Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905

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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta

Review article

Solar energy: A promising renewable source for meeting energy demand in

Indian agriculture applications
Ch. Mohan Sai Kumar a, Suman Singh a, Manglesh Kumar Gupta a, Yogesh M. Nimdeo c,
Ravi Raushan c, Ankit V. Deorankar a, T.M. Ananda Kumar a, b, Prasant Kumar Rout a, b,
C.S. Chanotiya a, b, Vinod D. Pakhale d, Ashween Deepak Nannaware a, b, *
a
Phytochemistry Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226015, India
b
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201002, India
c
Indian Institute of Technology, Jammu, Jagti, Nagrota, Jammu 181221, Jammu and Kashmir, India
d
Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, Maharashtra, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: India is the fifth economic power in the World, and 20% of its GDP is contributed by the agriculture and allied
Agriculture sector. The agricultural sector entails various activities involving land preparation, irrigation, crop growth,
SWOT analysis harvesting, food processing, etc. For meeting the current agricultural energy demand in India, renewable solar
Renewable energy
energy has come up as a prime energy source that can reduce the farmer’s dependency on the use of conventional
Solar energy
Economics and environmental sustainability
energy sources. The regular usage of fossil fuels leads to its depletion and releases considerable CO2 into the
Distillation atmosphere. It is estimated that 4600 GW of installed solar energy systems would circumvent about 4 gigatons of
CO2 emissions yearly by 2050. As a result, solar energy has been recognized as one of the most promising
renewable alternatives to create heat and electricity via solar technologies for agriculture as well as various
industrial processes. This review focuses on the status, importance, availability, and applications of solar energy
technologies in numerous agricultural operations that are currently taking place all over India. This review also
highlights the socioeconomic importance, environmental impact, economic analysis, SWOT analysis, and future
technological potential of solar energy uses along with some limitations to its extensive utilization in India.

Introduction: Why solar energy? back to the seventh century BC. The first photoelectric effect was
introduced by Albert Einstein upon publication of his paper, after which
The technology that is used to collect solar energy is not new; in fact, he received the Nobel Prize for his research in 1921. The first silicon
the first attempts to collect this energy in a variety of different ways date photovoltaic cell developed had an efficiency of 4 % which later

Abbreviations: CAPEX, Capital Expenditures; CERC, