RESEARCH PAPER #1 – THEORY OF STRUCTURE

RAJSHID B. ALCALA

A21-31479

THEORY OF STRUCTURE

CHARLENE ORIAN

NOVEMBER 21, 2023

 I. THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOADS ON STRUCTURES

ACCORDING TO THE ARTICLE OF ROAR ENGINEERING (AUG 29, 2022), LOADS ARE
OFTEN DEFINED AS THE FORCES THAT CAUSE PRESSURES, DEFORMATIONS, OR
ACCELERATIONS. WHEN A LOAD IS APPLIED, THE STRUCTURE EXPERIENCES
FORCE, BENDING, AND MOVEMENT. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS IS THE STUDY OF
HOW A LOAD AFFECTS A STRUCTURE, INCLUDING ITS COMPONENTS. HERE ARE
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOADS ON STRUCTURES:

 DEAD LOADS
THE FIRST VERTICAL LOAD ASSESSED IS DEAD LOAD. DEAD LOADS ARE
PERMANENT OR IMMOVABLE LOADS THAT ARE IMPARTED TO A
STRUCTURE DURING ITS LIFE PERIOD. DEAD LOAD IS GENERALLY CAUSED
BY THE WEIGHT OF STRUCTURAL PARTS, PERMANENT PARTITION WALLS,
FIXED PERMANENT EQUIPMENT, AND THE WEIGHT OF VARIOUS
MATERIALS. IT IS MOSTLY MADE UP OF THE WEIGHT OF ROOFS, BEAMS,
WALLS, AND COLUMNS, WHICH ARE OTHERWISE PERMANENT
COMPONENTS OF THE STRUCTURE. THE DEAD LOADS OF ANY STRUCTURE
ARE DETERMINED USING THE VOLUME OF EACH SEGMENT MULTIPLIED BY
THE UNIT WEIGHT. UNIT WEIGHTS FOR SEVERAL COMMON MATERIALS
ARE SHOWN IN THE TABLE BELOW.

 LIVE LOADS
IMPOSED LOADS, ALSO KNOWN AS LIVING LOADS, ARE THE SECOND
VERTICAL LOADS ADDRESSED WHEN DESIGNING A BUILDING. LIVE LOADS
ARE EITHER MOVEABLE OR MOVING WITHOUT ACCELERATION OR IMPACT.
THESE LOADS ARE SUPPOSED TO BE CREATED BY THE BUILDING'S
INTENDED USAGE OR OCCUPANCY, SUCH AS THE WEIGHT OF MOVEABLE
WALLS OR FURNITURE. LIVE LOADS CHANGE FROM TIME TO TIME. THE
DESIGNER MUST TAKE APPROPRIATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR THESE
BURDENS. IT IS ONE OF THE KEY LOADS IN THE DESIGN. FLOOR SLABS
MUST BE CONSTRUCTED TO HANDLE EITHER UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED
LOADS OR CONCENTRATED LOADS, WHICHEVER CAUSES MORE STRESS IN
THE SECTION UNDER CONSIDERATION.
  WIND LOADS
WIND LOAD IS LARGELY A HORIZONTAL LOAD INDUCED BY THE
MOVEMENT OF AIR RELATIVE TO THE GROUND. WIND LOAD MUST BE
ADDRESSED IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN, PARTICULARLY WHEN THE
BUILDING'S HEATH EXCEEDS TWO TIMES ITS DIMENSIONS TRANSVERSE TO
THE EXPOSED WIND SURFACE. WIND LOAD IS NOT SIGNIFICANT IN LOW-
RISE BUILDINGS OF FOUR TO FIVE STORIES BECAUSE THE MOMENT OF
RESISTANCE SUPPLIED BY THE CONTINUITY OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM TO
COLUMN CONNECTION AND THE WALLS PROVIDED BETWEEN COLUMNS
ARE ADEQUATE TO HANDLE THE INFLUENCE OF THESE FORCES.

 SNOW LOAD
SNOW LOAD REFERS TO THE DOWNWARD STRAIN ON A BUILDING'S ROOF
CAUSED BY ACCUMULATED SNOW AND ICE. STATE CONSTRUCTION RULES
REQUIRE SNOW LOAD ESTIMATES BASED MOSTLY ON HISTORICAL
METEOROLOGICAL DATA, ESPECIALLY WIND SPEED/DIRECTION AND
SNOWFALL.

 ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS ARE THOSE INDUCED BY WIND, WAVES,
CURRENTS, AND OTHER EXTERNAL PRESSURES. WIND, WAVES, AND
CURRENT LOADS CAN ALSO CAUSE PLATFORM MOTIONS. THE
HYDRODYNAMIC LOADS OPERATING ON THE RISER ARE CLASSIFIED INTO
TWO TYPES: (1) DRAG, LIFT, AND INERTIA FORCES, AND (2) FLOW-INDUCED
VORTEX SHEDDING ON THE RISER.

