3.1 Semiconductor Lasers…………………………………………………... 56
2.3.2 Light Emitting Diodes………………………………………………….. .69
2.4 OPTICAL FILTERS AND MULTIPLEXERS ............................................... 72
2.4.1 The Fabry-Perot Filters…………………………………………………. 72
2.4.2 Mach-Zehnder Filter……………………………………………………..75
2.4.3 Optical Grating Filters…………………………………………………...76
2.4.4 Tunable Optical Filters…………………………………………………..78
2.4.5 Optical Multiplexers and Demultiplexers………………………………. 80
2.5 OPTICAL MODULATORS ........................................................................... 83
2.5.1 Direct Optical Modulation……………………………………………… 84
2.5.2 External Modulation of Optical Signals………………………………... 86
2.6 OPTICAL AMPLIFIERS ................................................................................ 94
2.6.1 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers………………………………….….. 95
2.6.2 Fiber Doped Amplifiers………………………………………………… 95
2.7 PHOTODIODES ........................................................................................... 110
2.8 PROCESSING OPTICAL COMPONENTS ................................................. 116
2.8.1 Components for Coupling, Isolation, and Adjustments of
Optical Power…………………………………………………………..117
2.8.2 Optical Switches………………………………………………………..121
2.8.3 Wavelength Converters………………………………………………...127
2.9 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 132
PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 132
References……………………………………………………………………… 136
Contents ix

Chapter 3: Signal Propagation in Optical Fibers 141

3.1 OPTICAL FIBER LOSSES .......................................................................... 141
3.2 WAVEGUIDE THEORY OF OPTICAL FIBERS ....................................... 145
3.2.1 Electromagnetic Field and Wave Equations…………………………... 145
3.2.2 Optical Modes in Step-Index Optical Fibers………………………...... 148
3.2.3 Definition of a Single-Mode Regime…………………………………. 154
3.2.4 Modes in Grade-Index Optical Fibers………………………………… 156
3.3 SIGNAL DISPERSION IN SINGLE-MODE OPTICAL FIBERS ............... 160
3.3.1 Modal Dispersion……………………………………………………… 160
3.3.2 Chromatic Dispersion…………………………………………………..160
3.3.3 Polarization Mode Dispersion………………………………………….165
3.3.4 Self-Phase Modulation in Optical Fibers…………………………........ 171
3.4 PULSE PROPAGATION IN SINGLE-MODE OPTICAL FIBERS ............ 179
3.4.1 Single-Channel Propagation……………………………………………180
3.5 MULTICHANNEL PROPAGATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS ..................... 211
3.5.1 Cross-phase Modulation……………………………………………… 213
3.5.2 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)………………………………………….... 214
3.5.3 Nonlinear Schrodinger Equation for Multichannel Transmission…….. 217
3.6 SIGNAL PROPAGATION IN MULTIMODE OPTICAL FIBERS ............ 218
3.6.1 Mode Coupling in Multimode Fibers…………………………………. 219
3.6.2 Mode Coupling in Curved Multimode Optical Fibers………………… 223
3.6.3 Mode Coupling in Dual-Mode Optical Fibers………………………… 225
3.7 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 225
PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 226
References……………………………………………………………………… 229

Chapter 4: Noise Sources and Channel Impairment 233

4.1 OPTICAL CHANNEL NOISE ..................................................................... 233
4.1.1 Mode Partition Noise………………………………………………….. 236
4.1.2 Modal Noise…………………………………………………………… 237
4.1.3 Laser Phase and Intensity Noise………………………………………. 239
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4.1.4 Quantum Shot Noise……………………………………………........... 243

