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Barry Gerhart is Professor of Management and
Human Resources and the Bruce R. Ellig Distinguished
Chair in Pay and Organizational Effectiveness, School
of Business, University of Wisconsin–­Madison. He
has also served as department chair or area coordina-
tor at Cornell, Vanderbilt, and Wisconsin. His research
interests include compensation, human resource strat-
egy, international human resources, and employee
retention. Professor Gerhart received his BS in psy-
chology from Bowling Green State University and
his PhD in industrial relations from the University of
Wisconsin–Madison. His research has been published
in a variety of outlets, including the Academy of Man-
agement Annals, Academy of Management Journal,
Annual Review of Psychology, International Journal
of Human Resource Management, Journal of Applied
Psychology, Management and Organization Review,
and Personnel Psychology. He has co-authored two
books in the area of compensation. He serves on the
editorial boards of journals such as the Academy of
Management Journal, Industrial and Labor Relations
Review, International Journal of Human Resource
Management, Journal of Applied Psychology, Jour-
nal of World Business, Management & Organization
Review, and Personnel Psychology. Professor Gerhart
is a past recipient of the Heneman Career Achieve-
ment Award, the Scholarly Achievement Award, and
(twice) the International Human Resource Manage-
ment Scholarly Research Award, all from the Human
Resources Division, Academy of Management. He is
a Fellow of the Academy of Management, the Ameri-
can Psychological Association, and the Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
About the Authors vii
Patrick M. Wright is the Thomas C. Vandiver
Bicentennial Chair and the Director of the Center for
Executive Succession in the Darla Moore School of
Business at the University of South Carolina. Prior to
joining USC, he served on the faculties at Cornell Uni-
versity, Texas A&M University, and the University of
Notre Dame.
Professor Wright teaches, conducts research, and
consults in the area of Strategic Human Resource Man-
agement (SHRM), particularly focusing on how firms
use people as a source of competitive advantage and
the changing nature of the Chief HR Officer role. He
is the faculty leader for the Cornell ILR Executive
Education/NAHR program, “The Chief HR Officer:
Strategies for Success,” aimed at developing potential
successors to the CHRO role. He served as the lead
editor on the recently released book, The Chief HR
Officer: Defining the New Role of Human Resource
Leaders, published by John Wiley and Sons.
He has published more than 60 research articles in
journals as well as more than 20 chapters in books and
edited volumes. He is the Editor at the Journal of Man-
agement. He has coedited a special issue of Research
in Personnel and Human Resources Management titled
“Strategic Human Resource Management in the 21st
Century” and guest edited a special issue of Human
Resource Management Review titled “Research in Stra-
tegic HRM for the 21st Century.”
He currently serves as a member on the Board
of Directors for the National Academy of Human
Resources (NAHR). He is a former board member of
HRPS, SHRM Foundation, and World at Work (for-
merly American Compensation Association). From
2011 to 2015 he was named by HRM Magazine as one
of the 20 “Most Influential Thought Leaders in HR.”
 Preface

Managing human resources is a critical component of any company’s overall mission to

provide value to customers, shareholders, employees, and the community in which it does
business. Value includes profits as well as employee growth and satisfaction, creation of
new jobs, contributions to community programs, and protection of the environment.

Our Approach: Engage, Focus, and Apply

Following graduation, most students will find themselves working in businesses or not-
for-profit organizations. Regardless of position or career aspirations, their role in directly
managing other employees or understanding human resource management practices is crit-
ical for ensuring both company and personal success. Therefore, Fundamentals of Human
Resource Management, Seventh Edition, focuses on human resource issues and how HR
is used at work. Fundamentals is applicable to both HR majors and students from other
majors or colleges who are taking an HR course as an elective or a requirement.
Our approach to teaching human resource management involves engaging students
in learning through the use of real-world examples and best practices; focusing them on
important HR issues and concepts; and applying what they have learned through chapter
features and end-of-chapter exercises and cases. Students not only learn about best prac-
tices but are actively engaged through the use of cases and decision making. As a result,
students will be able to take what they have learned in the course and apply it to solving
HRM problems they will encounter on the job.
Each chapter includes several different pedagogical features. “Best Practices” provides
examples of companies whose HR activities work well. “HR Oops!” highlights HRM
issues that have been handled poorly. “Did You Know?” offers interesting statistics about
chapter topics and how they play out in real-world companies. “HRM Social” demon-
strates how social media and the Internet can be useful in managing HR activities in any
organization. “Thinking Ethically” confronts students with issues that occur in managing
human resources. Each feature includes questions to assist students with critical thinking
and to spark classroom discussions.
Fundamentals also assists students with learning “How To” perform HR activities, such
as writing effective HR policies, being strategic about equal employment opportunities,
and making the most of HR analytics. These are all work situations students are likely to
encounter as part of their professional careers. The end-of-chapter cases focus on corporate
sustainability (“Taking Responsibility”), managing the workforce (“Managing Talent”),
and HR activities in small organizations (“HR in Small Business”).

Organization of the Seventh Edition

Part 1 (Chapters 1–4) discusses the environmental forces that companies face in trying to
manage human resources effectively. These forces include economic, technological, and
social trends; employment laws; and work design. Employers typically have more control
viii
 Preface ix

over work design than over trends and equal employment laws, but all of these factors
influence how companies attract, retain, and motivate human resources. Chapter 1 dis-
cusses why HRM is a critical component to an organization’s overall success. The chapter
introduces HRM practices and the roles and responsibilities of HR professionals and other
managers in managing human resources.
Some of the major trends discussed in Chapter 2 include how the continuing economic
recovery has motivated employees to look for new jobs and career opportunities and
has spawned a gig economy, which is project based rather than job based. The chapter
also highlights the greater availability of new and less expensive technologies for HRM,
including social media and the Internet; the growth of HRM on a global scale as more
U.S. companies expand beyond national borders; the types of skills needed for today’s
jobs; and the importance of aligning HRM with a company’s overall strategy to gain and
maintain competitive advantage. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the major laws affect-
ing employees and the ways organizations can develop HR practices that comply with the
laws. Chapter 4 highlights how jobs and work systems determine the knowledge, skills,
and abilities that employees need to perform their jobs and influence employees’ motiva-
tion, satisfaction, and safety at work. The chapter also discusses the process of analyzing
and designing jobs.
Part 2 (Chapters 5–8) deals with acquiring, training, and developing human resources.
Chapter 5 discusses how to develop a human resources plan. It emphasizes the strengths
and weaknesses of different options for dealing with shortages and excesses of human
resources, including outsourcing, use of contract workers, and downsizing. Strategies
for recruiting talented employees are highlighted, including use of electronic recruiting
sources such as social media and online job sites.
Chapter 6 emphasizes that employee selection is a process that starts with screening
applications and resumes and concludes with a job offer. The chapter takes a look at the
most widely used methods for minimizing mistakes in choosing employees, including
employment tests and candidate interviews. Selection method standards, such as reliabil-
ity and validity, are discussed in understandable terms. Chapter 7 covers the features of
effective training systems. Effective training includes not only creating a good learning
environment but also hiring managers who encourage employees to use training content in
their jobs and hiring employees who are motivated and ready to learn. Concluding Part 2,
Chapter 8 demonstrates how assessment, job experiences, formal courses, and mentoring
relationships can be used to develop employees for future success.
Part 3 (Chapters 9–11) focuses on assessing and improving performance. Chapter 9
sets the tone for this section of the book by discussing the important role of HRM in
creating and maintaining an organization that achieves a high level of performance for
employees, managers, customers, shareholders, and the community. The chapter describes
high-­performance work systems and the conditions that contribute to high performance.
Chapter 10 examines the strengths and weaknesses of different performance management
systems. Chapter 11 discusses how to maximize employee engagement and productivity
and retain valuable employees as well as how to fairly and humanely separate employees
when the need arises because of poor performance or economic conditions.
Part 4 (Chapters 12–14) covers rewarding and compensating human resources, including
how to design pay structures, recognize good performers, and provide benefits. Chapter 12
discusses how managers weigh the importance and costs of pay to develop a compensation
structure and levels of pay for each job given the worth of the jobs, legal requirements, and
employee judgments about the fairness of pay levels. Chapter 13 covers the advantages
and disadvantages of different types of incentive pay, including merit pay, gainsharing,
and stock ownership. Chapter 14 highlights the contents of employee benefits packages,
x Preface

the ways organizations administer benefits, and what companies can do to help employees
understand the value of benefits and control benefits costs.
Part 5 (Chapters 15–16) covers other HR topics including collective bargaining and labor
relations and managing human resources on a global basis. Chapter 15 explores HR activi-
ties as they pertain to employees who belong to unions or who are seeking to join unions.
Traditional issues in labor–management relations such as union membership and contract
negotiations are discussed. The chapter also highlights new approaches to labor relations, the
growing role of employee empowerment, and the shrinking size of union membership.
Concluding Part 5, Chapter 16 focuses on HR activities in international settings, includ-
ing planning, selecting, training, and compensating employees who work overseas. The
chapter also explores how cultural differences among countries and workers affect deci-
sions about human resources.

Content Changes in the New Edition

In addition to new or revised chapter pedagogy, the Seventh Edition of Fundamentals con-
tains the following content changes to help students and instructors keep current on impor-
tant HR trends and topics:
∙ Chapter 1 includes an expanded discussion of skills required for HRM professionals as
defined by the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM)—a set of knowledge
and skills grouped into four clusters of competencies, as illustrated by revised Figure 1.3.
Table 1.2 has been updated to list the top qualities employers look for in potential
employees. Figure 1.6 has been revised to reflect current median salaries for HRM
positions.
∙ Chapter 2 provides updated workforce statistics, including projections for number of
workers over the next several years, as well as a discussion on various age and ethnic
groups within the workforce. Chapter figures have been revised to reflect current labor
force data. Other trends discussed include which occupations are expected to gain the
most jobs in the coming decade; the significant slowdown in job cuts since the great
recession; and the shift to outsourcing HR tasks that automate processes and support
decision making, such as recruitment and benefits administration. New discussions on
reshoring and the gig economy have also been added to the chapter.
∙ Chapter 3 has been updated to include discussions on the continuing efforts to hire
unemployed military veterans back into the workforce and recent EEOC lawsuits
brought against companies for harassment based on sexual orientation. Chapter figures
have been updated to reflect current statistics on age discrimination, disability com-
plaints filed under ADA, types of charges filed with the EEOC, and rates of occupa-
tional injuries and illnesses. A discussion has been included about the use of wearable
technology that gathers and communicates data related to employee safety.
∙ Chapter 4 includes a new discussion on hiring based on competencies associated with
job success and strategies for job enlargement in the hospital industry, which continues
to face greater accountability for patient satisfaction and quality care.
∙ Chapter 5’s coverage of downsizing, reducing hours, and outsourcing includes new
company examples that help students understand how real-world companies deal with
the ups and downs of everyday business and decisions relating to human resources.
A new discussion has been added about the importance of HR professionals develop-
ing competency in applying data and analytic techniques as part of labor forecasting
activities.
 Preface xi

∙ Chapter 6 includes an expanded discussion about the competitive advantage of using a

well-designed applicant tracking system in the employee selection process.
∙ The training chapter (Chapter 7) provides an expanded discussion about orientation and
onboarding, which underscores the importance of preparing new employees for full par-
ticipation in the organization. New Figure 7.4 provides an overview of a comprehensive
onboarding process.
∙ Chapter 8 focuses on development and includes an updated section on the use of assess-
ment tools, as well as new examples about how some companies are trying to eliminate
the glass ceiling for women and minorities in their organizations.
∙ Chapter 9 provides an updated discussion of how HRM practices can contribute to high
performance of any organization, including job design, recruitment and selection, train-
ing, performance management, compensation, and data analytics.
∙ Chapter 10 includes new examples of how some companies are changing their approach
to annual performance reviews in an effort to give both employees and supervisors
ongoing feedback in a less formal, more timely manner.
∙ Chapter 11 provides new examples about companies turning to data analytics to
determine which employees are likely to stay and which ones are likely to seek jobs
elsewhere.
∙ Chapter 12’s discussion about earnings data for women, men, and minorities has been
updated, as well as the discussion about HRM salaries in various parts of the country.
The chapter also contains current statistics about CEO pay and compensation.
∙ Chapter 13 focuses on recognizing employee contributions with pay, including new
real-world examples about how businesses are rethinking their approach to bonuses,
tying them to company performance, and the increased use of retention bonuses for
executives and other key employees as part of company mergers and acquisitions.
∙ Chapter 14 includes updated data on employee benefits as a percentage of total com-
pensation, Social Security information, and taxes paid by employers and employees.
New examples describe how some companies are providing employees with assistance
in paying off student loans as part of their benefits strategy.
∙ Chapter 15 has been updated with current trends and statistics in union membership.
Content on work stoppages and lockouts has been revised. New sections focus on
increased cooperation between unions and management and highlight several nonunion
representation systems currently being used by companies across the country.
∙ Concluding the Seventh Edition, Chapter 16 highlights trends in managing human
resources globally, including the issue of labor relations in various countries, which
may impact a company’s ability to be successful on foreign soil. A new discussion has
been added about the possible impact of “Brexit” on Britain’s HR practices, now that
the country is leaving the European Union.
The author team believes that the focused, engaging, and applied approach of Funda-
mentals distinguishes it from other books that have similar coverage of HR topics. The
book has timely coverage of important HR issues, is easy to read, has many features that
grab the students’ attention, and gets students actively involved in learning.
We would like to thank those of you who have adopted previous editions of Fundamen-
tals, and we hope that you will continue to use upcoming editions. For those of you consid-
ering Fundamentals for adoption, we believe that our approach makes Fundamentals your
text of choice for human resource management.
xii Preface

Acknowledgments
The Seventh Edition of Fundamentals of Human Resource Management would not have
been possible without the staff of McGraw-Hill Education. Anke Weekes deserves kudos
for ensuring that we continue to improve the book based on the ideas of both adopters and
students. John Weimeister, our former editor, helped us develop the vision for the book and
gave us the resources we needed to develop a top-of-the-line HRM teaching package. We
would also like to thank Cate Rzasa who worked diligently to make sure that the book was
interesting, practical, and readable and remained true to the findings of human resource
management research. We also thank Michelle Houston for her efforts on behalf of this
new edition.
We would like to extend our sincere appreciation to all of the reviewers whose thought-
ful input helped make this text one of the market’s leading textbooks.

Michelle Alarcon, Esq. Lorrie Ferraro

Hawai‘i Pacific University Northeastern University
Glenda Barrett Carla Flores
University of Maryland, University College Ball State University
Dr. Minnette A. Bumpus Lisa Foeman
University of the District of Columbia University of Maryland, University
Marian Canada College
Ivy Tech Community College Linette P. Fox
Brennan Carr Johnson C. Smith University
Long Beach City College/El Camino Deborah Good
College University of Pittsburgh
Tom Comstock Jonathon Halbesleben
Gannon University University of Alabama, Birmingham
Susie S. Cox
Britt Hastey
McNeese State University
UCLA, Chapman University, and Los
Juan J. DelaCruz Angeles City College
Lehman College—CUNY
Kim Hester
AnnMarie DiSienna Arkansas State University
Dominican College
Tanya Hubanks
Jeanie Douglas Chippewa Valley Technical College
Columbia College
Samira B. Hussein
Joseph Eppolito Johnson County Community College
Syracuse University
Joseph V. Ippolito
Betty Fair Brevard College
Georgia College and State University
Adonis “Sporty” Jeralds
Amy Falink The University of South
University of Minnesota Carolina–Columbia
 Preface xiii

Roy Johnson James Phillips

Iowa State University Northeastern State University
Guy Lochiatto David Ripley
Mass Bay Community College University of Maryland, University College
Chris McChesney Rudy Soliz
Indian River State College Houston Community College
Garry McDaniel
Gary Stroud
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Franklin University
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University of Maryland, University Gary Thurgood
College Texas A&M University, College Station

Barbara Minsky Richard J. Wagner

Troy State University, Dothan University of Wisconsin–Whitewater

Kelly Mollica Sheng Wang

The University of Memphis
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Utah Valley University
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Morehead State University
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
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University of Maryland, University College
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Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
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University of South Carolina, Columbia

Special thanks goes to John D. Varlaro of Johnson & Wales University for writing the
newly custom-designed Instructor’s Manual.

Raymond A. Noe
John R. Hollenbeck
Barry Gerhart
Patrick M. Wright
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Brief Contents

Preface viii 10. Managing Employees’

Performance 289
PART 1
11. Separating and Retaining
The Human Resource Environment 1 Employees 322
1. Managing Human Resources 2 PART 4
2. Trends in Human Resource
Management 28 Compensating Human
Resources 353
3. Providing Equal Employment Opportunity
and a Safe Workplace 59 12. Establishing a Pay Structure 354
4. Analyzing Work and Designing Jobs 97 13. Recognizing Employee Contributions
with Pay 382
PART 2 14. Providing Employee Benefits 409
Acquiring, Training, and Developing PART 5
Human Resources 127
5. Planning for and Recruiting Human Meeting Other HR Goals 445
Resources 128 15. Collective Bargaining and Labor
6. Selecting Employees and Placing Relations 446
Them in Jobs 162 16. Managing Human Resources
7. Training Employees 193 Globally 479

8. Developing Employees for Future Glossary 513

Success 228
Name and Company Index 523
PART 3 Subject Index 537

Assessing and Improving

Performance 261
9. Creating and Maintaining High-
Performance Organizations 262

xvi
Contents

Preface viii HRM SOCIAL

SHRM’s Presence on Social Media 21
PART 1 Organization of This Book 21
The Human Resource Environment 1 THINKING ETHICALLY
1 Managing Human Resources 2 How Should an Employer Weigh Conflicting Values? 23

Introduction 2 Summary 23
Human Resources and Company Performance 3 Key Terms 24
Responsibilities of Human Resource Departments 5 Review and Discussion Questions 24
Analyzing and Designing Jobs 7 Taking Responsibility: How “Good Things Happen
Recruiting and Hiring Employees 7 to Costco” 25
Training and Developing Employees 8 Managing Talent: Ingersoll Rand’s Problem-Solving
Managing Performance 8 Approach to HRM 25
HR in Small Business: Network Is the Key to HRM
BEST PRACTICES
at 1Collision 26
How Abbott Laboratories Creates a Healthy Business 9
Notes 27
Planning and Administering Pay and Benefits 9
Maintaining Positive Employee Relations 10 2 Trends in Human Resource
Establishing and Administering Personnel Management 28
Policies 10 Introduction 28
HR HOW TO Change in the Labor Force 29
Making Analytics Useful and Relevant 11
An Aging Workforce 29
A Diverse Workforce 31
Managing and Using Human Resource Data 11 Skill Deficiencies of the Workforce 33
Ensuring Compliance with Labor Laws 12
Supporting the Organization’s Strategy 12 High-Performance Work Systems 33
Knowledge Workers 34
Skills of HRM Professionals 13 Employee Empowerment 35
HR OOPS! HRM SOCIAL
HR Isn’t Just Paperwork 15 Glassdoor Opens the Way to Better Communication 36
HR Responsibilities of Supervisors 16 Teamwork 37
Ethics in Human Resource Management 16 Focus on Strategy 38
DID YOU KNOW? Mergers and Acquisitions 38
Employees Care about Employers’ Reputations 17 HR OOPS!
Employee Rights 17 Out-of-Focus HRM 39
Standards for Ethical Behavior 18 High-Quality Standards 40
Careers in Human Resource Management 19 Cost Control 40

xvii
xviii Contents
BEST PRACTICES
Outsourcing Sweetens Bottom Line for Land
O’Lakes 43
Expanding into Global Markets 43
Technological Change in HRM 45
Electronic Human Resource Management
(e-HRM) 46
Sharing of Human Resource Information 47
HR HOW TO
HR Services Go Mobile 48
Change in the Employment Relationship 49
A Psychological Contract 49
DID YOU KNOW?
Half of U.S. Employees Interested
in Changing Jobs 50
Declining Union Membership 50
Flexibility 50
THINKING ETHICALLY
How Should Employers Protect Their Data on
Employees’ Devices? 52
Summary 53
Key Terms 54
Review and Discussion Questions 54
Taking Responsibility: Paychex Keeps People by
Helping Them Retire 55
Managing Talent: Netflix Treats Workers “Like
Adults” 55
HR in Small Business: New Belgium Brews
Success through Employee Ownership 56
Notes 57
3 Providing Equal Employment Opportunity
and a Safe Workplace 59
Introduction 59
Regulation of Human Resource
Management 60
Equal Employment Opportunity 61
Constitutional Amendments 61
Legislation 63
Executive Orders 69
The Government’s Role in Providing for Equal
Employment Opportunity 70
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(EEOC) 70
Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs
(OFCCP) 71
Businesses’ Role in Providing for Equal
Employment Opportunity 72
Avoiding Discrimination 72
HRM SOCIAL
Using Social Media in Hiring Poses Discrimination
Risk 74
Providing Reasonable Accommodation 76
HR OOPS!
Disability Inclusion Still Falling Short of Ideals 78
Preventing Sexual Harassment 78
Valuing Diversity 79
HR HOW TO
Establishing Practices for Valuing Diversity 80
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) 81
General and Specific Duties 81
Enforcement of the OSH Act 82
Employee Rights and Responsibilities 84
Impact of the OSH Act 85
Employer-Sponsored Safety and Health
Programs 86
Identifying and Communicating
Job Hazards 86
BEST PRACTICES
Construction Industry Tries to Prevent Falls 87
Reinforcing Safe Practices 88
Promoting Safety Internationally 88
DID YOU KNOW?
Top 10 Causes of Workplace Injuries 89
THINKING ETHICALLY
Is It Ethical to Discriminate Against the
Unemployed? 90
Summary 91
Key Terms 92
Review and Discussion Questions 92
Taking Responsibility: Keeping Sprint’s
Subcontractors Safe 93
Managing Talent: Walmart’s Struggle to Manage
Diversity and Safety on a Grand Scale 94
HR in Small Business: Airbnb Tackles the
High-Tech Diversity Challenge 95
Notes 95
 Contents xix

4 Analyzing Work and Designing Jobs 97 HR in Small Business: Blink UX Takes a Hard Look
Introduction 97 at Work Design 124
Work Flow in Organizations 98 Notes 124
Work Flow Analysis 98
Work Flow Design and an Organization’s PART 2
Structure 99
Acquiring, Training, and Developing
HR OOPS!
Human Resources 127
Workers Often Lack Resources to Do Their Jobs 100
Job Analysis 100 5 Planning for and Recruiting Human
Job Descriptions 101 Resources 128
Job Specifications 101 Introduction 128
Sources of Job Information 103 The Process of Human Resource Planning 129
Position Analysis Questionnaire 104 Forecasting 129
Fleishman Job Analysis System 105 Goal Setting and Strategic Planning 132
Analyzing Teamwork 105
Importance of Job Analysis 106 HR OOPS!
Lean and Mean Continues to Hurt Walmart 135
HRM SOCIAL
With Effective Analysis, Work Isn’t Just a Game 107 HR HOW TO
Using Temporary Employees and Contractors 138
Competency Models 107
Trends in Job Analysis 109 Implementing and Evaluating the HR Plan 139
Applying HR Planning to Affirmative Action 140
Job Design 109
Designing Efficient Jobs 109 BEST PRACTICES
Designing Jobs That Motivate 110 Year Up’s Fix for the Talent Gap 141
BEST PRACTICES Recruiting Human Resources 141
Analytics Drive Success at UPS 111 Personnel Policies 142
HR HOW TO DID YOU KNOW?
Planning for Workplace Flexibility 115 Leaders Favor Internal Opportunities 143
Designing Ergonomic Jobs 116 Recruitment Sources 144
DID YOU KNOW? Internal Sources 144
External Sources 145
Health Care Workers Need Ergonomic
Job Design 117 HRM SOCIAL
Designing Jobs That Meet Mental Capabilities Effective Talent Searches via Social Networks 148
and Limitations 118 Evaluating the Quality of a Source 151
THINKING ETHICALLY Recruiter Traits and Behaviors 152
How Can You Ethically Design a Characteristics of the Recruiter 152
Dangerous Job? 119 Behavior of the Recruiter 153
Summary 120 Enhancing the Recruiter’s Impact 153
Key Terms 121 THINKING ETHICALLY
Review and Discussion Questions 122 Is Something Wrong with a Mutual Agreement Not
to “Steal” Employees? 155
Taking Responsibility: How Google Searches for
the Right Job Requirements 122 Summary 155
Managing Talent: Uber’s Flexible Jobs Drive Rapid Key Terms 156
Expansion 123 Review and Discussion Questions 157
xx Contents

Taking Responsibility: SAP Embraces Workers How Organizations Select Employees 183
with Autism 157 Communicating the Decision 184
Managing Talent: Boeing’s High-Flying Approach HR OOPS!
to HR Planning and Recruitment 158 Red Flags during Job Interviews 185
HR in Small Business: GenMet’s Design for
Constructing a 21st-Century Workforce 159 THINKING ETHICALLY
What Is an Employer’s Ethical Duty to Check Facts? 186
Notes 159
Summary 186
6 Selecting Employees and Placing
Key Terms 188
Them in Jobs 162
Review and Discussion Questions 188
Introduction 162
Taking Responsibility: How Gild Creates Golden
Selection Process 163
Opportunities for Underappreciated Workers 189
Reliability 164
Validity 165 Managing Talent: How Marriott Hires People Who
Ability to Generalize 167 Put People First 189
Practical Value 167 HR in Small Business: Strategic Hiring at Skookum
Digital Works 190
DID YOU KNOW?
Notes 191
Hiring Decisions Affect the Bottom Line 168
Legal Standards for Selection 168 7 Training Employees 193
Job Applications and Résumés 170 Introduction 193
HR HOW TO Training Linked to Organizational Needs 194
Using Data Analytics to Support Fair Hiring BEST PRACTICES
Decisions 171
A Strategic Approach to Learning at ConAgra
Application Forms 171 Foods 195
Résumés 173 Needs Assessment 196
References 173 Organization Analysis 196
Background Checks 174 Person Analysis 197
HRM SOCIAL Task Analysis 198
Conducting Background Checks via Readiness for Training 198
Social Media 175 Employee Readiness Characteristics 199
Employment Tests and Work Samples 176 Work Environment 199
Physical Ability Tests 176 Planning the Training Program 200
Cognitive Ability Tests 176 Objectives of the Program 200
BEST PRACTICES In-House or Contracted Out? 200
St. Joseph Health Matches Physical Abilities to Job DID YOU KNOW?
Requirements 177 Training Tasks Outsourced by Many Companies 201
Job Performance Tests and Work Samples 178 Choice of Training Methods 202
Personality Inventories 178
Honesty Tests and Drug Tests 180 Training Methods 202
Classroom Instruction 202
Medical Examinations 181
Audiovisual Training 203
Interviews 181 Computer-Based Training 204
Interviewing Techniques 181
Advantages and Disadvantages of HR HOW TO
Interviewing 182 Using Wearable Technology to Support Training 205
Preparing to Interview 183 On-the-Job Training 206
Selection Decisions 183 Simulations 207
 Contents xxi

Business Games and Case Studies 208 Job Experiences 237

Behavior Modeling 208 Interpersonal Relationships 240
Experiential Programs 209
HRM SOCIAL
Team Training 210
Action Learning 210 Using Social Media for Career Development 241

Implementing the Training Program 211 HR HOW TO

Principles of Learning 211 Coaching Employees 243
Transfer of Training 213
Systems for Career Management 243
HRM SOCIAL Data Gathering 244
Pinterest Provides Social Learning with Visual Impact 214
HR OOPS!
Measuring the Results of Training 214 Seeing No Route Up, Employees
Evaluation Methods 215 Head Out 245
Applying the Evaluation 216 Feedback 245
Applications of Training 216 Goal Setting 247
Orientation and Onboarding of New Action Planning and Follow-Up 247
Employees 216 Development-Related Challenges 248
HR OOPS! The Glass Ceiling 248
Measurement of Training Effectiveness Earns DID YOU KNOW?
a Bad Grade 217
A Ceiling above the Glass Ceiling 249
Diversity Training 218
Succession Planning 250
THINKING ETHICALLY Dysfunctional Managers 251
Internships: Opportunity or Exploitation? 220
THINKING ETHICALLY
Summary 220
Should Companies Tell Employees They Have “High
Key Terms 222 Potential”? 252
Review and Discussion Questions 222 Summary 253
Taking Responsibility: Goodyear’s Training Helps Key Terms 254
Keep Workers Safe 223 Review and Discussion Questions 254
Managing Talent: Huntington Ingalls Builds a Taking Responsibility: Taking Care of Employees
Workforce to Do “Hard Stuff” 224 Helps the Patent Office Serve the Public 255
HR in Small Business: Zeigler Auto Group Drives Managing Talent: P&G Stumbles at Succession
Growth by Training Its People 224 Management 256
Notes 225 HR in Small Business: How Service Express Serves
8 Developing Employees for Future Employees First 257
Success 228 Notes 257
Introduction 228
Training, Development, and Career PART 3
Management 229
Development and Training 229 Assessing and Improving
Development for Careers 230 Performance 261
BEST PRACTICES 9 Creating and Maintaining High-
How KPMG Develops for the Future 231 Performance Organizations 262
Approaches to Employee Development 231 Introduction 262
Formal Education 231 High-Performance Work Systems 263
Assessment 232 Elements of a High-Performance Work System 264
xxii Contents

HR HOW TO HR in Small Business: Tasty Catering Serves Up

Reward High Performance 265 Employee-Friendly Culture 286
Outcomes of a High-Performance Work Notes 287
System 265 10 Managing Employees’ Performance 289
Conditions That Contribute to High Introduction 289
Performance 267
The Process of Performance Management 290
Teamwork and Empowerment 267
Knowledge Sharing 268 Purposes of Performance Management 291
Criteria for Effective Performance
HRM SOCIAL
Management 292
Social-Media Tools Can Support Knowledge
Sharing 269 HR OOPS!
Job Satisfaction and Employee Unclear Expectations 294
Engagement 270 Methods for Measuring Performance 294
Ethics 270 Making Comparisons 294
Rating Individuals 296
DID YOU KNOW?
Only One-Third of U.S. Workers Describe Themselves DID YOU KNOW?
as Engaged 271 Top Metrics in Performance Appraisals 297
HRM’s Contribution to High Performance 272 Measuring Results 301
HRM Practices 272 Total Quality Management 302
HR OOPS! Sources of Performance Information 303
Few Companies Are Prepared for Future Talent Managers 304
Needs 273 Peers 304
HRM Technology 275 Subordinates 305
HRM Applications 275 Self 305
Human Resource Information Systems 276 Customers 305
Human Resource Management Online: HRM SOCIAL
E-HRM 277 Crowdsourcing Performance Reviews 306
Effectiveness of Human Resource Errors in Performance Measurement 307
Management 279 Types of Rating Errors 307
Human Resource Management Audits 279 Ways to Reduce Errors 307
Analyzing the Effect of HRM Programs 280 Political Behavior in Performance
BEST PRACTICES Appraisals 308
Analytics Delivers Engagement to Echo Global Giving Performance Feedback 308
Logistics 281
BEST PRACTICES
THINKING ETHICALLY Medtronic Accelerates Performance
How Can—and Should—Organizations Measure Management 309
Ethics Performance? 282 Scheduling Performance Feedback 309
Summary 283 Preparing for a Feedback Session 310
Key Terms 284 Conducting the Feedback Session 310
Review and Discussion Questions 284 HR HOW TO
Taking Responsibility: The Container Store Discussing Employee Performance 311
Continues to Put Employees First 285 Finding Solutions to Performance Problems 312
Managing Talent: How Adobe’s People and Legal and Ethical Issues in
Rewards Contribute to High Performance 285 Performance Management 312
 Contents xxiii

Legal Requirements for Performance Job Satisfaction 339

Management 312 Personal Dispositions 339
Electronic Monitoring and Employee Privacy 313 Tasks and Roles 340
Supervisors and Co-Workers 342
THINKING ETHICALLY
Pay and Benefits 342
What Are the Ethical Boundaries of Tracking Employee
Activities? 314 BEST PRACTICES
Summary 314 At Quicken Loans, Employees Are the Most Valuable
Key Terms 316 Asset 343

Review and Discussion Questions 316 Monitoring Job Satisfaction 344

Taking Responsibility: REI’s Purpose Drives Its THINKING ETHICALLY
Performance Management 317 Is It Ethical to Fire by Text Message? 345
Managing Talent: Deloitte’s Design for More Summary 346
Strategic Performance Management 318 Key Terms 347
HR in Small Business: Retrofit’s Mobile
Review and Discussion Questions 347
Performance Management 319
Taking Responsibility: Yahoo’s Struggle to Get
Notes 319 Employees Cheering 348
11 Separating and Retaining Employees 322 Managing Talent: Genentech: A Dream Employer
Introduction 322 for Scientists 349
Managing Voluntary and Involuntary HR in Small Business: Happy Employees the Key
Turnover 323 to Radio Flyer’s Success 349
Employee Separation 324 Notes 350
Principles of Justice 324
Legal Requirements 326 PART 4
Progressive Discipline 327
HRM SOCIAL
Compensating Human Resources 353
Using Social-Media Data to Gauge Employee 12 Establishing a Pay Structure 354
Satisfaction 328 Introduction 354
Alternative Dispute Resolution 330 Decisions about Pay 355
HR HOW TO Legal Requirements for Pay 356
Delivering Bad News 331 Equal Employment Opportunity 356
Employee Assistance Programs 332 Minimum Wage 357
Outplacement Counseling 332 HR OOPS!
Employee Engagement 333 A Persistent Pay Gap 358
DID YOU KNOW? Overtime Pay 358
Employees Are More Engaged at Profitable Child Labor 359
Companies 334 Prevailing Wages 360
Job Withdrawal 334 Economic Influences on Pay 360
Job Dissatisfaction 334 Product Markets 360
Behavior Change 337 Labor Markets 361
Physical Job Withdrawal 337 Pay Level: Deciding What to Pay 361
HR OOPS! DID YOU KNOW?
Employees Say Anything to Stay Away from Work 338 The Highest-Paid Occupations 362
Psychological Withdrawal 339 Gathering Information about Market Pay 363
xxiv Contents

Employee Judgments about Pay Fairness 363 Performance Bonuses 389

Judging Fairness 363 Sales Commissions 389
HR HOW TO Pay for Group Performance 390
Gainsharing 390
BLS Website Good Source for Wage Data 364
Communicating Fairness 365 BEST PRACTICES

HRM SOCIAL Why Wheelers Chevrolet Drove Away from

Commissions 391
Talking Pay on Twitter 366
Group Bonuses and Team Awards 392
Job Structure: Relative Value of Jobs 367
Pay for Organizational Performance 392
Pay Structure: Putting It All Together 367
Profit Sharing 393
Pay Rates 368
Stock Ownership 394
Pay Grades 369
Pay Ranges 369 HR OOPS!
Thanks, but We’d Rather Have Cash 395
BEST PRACTICES
Parkland Health Rethinks Entry-Level Pay Rates 370 Balanced Scorecard 397
Pay Differentials 371 HRM SOCIAL
Alternatives to Job-Based Pay 371 Scoring Social Influence 398
Pay Structure and Actual Pay 372 Processes That Make Incentives Work 398
Current Issues Involving Pay Structure 373 HR HOW TO
Pay during Military Duty 373 Rewarding Workers When Raises Are Not an
Pay for Executives 374 Option 399
THINKING ETHICALLY Participation in Decisions 399
Is Pay Disparity in the Fast-Food Business Ethical? 375 Communication 400
Summary 376 Incentive Pay for Executives 400
Performance Measures for Executives 401
Key Terms 377
Ethical Issues 401
Review and Discussion Questions 377
THINKING ETHICALLY
Taking Responsibility: IKEA Tries to Provide a
Can Incentives Promote Ethics? 402
Living Wage 378
Summary 402
Managing Talent: How Target Is Aiming for
Competitive Wages 379 Key Terms 404
HR in Small Business: Jet.com’s No-Haggle Review and Discussion Questions 404
Approach to Compensation 379 Taking Responsibility: At Rhino Foods, Incentive
Notes 380 Pay Is a Sign of Respect 404
Managing Talent: Employees Are Getting a Bite of
13 Recognizing Employee Contributions
Apple’s Stock 405
with Pay 382
HR in Small Business: Chobani Founder Plans to
Introduction 382 Share the Wealth 406
Incentive Pay 383 Notes 406
DID YOU KNOW?
14 Providing Employee Benefits 409
Merit Pay Is Key to Retaining Workers 385
Introduction 409
Pay for Individual Performance 385
Piecework Rates 385 The Role of Employee Benefits 410
Standard Hour Plans 386 Benefits Required by Law 411
Merit Pay 387 Social Security 412
Another random document with
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some distance from the shore. They attain to a length of from 2 to 4
feet. In the young, which have been described as Porthmeus, the
spines and finlets are connected by membrane with the rest of the
fin.
Lichia is an allied genus from the Mediterranean, tropical Atlantic,
and the coast of Chili; five species.
Temnodon.—Body oblong, compressed, covered with cycloid
scales of moderate size. Cleft of the mouth rather wide. Jaws with a
series of strong teeth; smaller ones on the vomer and the palatine
bones. The first dorsal with eight feeble spines connected by
membrane; finlets none. Lateral line not shielded. The second dorsal
and anal covered with very small scales.
Temnodon saltator, sometimes called “Skip-jack,” is spread over
nearly all the tropical and sub-tropical seas; it frequents principally
the coasts, but is also met with in the open sea. On the coasts of the
United States it is well known by the name of “Blue-fish,” being
highly esteemed as food, and furnishing excellent sport. It is one of
the most rapacious fishes, destroying an immense number of other
shore-fishes, and killing many more than they can devour. It grows to
a length of 5 feet, but the majority of those brought to market are not
half that length.
Trachynotus.—Body more or less elevated, compressed,
covered with very small scales. Cleft of the mouth rather small, with
short convex snout. Opercles entire. The first dorsal composed of free
spines in small number. No finlets. Teeth always small, and generally
lost with age.
Ten species are known from the tropical Atlantic and Indo-Pacific;
they rarely exceed a length of 20 inches. Some of the most common
marine fishes belong to this genus, for instance T. ovatus, which
ranges over the entire tropical zone.
Pammelas (perciformis) is allied to the preceding genus; from the
coast of New York.
 Fig. 198.—Magnified scale of
Psettus argenteus.
Psettus.—Body much compressed and elevated; snout rather
short. One dorsal, entirely covered with scales, with seven or eight
spines; anal fin with three. Ventrals very small, rudimentary. Teeth
villiform; no teeth on the palate. Scales small, ctenoid.

Only three species are known; one, P. sebæ, from the west coast
of Africa, the two others from the Indo-Pacific. P. argenteus is a very
common fish, attaining to a length of about 10 inches.
 Fig. 199.—Psettus argenteus.
Platax.—Body much compressed and elevated; snout very short.
One dorsal, with the spinous portion nearly entirely hidden, and
formed by from three to seven spines; anal with three. Ventrals well
developed, with one spine and five rays. Teeth setiform, with an outer
series of rather larger teeth, notched at the top; palate toothless.
Scales of moderate size or rather small.

These fishes are called “Sea-bats,” from the extraordinary length

of some portion of their dorsal and anal fins and of their ventrals.
These long lobes are generally of a deep black colour. In mature and
old individuals the fin-rays are much shorter than in the young, which
have been described as distinct species. There are probably not
more than seven species of “Sea-bats,” if so many, and they all
belong to the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific, where they are very
common.
Zanclus.—Body much compressed and elevated. One dorsal,
with seven spines, the third of which is very elongate. No teeth on the
palate. Scales minute, velvety.
 One species (Z. cornutus), which is extremely common in the
Indo-Pacific. It is easily recognised by its snout, which is produced
like that of Chelmon, and by the broad black bands crossing the
yellow ground-colour. It attains to a length of eight inches, and
undergoes during growth similar changes as Acanthurus.
Anomalops.—Body oblong, covered with small, rough scales.
Snout very short, convex, with wide cleft of the mouth. Eyes very
large; below the eye, in a cavity of the infraorbital ring, there is a
glandular phosphorescent organ. Villiform teeth in the jaws and on the
palatine bones, none on the vomer. First dorsal fin short, with a few
feeble spines connected by membrane.
This genus, of which one species only is known (A. palpebratus),
represents the family of Horse-Mackerels in the depths of the sea;
but we do not know, at present, at what depth it lives. Only six
specimens have been obtained hitherto from the vicinity of
Amboyna, the Fidji, and Paumotu Islands; the largest was twelve
inches long.
Capros.—Body compressed and elevated. Mouth very protractile.
Scales rather small, spiny. First dorsal with nine spines, anal with
three. Ventral fins well developed. Minute teeth in the jaws and on the
vomer; none on the palatine bones.
The “Boar-fish” (C. aper) is common in the Mediterranean, and
not rarely found on the south coast of England.
Allied are Antigonia and Diretmus, known from a few individuals
obtained at Madeira and Barbadoes; they are probably fishes which
but rarely come to the surface.
Equula.—Body more or less compressed, elevated or oblong,
covered with small, deciduous, cycloid scales. Mouth very protractile.
Minute teeth in the jaws; none on the palate. One dorsal. Formula of
the fins: D. 8/1516, A. 3/14, V. 1/5. The lower præopercular margin
serrated.
 Fig. 200.—Equula edentula.
Small species, abundant in the Indo-Pacific, disappearing on the
coasts of Japan and Australia. Some eighteen species have been
described.
Gazza is very similar to Equula, but armed with canine teeth in
the jaws.
Other genera referred to this family are Lactarius (L. delicatulus,
common, and eaten on the East Indian coasts), Seriolella, Paropsis,
and Platystethus.

Third Family—Cyttidæ.
Body elevated, compressed, covered with small scales, or with
bucklers, or naked; eye lateral. Teeth conical, small. No bony stay for
the præoperculum. Dorsal fin composed of two distinct portions.
Ventrals thoracic. No prominent papilla near the vent. Gill-opening
wide. More than ten abdominal and more than fourteen caudal
vertebræ.
The fishes of the “Dory” family are truly marine, and inhabit the
temperate zone of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Some
fossils from tertiary formations (one from Licata) belong to the genus
Zeus.
Zeus.—A series of bony plates runs along the base of the dorsal
and anal fins; another series on the abdomen. Three or four anal
spines.

“John Dorys” are found in the Mediterranean, on the eastern

temperate shores of the Atlantic, on the coasts of Japan and
Australia. Six species are known, all of which are highly esteemed
for the table. The English name given to one of the European
species (Zeus faber) seems to be partly a corruption of the Gascon
“Jau,” which signifies cock, “Dory” being derived from the French
Dorée, so that the entire name means Gilt-Cock. Indeed, in some
other localities of Southern Europe it bears the name of Gallo. The
same species occurs also on the coasts of South Australia and New
Zealand. The fishermen of Roman Catholic countries hold this fish in
special respect, as they recognise in a black round spot on its side
the mark left by the thumb of St. Peter when he took the piece of
money from its mouth.
 Fig. 201.—Cyttus australis.
Cyttus.—Body covered with very small scales; no osseous
bucklers on any part of the body. Two anal spines; ventral fins
composed of one spine and six or eight rays.

Three species are known from Madeira, South Australia, and

New Zealand.

Fourth Family—Stromateidæ.
Body more or less oblong and compressed, covered with very
small scales; eye lateral. Dentition very feeble; œsophagus armed
with numerous horny, barbed processes. No bony stay for the
præoperculum. Dorsal fin single, long, without distinct spinous
division. More than ten abdominal and more than fourteen caudal
vertebræ.
This small family consists of strictly marine and partly pelagic
species referred to two genera, Stromateus and Centrolophus. The
former lacks ventral fins, at least in the adult stage, and is
represented by about ten species in almost all the tropical and
warmer seas. Centrolophus, hitherto known from two or three
European species only (of which one occasionally reaches the south
coast of England, where it is named “Black-fish”), has recently been
discovered on the coast of Peru, and has probably a much wider
range.

Fifth Family—Coryphænidæ.
Body compressed; eye lateral. Teeth small, conical, if present;
œsophagus smooth. No bony stay for the præoperculum. Dorsal fin
single, long, without distinct spinous division. More than ten
abdominal and more than fourteen caudal vertebræ.
All the members of this family have pelagic habits.
Representatives of it have been recognized in some fossil remains:
thus Goniognathus from the Isle of Sheppey, and the living genus
Mene (Gastrocnemus) at Monte Bolca.
Coryphæna.—Body compressed, rather elongate; adult
specimens with a high crest on the top of the head; cleft of the mouth
wide. A single dorsal extending from the occiput almost to the caudal,
which is deeply forked; no distinct dorsal and anal spines. The
ventrals are well developed, and can be received in a groove on the
abdomen. Scales very small. Rasp-like teeth in the jaws, on the vomer
and the palatine bones. Air-bladder absent.

Fig. 202.—Dolphin from the Atlantic.

Generally, though by misapplication of the name, called
“Dolphins.” About six species are known, each of which is probably
distributed over all the tropical and sub-tropical seas. Strictly pelagic
in their habits, they are most powerful swimmers; they congregate in
shoals, and pursue unceasingly the Flying-Fish, which try to escape
their enemies by long flying leaps. They attain to a length of six feet,
and are eagerly caught by sailors on account of their well-flavoured
flesh. The beauty of their, unfortunately fugitive, colours has ever
been a subject of admiration. As far as the colours are capable of
description, those of the common species (C. hippurus), which is
often seen in the Mediterranean, are silvery blue above, with
markings of a deeper azure, and reflections of pure gold, the lower
parts being lemon-yellow, marked with pale blue. The pectoral fins
are partly lead colour, partly yellow; the anal is yellow, the iris of the
eye golden. These iridescent colours change rapidly whilst the fish is
dying, as in the Mackerel. The form of the body, and especially of the
head, changes considerably with age. Very young specimens, from
one to six inches in length, are abundant in the open sea, and
frequently obtained in the tow-net. Their body is cylindrical, their
head as broad as high, and the eye relatively very large, much
longer than the snout. As the fish grows the body is more
compressed, and finally a high crest is developed on the head, and
the anterior part of the dorsal fin attains a height equal to that of the
body.
Brama.—Body compressed, and more or less elevated, covered
with rather small scales; cleft of the mouth very oblique, with the lower
jaw longest. Dorsal and anal fins many-rayed, the former with three or
four, the latter with two or three, spines; caudal deeply forked. Ventrals
thoracic, with one spine and five rays. The jaws with an outer series of
stronger teeth.
Pelagic fishes which, like the allied genus Taractes, range over
almost all the tropical and temperate seas.
Lampris.—Body compressed and elevated, covered with very
small deciduous scales; cleft of the mouth narrow. A single dorsal,
without a spinous portion. Ventrals composed of numerous rays. Teeth
none.
 Fig. 203.—Lampris luna.
The “Sun-fish” (L. luna) is one of the most beautiful fishes of the
Atlantic. It attains to the large size of four feet in length, is bluish on
the back, with round silvery spots, which colour prevails on the lower
parts; the fins are of a deep scarlet. It is said to be excellent eating. It
is a pelagic fish, not rare about Madeira, but extending far
northwards in the Atlantic; it seems to be rarer in the Mediterranean.
All the specimens hitherto obtained were full-grown or nearly so. The
skeleton exhibits several peculiarities, viz. an extraordinary
development and dilatation of the humeral arch, and great strength
of the numerous and closely-set ribs.
Other Coryphænoid genera are Pteraclis, Schedophilus, Diana,
Ausonia, and Mene; all pelagic forms.

Sixth Family—Nomeidæ.
 Body oblong, more or less compressed, covered with cycloid
scales of moderate size; eye lateral. No bony stay for the
præoperculum. Dorsal fin with a distinct spinous portion separated
from the soft; sometimes finlets; caudal forked. More than ten
abdominal, and more than fourteen caudal vertebræ.
Marine fishes; pelagic, at least when young.

Fig. 204.—Gastrochisma melampus.

Gastrochisma.—Cleft of the mouth wide. Finlets behind the
dorsal and anal fins. The ventral fins are exceedingly broad and long,
and can be completely concealed in a fold of the abdomen.

G. melampus, from the coast of New Zealand; scarce.

Nomeus.—Cleft of the mouth narrow. No finlets. The ventral fin is
long and broad, attached to the abdomen by a membrane, and can be
received in a fissure of the abdomen.

N. gronovii is a common pelagic fish in the Atlantic and Indian

Oceans; of small size.
Other genera belonging to this family are Psenes and Cubiceps.
 Seventh Family—Scombridæ.
Body oblong, scarcely compressed, naked or covered with small
scales; eye lateral. Dentition well developed. No bony stay for the
præoperculum. Two dorsal fins; generally finlets. Ventrals thoracic,
with one spine and five rays. More than ten abdominal, and more
than fourteen caudal vertebræ.
The fishes of the “Mackerel” family are pelagic forms, abundant in
all the seas of the tropical and temperate zones. They are one of the
four families of fishes which are the most useful to man, the others
being the Gadoids, Clupeoids, and Salmonoids. They are fishes of
prey, and unceasingly active, their power of endurance in swimming
being equal to the rapidity of their motions. Their muscles receive a
greater supply of blood-vessels and nerves than in other fishes, and
are of a red colour, and more like those of birds or mammals. This
energy of muscular action causes the temperature of their blood to
be several degrees higher than in other fishes. They wander about in
shoals, spawn in the open sea, but periodically approach the shore,
probably in the pursuit of other fishes on which they feed.[43]
Scombridæ are well represented in tertiary formations: in the
Eocene schists of Glaris two extinct genera, Palimphyes and Isurus,
have been discovered. In Eocene and Miocene formations Scomber,
Thynnus, and Cybium are not uncommon.
Scomber.—The first dorsal continuous, with feeble spines; five or
six finlets behind the dorsal and anal. Scales very small, and equally
covering the whole body. Teeth small. Two short ridges on each side
of the caudal fin.

Mackerels proper are found in almost all temperate and tropical

seas, with the exception of the Atlantic shores of temperate South
America, where they have not been found hitherto. In Europe, and
probably also on the coast of England, three species occur: S.
scomber, the common Mackerel, which lacks an air-bladder; S.
pneumatophorus, a more southern species, with an air-bladder; and
S. colias, like the former, but with a somewhat different coloration,
and often called “Spanish” Mackerel. On the Cape of Good Hope, in
Japan, on the coast of California, in South Australia, and New
Zealand, Mackerels are abundant, which are either identical with, or
very closely allied to, the European species. On the coasts of the
United States the same species occur which tenant the western
parts of the Atlantic. Altogether seven species are known.

Fig. 205.—Thynnus thynnus.

Thynnus.—The first dorsal continuous, with the spines rather
feeble; from six to nine finlets behind the dorsal and anal. Scales of
the pectoral region crowded, forming a corslet. Teeth rather small. A
longitudinal keel on each side of the tail.
The best-known species of this genus is the “Tunny” (Thynnus
thynnus), abundant in the Mediterranean, and ranging to the south
coast of England and to Tasmania. It is one of the largest fishes of
the ocean, attaining to a length of 10 feet, and to a weight of more
than 1000 lbs. The fishery of the Tunny is systematically carried on
in the Mediterranean, and dates from the most remote antiquity. Its
salted preparation was esteemed by the Romans under the name of
Saltamentum sardicum. Its flesh is extensively eaten now, fresh as
well as preserved.
Thynnus pelamys, or the “Bonito,” is equally well known, and
ranges over all the tropical and temperate seas; it eagerly pursues
the Flying-fish, and affords welcome sport and food to the sailor. In
its form it resembles the Tunny, but is more slender and rarely above
three feet long.
 Some of the other species are provided with very long pectoral
fins, and generally called by sailors “Albacore.” They are said to
grow to a length of six feet; Bennett in his “Whaling Voyage,” vol. ii.
p. 278, makes the following observations on Th. germo, from the
Pacific: “Ships when cruising slowly in the Pacific Ocean, are usually
attended by myriads of this fish for many successive months. A few
days’ rapid sailing is, nevertheless, sufficient to get rid of them,
however numerous they may be, for they seldom pay more than very
transient visits to vessels making a quick passage. When the ship is
sailing with a fresh breeze they swim pertinaciously by her side and
take the hook greedily, but should she be lying motionless or
becalmed they go off to some distance in search of prey, and cannot
be prevailed upon to take the most tempting bait the sailor can
devise. It is probably as a protection from their chief enemy, the
Sword-fish, that they seek the society of a ship. I am not aware that
the Shark is also their enemy; but they seemed to have an instinctive
dread of this large fish, and when it approached the ship, would
follow it in shoals, and annoy it in the same manner as the smaller
birds may be seen to annoy those of a larger and predaceous kind,
as the hawk or owl. They are very voracious and miscellaneous
feeders. Flying-fish, Calmars, and small shoal-fish are their most
natural food; though they do not refuse the animal offal from a ship.
Amongst the other food contained in their maw, we have found small
Ostracions, File-fish, Sucking-fish, Janthina shells, and pelagic
crabs; in one instance a small Bonita, and in a second a Dolphin
eight inches long, and a Paper-nautilus shell containing its sepia-
tenant. It was often amusing to watch an Albacore pursuing a Flying-
fish, and to mark the precision with which it swam beneath the feeble
æronaut, keeping him steadily in view, and preparing to seize him at
the moment of his descent. But this the Flying-fish would often elude
by instantaneously renewing his leap, and not unfrequently escape
by extreme agility.”
Pelamys.—The first dorsal continuous, with the spines rather
feeble; from seven to nine finlets behind the dorsal and anal. Scales of
the pectoral region forming a corslet. Teeth moderately strong. A
longitudinal keel on each side of the tail.
 Five species are known, of which P. sarda is common in the
Atlantic and Mediterranean.
Auxis.—Differing from the preceding two genera in having very
small teeth in the jaws only, none on the palate.
Auxis rochei common in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Indian
Ocean.
Cybium.—The first dorsal continuous, with the spines rather
feeble; generally more than seven finlets behind the dorsal and anal.
Scales rudimentary or absent. Teeth strong; a longitudinal keel on
each side of the tail.
Twelve species from the tropical Atlantic and Indian Ocean;
frequenting more the coast-region than the open sea; attaining to a
length of four or five feet.
Elacate.—Body covered with very small scales; head depressed;
cleft of the mouth moderately wide; no keel on the tail. The spinous
dorsal is formed by eight small free spines; finlets none. Villiform teeth
in the jaws, on the vomer and the palatine bones.
Elacate nigra, a coast fish common in the warmer parts of the
Atlantic and the Indian Ocean.
Echeneis.—The spinous dorsal fin is modified into an adhesive
disk, occupying the upper side of the head and neck.
This genus is closely allied to the preceding, from which it differs
only by the transformation of the spinous dorsal fin into a sucking
organ. The spines being composed of two halves, each half is bent
down towards the right and the left, forming a support to a double
series of transverse lamellæ, rough on their edges, the whole disk
being of an oval shape and surrounded by a membranous fringe.
Each pair of lamellæ is formed out of one spine, which, as usual, is
supported at the base by an interneural spine. By means of this disk
the “Sucking-fishes” or “Suckers” are enabled to attach themselves
to any flat surface, a series of vacuums being created by the erection
of the usually recumbent lamellæ. The adhesion is so strong that the
fish can only be dislodged with difficulty, unless it is pushed forward
by a sliding motion. The Suckers attach themselves to sharks,
turtles, ships, or any other object which serves their purpose. They
cannot be regarded as parasites, inasmuch as they obtain their food
independently of their host. Being bad swimmers they allow
themselves to be carried about by other animals or vessels endowed
with a greater power of locomotion. They were as well known to the
ancients as they are to the modern navigators. Aristotle and Aelian
mention the Sucker under the name of φθεὶρ, or the Louse; “In the
sea between Cyrene and Egypt there is a fish about the Dolphin
(Delphinus), which they call the Louse; this becomes the fattest of all
fishes, because it partakes of the plentiful supply of food captured by
the Dolphin.” Later writers, then, repeat a story, the source of which
is unknown, viz. that the “Remora” is able to arrest vessels in their
course, a story which has been handed down to our own time. It
need not be stated that this is an invention, though it cannot be
denied that the attachment of one of the larger species may retard
the progress of a sailing vessel, especially when, as is sometimes
the case, several individuals accompany the same ship. An account
of a somewhat ingenious way of catching sleeping turtles by means
of a Sucking-fish held by a ring fastened round its tail, appears to
have originated rather from an experiment than from regular
practice.
Ten different species are known, of which Echeneis remora and
Echeneis naucrates are the most common. The former is short and
grows to a length of eight inches only, the latter is a slender fish, not
rarely found three feet long. The bulkiest is Echeneis scutata, which
attains to a length of two feet; individuals of that size weighing about
eight lbs.
The number of pairs of lamellæ varies in the various species,
from 12 to 27. The caudal fin of some of the species undergoes
great changes with age. In young specimens the middle portion of
the fin is produced into a long filiform lobe. This lobe becomes
gradually shorter, and the fin shows a rounded margin in individuals
of middle age. When the fish approaches the mature state, the upper
and lower lobes are produced, and the fin becomes subcrescentic or
forked.
[See Günther, “On the History of Echeneis.” Ann. and Mag. Nat.
Hist., 1860.]
 Eighth Family.—Trachinidæ.
Body elongate, low, naked or covered with scales. Teeth small,
conical. No bony stay for the præoperculum. One or two dorsal fins,
the spinous portion being always shorter and much less developed
than the soft; the anal similarly developed as the soft dorsal; no
finlets. Ventrals with one spine and five rays. Gill-opening more or
less wide. Ten or more than ten abdominal, and more than fourteen
caudal vertebræ.
Carnivorous coast-fishes of small size, found in every quarter of
the globe, but scarcely represented in the Arctic zone (Trichodon);
on the other hand, they are rather numerous towards the Antarctic
circle. All are bad swimmers, generally moving along the bottom in
small depths. Only one genus (Bathydraco) is known from the deep-
sea.
A genus which shows the principal characters of this family
(Callipteryx), has been found in the tertiary deposits of Monte Bolca;
it is scaleless. A second genus, Trachinopsis, has been recently
described by Sauvage from the Upper Tertiary of Lorca in Spain; and
a third (Pseudoeleginus) from the Miocene of Licata.
This family may be subdivided into five groups:—
1. In the Uranoscopina the eyes are on the upper surface of the
head, directed upwards; the lateral line is continuous.
Uranoscopus.—Head large, broad, thick, partly covered with
bony plates; cleft of the mouth vertical. Scales very small. Two dorsal
fins, the first with from three to five spines; ventrals jugular; pectoral
rays branched. Villiform teeth in the jaws, on the vomer and palatine
bones; no canines. Generally a long filament below and before the
tongue. Gill-cover armed.
The position of the eyes on the upper surface of the head, which
these fishes have in common with many others, is well expressed by
the name Uranoscopus (Stare-gazer). Their eyes are very small, and
can be raised or depressed at the will of the fish. They are inactive
fishes, generally lying hidden at the bottom between stones,
watching for their prey. The delicate filament attached to the bottom
of their mouth, and playing in front of it in the current of water which
passes through the mouth, serves to lure small animals within reach
of the fish. Eleven species are known from the Indo-Pacific and
Atlantic, and one (U. scaber) from the Mediterranean; they attain
rarely a length of twelve inches.
Leptoscopus.—Form of the head as in Uranoscopus, but entirely
covered with a thin skin. Scales small, cycloid. One continuous dorsal;
ventrals jugular; pectoral rays branched. Villiform teeth in both jaws,
on the vomer and palatine bones; canines none. No oral filament. Gill-
cover unarmed.