 HYDROSTATIC LOADS
HYDROSTATIC LOADS ARE LOADS OR PRESSURES RESULTING FROM THE
STATIC MASS OF WATER AT ANY POINT OF FLOODWATER CONTACT WITH A
STRUCTURE. THEY ARE EQUAL IN ALL DIRECTIONS AND ALWAYS ACT
PERPENDICULAR TO THE SURFACE ON WHICH THEY ARE APPLIED.

II. THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM

ACCORDING TO THE ARTICLE OF JAMES CHEN (DEC. 19, 20203) EQUILIBRIUM IS A

SITUATION IN WHICH MARKET SUPPLY AND DEMAND ARE BALANCED,
RESULTING IN STEADY PRICING. IN GENERAL, AN OVERSUPPLY OF PRODUCTS OR
SERVICES LOWERS PRICES, LEADING IN INCREASED DEMAND, WHEREAS AN
UNDERSUPPLY OR SHORTAGE RAISES PRICES, RESULTING IN LOWER DEMAND.

III. THE DIFFERENT SUPPORT REACTIONS

SUPPORTS ARE STRUCTURES THAT USE BEAMS, COLUMNS, AND OTHER

COMPONENTS TO CARRY WEIGHT. IN ENGINEERING MECHANICS, SUPPORTS CAN
TAKE MANY DIFFERENT SHAPES. THESE TYPES INCLUDE BASIC SUPPORTS,
ROLLER SUPPORTS, PIN-JOINT SUPPORTS, PERMANENT SUPPORTS, AND SMOOTH
SURFACE SUPPORTS.
 SUPPORT REACTIONS CAN BE DEFINED AS FORCES ACTING ON SUPPORTS OR END
MOMENTS ACTING AS CONSTRAINTS OWING TO IMMOBILITY. SUPPORT
RESPONSES AND EXTERNAL FORCES THAT OPERATE ON STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
ARE IN EQUILIBRIUM. DISCUSS SUPPORT REACTIONS IN DEPTH, INCLUDING THEIR
CLASSIFICATIONS AND RELEVANT INSTANCES. HERE ARE THE TWO DIFFERENT
SUPPORT REACTIONS:

A. EXTERNAL SUPPORT

EXTERNAL SUPPORTS ARE TYPICALLY PROVIDED EXTERNALLY WITHOUT

INTERFERING WITH THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS. THE FOLLOWING LIST
INCLUDES VARIOUS TYPES OF EXTERNAL SUPPORTS:

1. FIXED SUPPORT
-ARE ALSO KNOWN AS RIGID SUPPORTS. FIXED SUPPORTS CAN BEAR ANY
FORCE OR MOMENT SINCE THEY ARE RESTRICTED FROM ROTATION AND
TRANSLATION. IN THE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS, THREE UNKNOWNS MUST
BE IDENTIFIED FOR FIXED SUPPORT THAT CAN SATISFY ALL THREE
EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS. TO PROVIDE MAXIMUM STABILITY, THE
BUILDING SHOULD INCLUDE AT LEAST ONE FIRM SUPPORT. A BEAM
ATTACHED TO A WALL IS AN EXAMPLE OF FIXED SUPPORT. THE NUMBER
OF REACTION COMPONENTS AT FIXED SUPPORT IS SIX.

2. PINNED SUPPORT REACTION

-PINNED OR HINGED SUPPORTS CAN SUSTAIN VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL
LOADS, BUT NOT MOMENTS. IT SIGNIFIES THAT THE HINGED SUPPORT
CANNOT TRANSLATE. EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS ALLOW YOU TO IDENTIFY
THE CONSTITUENTS OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL FORCES. THE BEST
EXAMPLE OF HINGED SUPPORT IS A DOOR LEAF, WHICH MOVES
VERTICALLY BUT NEITHER HORIZONTALLY OR VERTICALLY. A PINNED OR
HINGED SUPPORT MAY ROTATE IN JUST ONE WAY; ALL OTHER ROTATION
DIRECTIONS ARE OPPOSED.

3. ROLLER SUPPORT REACTION

-ROLLER SUPPORTS CAN ONLY SUSTAIN PERPENDICULAR FORCES, NOT
PARALLEL OR HORIZONTAL FORCES. IT INDICATES THAT THE ROLLER
SUPPORT WILL MOVE FREELY OVER THE SURFACE AND NOT BUCKLE
UNDER HORIZONTAL PRESSURE. THIS SUPPORT IS PROVIDED AT THE FAR
END OF A BRIDGE SPAN. ROLLER SUPPORT IS GIVEN AT ONE END,
ALLOWING THE BRIDGE DECK TO CONTRACT OR EXPAND IN REACTION TO
CHANGES IN AMBIENT TEMPERATURE.

4. ROCKER SUPPORT AND SUPPORT REACTION

-ROCKER SUPPORT WORKS SIMILARLY TO ROLLER SUPPORT. IT ALSO
DEFIES VERTICAL PRESSURE AND ALLOWS FOR HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT
AND ROTATION. HOWEVER, THE BOTTOM-PROVIDED CURVED SURFACE
 GENERATES HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT IN THIS CASE. THE AMOUNT OF
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT IS THUS LIMITED IN THIS SCENARIO.

5. LINK SUPPORT AND SUPPORT REACTION

-THE CONNECTION AS A SUPPORT CAN ONLY BE ROTATED AND
TRANSLATED PERPENDICULAR TO ITS DIRECTION. TRANSLATION IN THE
DIRECTION OF THE LINK IS PROHIBITED. IT CONTAINS A SINGLE LINEAR
RESULTANT FORCE COMPONENT THAT MAY BE DIVIDED INTO VERTICAL
AND HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS BASED ON THE DIRECTION OF THE
CONNECTION.

6. SIMPLE SUPPORTS IN A STRUCTURE AND THEIR REACTIONS

-SIMPLE SUPPORT IS JUST THE SUPPORT OF A STRUCTURAL COMPONENT.
THEY, LIKE ROLLER SUPPORTS, CANNOT WITHSTAND LATERAL MOVEMENT
OR MOMENT. THEY CAN ONLY ENDURE VERTICAL SUPPORT MOVEMENT
AIDED BY GRAVITY. HORIZONTAL OR LATERAL MOVEMENT IS PERMITTED
UP TO A LIMIT, AFTER WHICH THE STRUCTURE LOSES STABILITY. IT
RESEMBLES TWO BRICKS STACKED LENGTHWISE. SIMPLE SUPPORT
CONSISTS OF THREE RESPONSE COMPONENTS.

B. INTERNAL SUPPORT AND SUPPORT REACTION

INTERNAL SUPPORTS ARE PROVIDED WITHIN THE STRUCTURAL PART, SPLITTING

IT INTO INDIVIDUAL PORTIONS. AS A RESULT, IT IS FEASIBLE TO DETERMINE THE
EXTERNAL REACTIONS FOR EACH COMPONENT, MAKING ANALYSIS
CONSIDERABLY EASIER. A STRUCTURE'S INTERNAL SUPPORTS INCLUDE THE
FOLLOWING:

1. INTERNAL HINGE SUPPORT IN A STRUCTURE

-INTERNAL HINGES, LIKE HINGE SUPPORTS, OPPOSE TRANSLATION IN
BOTH DIRECTIONS WHILE ONLY ALLOWING ROTATION. IN
CONSTRUCTION, INTERNAL HINGES ARE USED FOR AXIAL MEMBERS AND
INTERMEDIATE HINGES FOR BEAM MEMBERS. THEY ARE TYPICALLY
FOUND IN THE CENTER OF ARCHED BRIDGES. THERE ARE 6 SEPARATE
RESPONSE COMPONENTS FOR HINGED SUPPORT. HINGED SUPPORT IN THE
BEAM CAN RESPOND TO BOTH VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL DIRECTIONS.

2. INTERNAL ROLLER SUPPORT IN A STRUCTURE

-INTERNAL ROLLER SUPPORTS, LIKE EXTERIOR ROLLER SUPPORTS, ARE IN
THE MIDDLE OF A STRUCTURAL PART. A STRUCTURE'S INTERNAL ROLLER
SUPPORT CARRIES HEAVY GOODS OR MEMBERS FROM ONE POINT TO
ANOTHER BY MOVING THE SUPPORT HORIZONTALLY; THESE TYPES OF
INTERNAL ROLLER SUPPORT ARE USED IN TOWER CRANES AND HARBOR
CRANES.
 S. TYPES OF
SUPPORT REACTION RESISTING LOAD
NO. SUPPORT

ROLLER
1 VERTICAL VERTICAL LOADS
SUPPORT

PINNED HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

2 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
SUPPORT LOADS

ALL TYPES OF LOADS ARE

HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL, AND
3 FIXED SUPPORT HORIZONTAL,
MOMENTS
VERTICAL, AND MOMENTS

SIMPLE
4 VERTICAL VERTICAL LOAD
SUPPORT
REFERENCE:

CHEN, J. (2023, DECEMBER 19). EQUILIBRIUM PRICE: DEFINITION, TYPES, EXAMPLE, AND
HOW TO CALCULATE. INVESTOPEDIA.
HTTPS://WWW.INVESTOPEDIA.COM/TERMS/E/EQUILIBRIUM.ASP#:~:TEXT=EQUILIBRIUM
%20IS%20THE%20STATE%20IN,UP%20RESULTING%20IN%20LESS%20DEMAND.
PREP, B. E. (2023, SEPTEMBER 25). SUPPORT REACTIONS: TYPES, SIGNIFICANCE [GATE
NOTES]. BYJU’S EXAM PREP. HTTPS://BYJUSEXAMPREP.COM/GATE-ME/SUPPORT-
REACTION#TOC-2
RAHMAN, F. U. (2021, JUNE 10). TYPES OF LOADS ON STRUCTURES – BUILDINGS AND
OTHER STRUCTURES. THE CONSTRUCTOR.
HTTPS://THECONSTRUCTOR.ORG/STRUCTURAL-ENGG/TYPES-OF-LOADS-ON-
STRUCTURE/1698/#GOOGLE_VIGNETTE