4.1.5 Dark Current Noise……………………………………………………. 245
4.1.6 The Thermal Noise……………………………………………………..247
4.1.7 Spontaneous Emission Noise………………………………………….. 248
4.1.8 Beating Components of Noise in the Optical Receiver……………….. 249
4.1.9 The Cross-talk Noise…………………………………………………...252
4.2 DEFINITION OF BER, SNR, AND RECEIVER SENSITIVITY ............... 254
4.2.1 Bit Error Rate and Signal-to-Noise Ratio for IM/DD Scheme………... 255
4.2.2 Optical Receiver Sensitivity……………………………………………259
4.2.3 Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio…………………………………………. 269
4.3 SIGNAL IMPAIRMENTS ............................................................................ 270
4.3.1 The Impact of Mode Dispersion in Multimode Fibers…………………272
4.3.2 The Impact of Chromatic Dispersion…………………………..............273
4.3.3 Polarization Mode Dispersion Impact………………………………….277
4.3.4 The Impact of Nonlinear Effects on System Performance……………..279
4.3.5 The Impact of the Extinction Ratio…………………………………….287
4.3.6 The Impact of the Intensity Noise and the Mode Partition Noise……...289
4.3.7 The Impact of the Timing Jitter………………………………………...292
4.3.8 The Impact of Signal Cross-talk……………………………………… 293
4.3.9 Impact of Raman Amplification to Signal Distortion…………………. 295
4.3.10 Impact of the Accumulated Noise…………………………………… 301
4.4 OPTICAL TRANSMISSION LINK LIMITS ............................................... 306
4.4.1 Power-Budget Limited Point-to Point Lightwave Systems…………… 306
4.4.2 Bandwidth-Limited Point-to Point Lightwave Systems………………. 309
4.4.3 OSNR Evaluation in High-Speed Optical Transmission Systems……. 313
4.5 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 314
PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 315
References……………………………………………………………………… 319

Chapter 5: Advanced Modulation Schemes 323

5.1 SIGNAL-SPACE THEORY AND PASSBAND DIGITAL OPTICAL
TRANSMISSION ......................................................................................... 323
Contents xi

5.1.1 Generic Optical Digital Communication System……………………... 323

5.1.2 Geometric Representation of Signals in Modulators and
Demodulators………………………………………………………….. 326
5.1.3 M-ary Baseband Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)………………...331
5.1.4 Passband Digital Transmission………………………………………... 334
5.1.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)…………………………... 335
5.1.6 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)……………………………………….. 342
5.2 MULTILEVEL MODULATION SCHEMES .............................................. 343
5.2.1 I/Q and Polar Modulators……………………………………………... 343
5.2.2 M-ary PSK Transmitters………………………………………………. 347
5.2.3 Star-QAM Transmitters……………………………………………….. 350
5.2.4 Square/Cross QAM Transmitters……………………………………... 351
5.3 POLARIZATION-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND FOUR-
DIMENSIONAL SIGNALING…………………………………….. ……...356
5.4 SPACE-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL
HYBRID MODULATION SCHEMES…………………………………….360
5.5 OPTIMUM SIGNAL CONSTELLATION DESIGN ................................... 365
5.6 ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OFDM)
FOR OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS…………………………………… 369
5.6.1 Generation of OFDM Signals by Inverse Fast Fourier Transform......... 370
5.6.2 Cyclic Extension and Windowing……………………………………...373
5.6.3 Bandwidth Efficiency of CO-OFDM…………………………………..378
5.6.4 OFDM Signal Processing and Parallel Optical Channel
Decomposition………………………………………………………… 379
5.6.5 Discrete Multitone (DMT) in Multimode Fiber Links………………... 384
5.7 MIMO OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS .................................................... 389
5.7.1 Parallel Decomposition of MIMO Optical Channels…………………. 393
5.7.2 Space-Time Coding for MIMO Optical Channels…………………….. 395
5.7.3 Polarization-Time Coding and MIMO-OFDM……………………….. 398
5.8 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 401
PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 401
References……………………………………………………………………… 407
xii Contents

Chapter 6: Advanced Detection Schemes 413

6.1 DETECTION THEORY FUNDAMENTALS .............................................. 413
6.1.1 Geometric Representation of Received Signal, and Theorem of
Irrelevance…………………………………...........................................413
6.1.2 Equivalence of Euclidean, Correlation, and Matched Filter Receivers.. 418
6.1.3 Detection of Known Signal and Optimum Receiver Design………….. 422
6.1.4 Error Probability in the Receiver……………………………………… 426
6.1.5 Estimation Theory, ML Estimation, and Cramér-Rao Bound………… 435
6.2 COHERENT DETECTION OF OPTICAL SIGNALS ................................. 437
6.2.1 Coherent Optical Detection Basics……………………………………. 438
6.2.2 Optical Hybrids and Balanced Coherent Receivers…………………… 443
6.2.3 Phase, Polarization, and Intensity Noise Sources in a Coherent
Optical Detector……………………………………………………….. 446
6.2.4 Homodyne Coherent Detection………………………………………...449
6.2.5 Phase Diversity Homodyne Receivers………………………………… 449
6.2.6 Polarization Control and Polarization Diversity in
Coherent Receivers …………………………………………………….451
6.2.7 Polarization-Division Multiplexing (PDM) and Coded Modulation….. 452
6.3 OPTICAL CHANNEL EQUALIZATION ................................................... 454
6.3.1 ISI-Free Optical Transmission and Partial-Response Signaling……….454
6.3.2 Zero-Forcing Equalizers……………………………………………… 458
6.3.3 Optimum Linear Equalizer……………………………………………. 463
6.3.4 Wiener Filtering………………………………………………………. 465
6.3.5 Adaptive Equalization………………………………………………… 466
6.3.6 Decision Feedback Equalizer…………………………………………. 468
6.3.7 MLSD or Viterbi Equalizer…………………………………………… 469
6.3.8 Blind Equalization…………………………………………………….. 471
6.3.9 Volterra Series-Based Equalization…………………………………….476
6.4 DIGITAL BACKPROPAGATION .............................................................. 478
6.5 SYNCHRONIZATION ................................................................................. 481
6.6 COHERENT OPTICAL OFDM DETECTION ............................................ 486
6.6.1 DFT Window Synchronization………………………………………... 488
Contents xiii

6.6.2 Frequency Synchronization in Optical OFDM Systems…………….... 489

6.6.3 Phase Estimation in Optical OFDM Systems…………………………. 490
6.6.4 Channel Estimation in OFDM Systems……………………………….. 491
6.7 OPTICAL MIMO DETECTION .................................................................. 494
6.7.1 MIMO Model of Few-Mode Fibers…………………………………… 495
6.7.2 Linear and Decision-Feedback MIMO Receivers…………………….. 496
6.7.3 Space-Time Coding (STC)-Based MIMO Detection Schemes………...499
6.8 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 503
PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 503
References……………………………………………………………………… 509

Chapter 7: Advanced Coding Schemes 515

7.1 CHANNEL CODING PRELIMINARIES .................................................... 515
7.1.1 Channel Coding Principles………………………………………......... 516
7.1.2 Mutual Information and Channel Capacity…………………………… 519
7.1.3 Channel Coding and Information Capacity Theorems………………....521
7.2 LINEAR BLOCK CODES............................................................................ 522
7.2.1 Generator Matrix……………………………………………………… 523
7.2.2 Parity-Check Matrix…………………………………………………... 524
7.2.3 Code Distance Properties…………………………………………….... 526
7.2.4 Coding Gain…………………………………………………………….527
7.2.5 Syndrome Decoding and Standard Array………………………………528
7.2.6 Important Coding Bounds……………………………………………... 531
7.3 CYCLIC CODES .......................................................................................... 532
7.4 BOSE-CHAUDHURI-HOCQUENGHEM (BCH) CODES ......................... 538
7.5 REED-SOLOMON CODES, CONCATENATED CODES, AND
PRODUCT CODES………………………………………………………... 545
7.6 TURBO CODES ........................................................................................... 548
7.7 TURBO-PRODUCT CODES ....................................................................... 551
7.8 LOW-DENSITY PARITY-CHECK (LDPC) CODES ................................. 553
7.8.1 Quasi-Cyclic (QC) Binary LDPC Codes……………………………… 555
7.8.2 Decoding of Binary LDPC Codes and BER Performance Evaluation... 557
7.8.3 Nonbinary LDPC Codes………………………………………………..561
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7.8.4 FPGA Implementation of Decoders for Large-Girth QC-LDPC Codes.562

7.9 CODED MODULATION ............................................................................. 563
7.9.1 Multilevel Coding and Block-Interleaved Coded Modulation……….. 563
7.9.2 Polarization-Division Multiplexed Coded OFDM……………………. 569
7.9.3 Nonbinary LDPC-Coded Modulation…………………………………. 571
7.9.4 Multidimensional Coded Modulation…………………………………. 575
7.9.5 Adaptive Nonbinary LDPC-Coded Modulation………………………. 579
7.10 LDPC-CODED TURBO EQUALIZATION ............................................. 581
7.10.1 MAP Detection……………………………………………………… 581
7.10.2 Multilevel Turbo Equalization……………………………………….. 582
7.10.3 Multilevel Turbo Equalizer for I/Q Imbalance and
Polarization Offset…………………………………………………….588
7.10.4 Multilevel Turbo Equalization with Digital Back-Propagation…….. 592
7.11 SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 593
PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 594
References……………………………………………………………………… 604

Chapter 8: Advanced Optical Networking 609

8.1 OPTICAL NETWORKING AS PART OF THE ISO MODEL ................... 609
8.1.1 ISO Model of Networking…………………………………………….. 609
8.1.2 Optical Network Definition and Role…………………………………. 612
8.1.3 Cross-Layer Interworking with Upper Layers………………………… 613
8.1.4 Electrical Client Layers………………………………………………...614
8.2 OPTICAL NETWORKING ELEMENTS .................................................... 625
8.2.1 Optical Line Terminals………………………………………………... 626
8.2.2 Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (OADM)……………………………... 627
8.2.3 Optical Interconnect Devices…………………………………………..629
8.2.4 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers (ROADM)………… 633
8.2.5 Optical Cross-Connect (OXC)………………………………………. 636
8.3 LIGHTPATH ROUTING IN OPTICAL NETWORKS................................ 638
8.3.1 The Lightpath Topologies and Their Impact on Wavelength Routing ...639
8.3.2 Modeling of Lightpath Topology……………………………………... 642
Contents xv

8.3.3 Optimizing Multihop Network Topologies…………………………….644

8.4 IMPAIRMENT AWARE ROUTING ........................................................... 652
8.4.1 Optical Performance Monitoring……………………………………… 654
8.4.2 Impairment Aware Constraints………………………………………... 657
8.5 CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT OF OPTICAL NETWORKS .............. 661
8.5.1 Signaling and Resource Reservation………………………………….. 661
8.5.2 Routing and Wavelength Assignment………………………………… 663
8.5.3 Fault Management and Network Restoration…………………………. 664
8.6 CONTROL PLANE FOR AN OPTICAL NETWORK ................................ 671
8.7 OPTICAL PACKET AND BURST SWITCHING ....................................... 674
8.7.1 Optical Packet Switching……………………………………………… 675
8.7.2 Optical Burst Switching……………………………………………….. 679
8.8 OPTICAL NETWORK APPLICATION SEGMENTS ................................ 681
8.8.1 Optical Access Networks……………………………………………… 681
8.8.2 Optical Metro Networks………………………………………………..689
8.8.3 Optical Core Network…………………………………………………. 690
8.8.4 Data Center Networks (DCN)………………………………………... 691
8.9 ADVANCED MUTIDIMENSIONAL AND DYNAMIC OPTICAL
NETWORKING…………………………………………………………….693
8.10 SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 698
PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 698
References……………………………………………………………………… 703

Chapter 9: Optical Channel Capacity and Energy

Efficiency 709
9.1 CAPACITY OF CONTINUOUS CHANNELS ............................................ 709
9.2 CAPACITY OF CHANNELS WITH MEMORY………………………… 714
9.2.1 Markov Sources and Their Entropy…………………………………... 714
9.2.2 McMillan Sources and Their Entropy………………………………… 718
9.2.3 McMillan-Khinchin Model for Channel Capacity Evaluation………....718
9.3 MODELING OF SIGNAL PROPAGATION ............................................... 721
9.3.1 The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation (NSE)………………………….. 721
9.3.2 Step-Size Selection in Split-Step Fourier Algorithms………………… 723
xvi Contents

9.3.3 Multichannel Propagation……………………………………………... 724

9.3.4 Propagation Equation for Polarization-Division Multiplexed Systems. 724
9.4 CALCULATION OF INFORMATION CAPACITY BY FORWARD
RECURSION OF THE BCJR ALGORITHM……………………………...725
9.5 INFORMATION CAPACITY OF SYSTEMS WITH COHERENT
DETECTION………………………………………………………………..728
9.6 CALCULATION OF CAPACITY OF OPTICAL MIMO-OFDM
SYSTEMS ………………………………………………………………….731
9.6.1 Modeling of Few-Mode Fibers in a Strong-Coupling Regime with
Mode-Dependent Loss………………………………………………… 731
9.6.2 Optical MIMO-OFDM Channel Capacity…………………………….. 732
9.7 ENERGY-EFFICIENT OPTICAL TRANSMISSION ................................. 734
9.7.1 Energy-Efficient Signal Constellation Design Based on Concepts of
Statistical Physics………………………………………………………734
9.7.2 Energy-Efficient Multidimensional Coded Modulation………………. 737
9.7.3 Energy-Efficient Photonic Devices…………………………………… 739
9.8 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 740
PROBLEMS........................................................................................................ 740
References……………………………………………………………………… 744

Chapter 10: Engineering Tool Box 749

10.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS USED IN THIS BOOK ............ 749
10.2 FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH OF THE OPTICAL SIGNAL ...... 750
10.3 STIMULATED EMISSION OF THE LIGHT ............................................ 751
10.4 BASIC PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS ........................ 753
10.5 BASIC VECTOR ANALYSIS ................................................................... 758
10.6 BESSEL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................... 760
10.7 MODULATION OF AN OPTICAL SIGNAL ............................................ 761
10.8 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG AND ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
............................................................................................................................. 762
10.9 OPTICAL RECEIVER TRANSFER FUNCTION ..................................... 764
10.10 THE Z-TRANFORM AND ITS APPLICATIONS .................................. 766
10.10.1 Bilateral z-Transform……………………………………………….. 766
10.10.2 Properties of z-Transform and Common z-Transform Pairs………...768
10.10.3 The Inversion of the z-Transform…………………………………... 769
Contents xvii

10.10.4 The System Function………………………………………………...770

10.11 ABSTRACT ALGEBRA BASICS ........................................................... 772
10.11.1 Concept of Groups…………………………………………………...772
10.11.2 Concept of Fields…………………………………………………… 774
10.11.3 Concept of Finite Fields…………………………………………….. 775
10.12 PULSE-POSITION MODULATION ....................................................... 777
10.13 STOKES VECTOR AND POINCARE SPHERE..................................... 779
References……………………………………………………………………… 780

ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................... 783

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ................................................................................ 791
INDEX ................................................................................................................ 793
Preface
This book aims to introduce and treat a series of advanced and emerging topics in
the field of optical communications and networking. The material is largely based
on the fifth generation of optical transmission systems and networks,
characterized by exploitation of all optical signal parameters (amplitude, phase,
frequency, and polarization) via processing in time, frequency, and space
domains. Both optical signal transmission and networking topics are treated with
equal depth, and feature a gradual introduction to more sophisticated topics.
The reader will find fundamentals about optical components and signal
generation, propagation, and detection discussed in detail in Chapters 1 to 4. A
number of advanced topics such as MIMO, OFDM, coded-modulation, LDPC-
coded turbo equalization, polarization-time coding, spatial-domain-based
modulation and coding, multidimensional signaling, optimum signal constellation
design, and digital compensation of linear and nonlinear impairments are
discussed in Chapters 5 to 7. These chapters also include description of the most
relevant post-detection techniques such as linear and adaptive equalization,
maximum-likelihood sequence detection, digital back-propagation, and Wiener
filtering. In Chapter 8, the principles of advanced optical networking are
described, including definitions of primary optical network models and network
design parameters in common topologies. In Chapter 9, optical channel capacity
computation is presented based on modeling an optical fiber as a channel with
memory, while in Chapter 10, useful tools to aid understanding of topics
associated with optical transmission systems and networks are provided.
This book is self-contained and structured to provide straightforward
guidance to readers looking to capture fundamentals and gain both theoretical and
practical knowledge that can be readily applied in research and practical
applications. Every chapter of the book has an extensive list of references, as well
as a number of exercises, all with the goal to help the reader build up the
knowledge and skills necessary for research and engineering tasks. The book is
structured in such a way that the reader can easily understand the general topic
without looking to outside literature.
The intended audience for the book are senior-year undergraduate students
and graduate students of electrical engineering, optical sciences, and physics,
research engineers and scientists, development and planning engineers, and
attendees of leading industry conferences (e.g. OFC, ECOC, CLEO, OECC). The
background knowledge necessary to study this book and fully understand the

xix
xx Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks

topics is that of a typical senior-year undergraduate engineering/science student.