Fig. 206.—Leptoscopus macropygus.

Leptoscopus macropygus, not rare on the coast of New Zealand.
Other genera of Stare-gazers are Agnus from the Atlantic coasts
of North America; Anema from the Indian Ocean and New Zealand;
and Kathetostoma from Australia and New Zealand.
2. In the Trachinina the eyes are more or less lateral; the lateral
line is continuous; and the intermaxillary without a larger tooth on its
posterior portion.
Trachinus.—Cleft of the mouth very oblique; eye lateral, but
directed upwards. Scales very small, cycloid. Two dorsal fins, the first
short, with six or seven spines; ventrals jugular; the lower pectoral
rays simple. Villiform teeth in the jaws, on the vomer and palatine
bones. Præorbital and præoperculum armed.

The “Weevers” are common fishes on the European coasts, and

but too well known to all fishermen; singularly enough they do not
extend across the Atlantic to the American coast, but reappear on
the coast of Chili! Wounds by their dorsal and opercular spines are
much dreaded, being extremely painful, and sometimes causing
violent inflammation of the wounded part. No special poison-organ
has been found in these fishes, but there is no doubt that the
mucous secretion in the vicinity of the spines has poisonous
properties. The dorsal spines as well as the opercular spine have a
deep double groove in which the poisonous fluid is lodged, and by
which it is inoculated in the punctured wound. On the British coasts
two species occur, T. draco, the Greater Weever, attaining to a
length of twelve inches, and T. vipera, the Lesser Weever, which
grows only to half that size.
Champsodon.—Body covered with minute granular scales; lateral
lines two, with numerous vertical branches. Cleft of the mouth wide,
oblique. Eye lateral, but directed upwards. Two dorsal fins; ventral fins
jugular; pectoral rays branched. Teeth in the jaws in a single series,
thin, long, of unequal size. Teeth on the vomer, none on the palate.
Gill-openings exceedingly wide. Præoperculum with a spine at the
angle and a fine serrature on the posterior margin.
Champsodon vorax is not uncommon at small depths off the
Philippine Islands, Admiralty Islands, and in the Arafura Sea.
Percis.—Body cylindrical, with small ctenoid scales; cleft of the
mouth slightly oblique; eye lateral, but directed upwards. Dorsal fins
more or less continuous, the spinous with four or five short stiff spines;
ventrals a little before the pectorals. Villiform teeth in the jaws, with the
addition of canines; teeth on the vomer, none on the palatines.
Opercles feebly armed.
Fifteen species; small, but prettily coloured shore-fishes of the
Indo-Pacific.
Sillago.—Body covered with rather small, ctenoid scales. Cleft of
the mouth small, with the upper jaw rather longer; eye lateral, large.
Two dorsals, the first with from nine to twelve spines; ventrals
thoracic. Villiform teeth in the jaws, and on the vomer, none on the
palatine bones. Operculum unarmed; præoperculum serrated. The
bones of the head with wide muciferous channels.
Eight species; small, plain-coloured shore-fishes, common in the
Indian Ocean to the coasts of Australia.
Bovichthys.—Head broad and thick; cleft of the mouth horizontal,
with the upper jaw rather longer; eye lateral, more or less directed
 upwards. Scales none. Two separate dorsal fins, the first with eight
spines; ventrals jugular; the lower pectoral rays simple. Villiform teeth
in the jaws, on the vomer and the palatine bones; no canines.
Operculum with a strong spine; præorbital and præoperculum not
armed.
Three species are known from the South Pacific.

Fig. 207.—Head of Bovichthys variegatus,

from New Zealand.
Bathydraco.—Body elongate, sub-cylindrical; head depressed,
with the snout much elongate, spatulate; mouth wide, horizontal, with
the lower jaw prominent; eyes very large, lateral, close together.
Scales very small, imbedded in the skin. Lateral line wide, continuous.
One dorsal fin; ventrals jugular; the lower pectoral rays branched.
Teeth in the jaws in villiform bands; none on the vomer or the palatine
bones. Opercles unarmed; ten branchiostegals; the gill-membranes
free from the isthmus, and but slightly united in front. Air-bladder
none.

A deep-sea fish, found at a depth of 1260 fathoms in the

Antarctic Ocean (south of Heard Island).
Chænichthys.—Head very large, with the snout spatulate, and
with the cleft of the mouth very wide. Eye lateral. Scales none; lateral
line sometimes with granulated scutes. Two dorsals, the first with
seven spines; ventrals jugular. Jaws with rasp-like teeth; palate
toothless.