This book is well-suited for mixed undergraduate/graduate-level courses,
containing a large range of problems with varying degrees of difficulty. The
subject of the book is not limited to any particular geographical region or any
specific transmission and networking scenario.
We are very grateful to numerous colleagues from both industry and
academia for the useful discussions we have had in the past and for their helpful
suggestions and comments. We would like also to extend personal thanks and
deep gratitude to our families for their unconditional support and understanding.
Chapter 1
Introduction to Optical Communications

This chapter describes the role of optical networking in our information society
and explains the key technologies that serve as foundations of packet-based
optical networking. Historical perspective and significance of the fifth generation
of optical systems and networks, as well as the outline for future direction, are
also presented. Finally, a classification and basic concept of advanced optical
systems and networks will be introduced.
We defined the fifth generation of optical transmission systems and networks
by several distinct features listed later. Some of them, such as multilevel
modulation format or coherent detection schemes, were already in place several
decades ago, but with no real traction since they could not be implemented in an
efficient and practical manner. The other ones, such as OFDM, MIMO, and LDPC
coding, have been effectively used in wireless communications for some time
now, and have found a way to serve as enablers of advanced optical transmission
and networking. We also consider high-speed digital signal processing to be an
essential part and enabler of both optical transmission and optical networking.
There are multiple degrees of freedom with respect to spectral arrangement,
spatial multiplexing in an optical fiber, and advanced coded modulation that can
be utilized in design of high-capacity optical transmission systems, as well as in
realization of the multidimensional and elastic optical network architecture.
We assume that the fifth generation of optical networking is a part of an
integral networking scheme in which Ethernet and IP/MPLS technologies serve as
client layers that interwork with an optical layer in the process of delivery of data
packets through network cloud to a variety of end users. With that respect, 100-Gb
Ethernet serves as one of the identifiers of the fifth generation.
Our definition and classification of optical transmission systems and networks
with respect to historical perspective may be different than those from some other
authors since we consider that both transmission and networking aspects and
enabling technologies are mutually interrelated and will be treated as such
throughout of this book. The purpose of the material discussed in this book is to
provide both the fundamental information and the advanced topics that
characterize the fifth generation and beyond.

1
2 Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks

1.1 THE ROLE OF OPTICAL NETWORKING

The beginning of the second decade of the twenty-first century is characterized by

paradigm shift in the overall meaning of information society. We are now in the
era where communications are possible whenever and wherever they are needed,
with a number of entities exchanging a different kind of information among them.

1.1.1 The Need for Connectivity and Capacity

Any information exchange in the network is characterized by a data flow, so a

number of flows can occur simultaneously. Each of the information flows in the
network is characterized by speed or the bandwidth and the quality of
transmission. The growing need for the bandwidth and connectivity is driven by
demand from both residential and business users, as well as from the scientific
community asking for infrastructure that would support large-scale data transport
and information exchange. The bandwidth requirements are mainly driven by IP
traffic, which now includes video services, such as IPTV, videoconference, and
streaming applications. In addition, telemedicine, social networking, and
transaction-intensive Web 2.0+ applications all require a massive deployment of
various network elements, such as IP routers, carrier Ethernet switches, or dense
wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) terminals and switches. An
information network is increasingly becoming a cloud of information flows
connecting different participants, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Super/cloud

Information Computing
Video Conference Infrastructure
(business ,government)

Video Metro optical network

Metro optical network
Conference

Access optical Core optical

Mobile business 3G/4G/4G+ network network Web Server
office Base Station Data center

Access optical network

Hosted Business
Appl. (Storage, VoIP,
IPTV IP Phone
Residential Access Remote medical Security)
(Home Networks) Mobile connection (Image processing)

IPTV/VoD Center

Figure 1.1 High-speed networking.

Since the Internet became the synonym of the information era, there have
been a numerous efforts to make it comprehensive and affordable. Carrier-grade
Ethernet became both the transport and networking engine of the IP traffic loaded
by various applications mentioned above. We can expect that the bandwidth
 Introduction to Optical Communications 3

requirements in the second decade of this century will be ranging from 100 Mb/s
to 1 Gb/s for residential access users, 10 Gb/s to 40 Gb/s for the majority of
business users, and 100 Gb/s to 1 Tb/s for some institutions, such as government
agencies or major research labs.
The bandwidth requirements are the cause for the rapid growth of Internet
traffic over past decade, and that growth has been exponential. The annual IP
traffic is now measured by exabytes. The prediction is that by 2015 the total IP
traffic in the United States alone will be around 1,000 exabytes per year, which is
equal to 1 zettabyte, and then a count will begin towards the yottabyte (1024
bytes). The network architecture that supports IP traffic is structured to
accommodate packet transport over optical bandwidth pipes [1–7]. The question is
how to provide enough bandwidth for all users, while dealing with different
granularities, quality of services, and energy constraints.
There is wide consensus today that Ethernet technology will remain to be the
best option for high-speed statistical bandwidth sharing. Different Ethernet
networking speeds (10M/100M/1G/10G) were successfully introduced over the
past two decades. That hierarchy was extended by the introduction of 40 GbE
(stands for Ethernet at 40 Gb/s speed) and 100 GbE in 2010. The expectation is
that Ethernet speed will reach 1 Tb/s by 2015 or so. The next stop after 1 Tb/s
would likely be 4 Tb/s followed by 10 Tb/s.

1.1.2 Optical Networking and Lightpaths

In terms of the ownership, networks and transmission systems symbolized by

clouds in Figure 1.1 can either belong to private enterprises or be owned by
telecommunication carriers. The ownership can be related either to networking
equipment and infrastructure associated with a specified network topology or to a
logical entity known as virtual private network that resides within the physical
network topology. We can recognize several segments within the structure from
Figure 1.1, all with respect to the size of the area that they cover. The central part
of this structure is a long-haul core network interconnecting big cities or major
communication hubs by high-capacity optical fiber links. At the same time, the
connections between major hubs on different continents have been done through
submarine optical transmission links. The core network is a generic name, but
very often it is referred to as either a wide area network (WAN) if belongs to an
enterprise, or as the interchange carrier (IXC) public network if operated by
telecommunication carriers. The nodes in a core network are known as central
offices, although the terms POP (point of presence) or hubs are also used. The
distance between nodes in a core network can range anywhere from several
hundred to several thousand kilometers. As an example, the distance between
nodes in core networks of major North American telecom carriers or major cable
companies is much longer than the distance between core network nodes of major
carriers in Europe or network nodes of major carriers in Asia.
4 Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks

On the other hand, WAN networks are for private use, owned and operated by
big corporations. Typical examples of such networks are networks of major
ASP/ISP (application/Internet service providers), where network nodes coincide
with the data centers, while connections are established between these data
centers. A majority of other corporations still use the services provided by telecom
carriers by implementing their private networking within the carriers’ network
infrastructure. Since there is the emulation of one network within the other, logical
connections that serve corporations are known as virtual private networks (VPNs).
The second part of the overall optical network structure is known as the edge
network, which is deployed within a smaller geographical area, such as a
metropolitan area, or a smaller geographic region. The distance between the nodes
connected by optical fiber links in edge networks ranges from tens to a few
hundred kilometers. The edge network is often recognized as a metropolitan area
network (MAN) if owned by an enterprise or as a local exchange carrier (LEC) if
operated by telecommunication carriers.
Finally, the access network is a peripheral part of the overall network related
to the last-mile access and bandwidth distribution to individual end users, which
could be enterprises, government agencies, medical institutions, scientific labs, or
residential customers. Two examples of the access networks are an enterprise
local area network (LAN), and a distribution network that connects the carrier’s
central office location with individual users. The distance between two nodes in
an access network usually ranges from several hundred meters to several
kilometers.
As we can see from Figure 1.1, application providers and big processing
centers may have access to any of the segments mentioned above. We can expect
that in the future the network will be a unified information cloud with various
participants, each having specified access to it. Accordingly, there is constant
transformation of logical network structure to comply with business models of
various service providers, as well as with the service requirements of various end-
users. Some of these business models include ownership either of the entire
network (infrastructure, equipment, network management) or of some portion
needed for delivering IP-based services to customers. The other models are based
on leasing network infrastructure from a third party or on performing a bandwidth
brokerage in carrier hotels. The ownership of the network includes responsibility
for network planning and traffic engineering, while leasing and brokering are
more related to service delivery and billing arrangements, often related to a
service layer agreement (SLA).
The possible way that end users will communicate with a specified amount of
bandwidth and with specified services is illustrated in Figure 1.2, which presents a
high-level scheme of cloud computing. The cloud computing concept relates to
delivery of both computing and storage capacity as services to a number of end
users. Individual end users can access cloud-based applications through a Web
browser or mobile applications. In a cloud computing scheme we can have the
following: (1) infrastructure as a service, (2) platform as a service, and (3)
 Introduction to Optical Communications 5

software (application) as a service. Cloud computing as concept is designed to

allow enterprises to obtain and run specific applications faster an in more
manageable manner, while information technology (IT) resources can be adjusted
to satisfy dynamic business demands.

Servers

Application
(monitoring, collaboration, content, finance)
Smartphones
Platform Laptops
(object storage, database, run time, identity)

Infrastructure
(compute, network, file storage)

Tablets
Desktops

Figure 1.2 Cloud computing networking concept.

The importance of network intelligence in future networks can be further

outlined by software-defined networking (SDN), which is concept in which
control is decoupled from hardware and transferred to a specific software
application. The SDN has an essential impact on the way that a packet travels
through the network since its trajectory and attributes will not be determined by
embedded software (firmware) in the switching node. Instead, separate software
can be used to shape traffic in a centralized manner. Network administrator can
determine switching rules by putting and removing priorities on specific traffic
(bandwidth flows). This concept goes together with cloud computing architecture
since traffic loads can be managed in a flexible and more efficient manner.
The physical network topology that best supports traffic demand is generally
different in different segments of the optical networking structure shown in Figure
1.1. It could vary from the mesh (deployed mostly in the core networks), to ring
(deployed mainly in in metro areas), to a star topology deployed in an access
networks to enable efficient statistical multiplexing and bandwidth distribution. At
the same time, submarine optical links, whose length could be up to tens of
thousands of kilometers and more, have a point-to-point character. From the
optical transmission perspective, the optical network configuration enables an
end-to-end connection through the optical signal flow, which can be referred as
the lightpath. Each lightpath is related to the physical layer of the optical network
and takes into account the optical signal properties, characteristics of deployed
6 Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks

optical elements (fibers, lasers, amplifiers) along the path, the impact of the
networking topology, and the type of service that is requested. Each service has
the source and destination node and can be either point-to point or broadcast
nature. Any connection is associated with quality of services (QoS) requirements,
which is then related to each individual lightpath.

Submarine Optical Core Network Optical Access

System Optical Metro Network Network

Figure 1.3 Lightpaths in optical network.

The term lightpath means that an optical signal propagates between the source
and destination without experiencing any opto-electrical-opto (O-E-O)
conversion. Several examples of the lightpaths across topologies discussed above
are presented in the Figure 1.3. In general, the lightpaths differ in lengths and
information capacity that is carried along. As an example, the lightwave path in a
submarine transmission system can be several thousand kilometers long while
carrying information capacity measured by tens of terabits. On the other hand, a
typical lightpath within the metro area is measured by tens of kilometers while
carrying the information capacity measured by gigabits. It is also important to
mention that lightpath is usually associated with a single optical channel (single
optical carrier wavelength), which means that several lightpaths can be established
in parallel between the source and destination
The lightpath length is one of the most important variables from a
transmission perspective, since most of impairments have an accumulating effect
proportional that length. The lightpath, as an optical connection between two
distinct locations, is realized by assigning a dedicated optical channel between
them. The lightpaths are propagating through an optical fiber within a single (in
single-mode optical fibers) or multiple spatial modes (in multimode optical
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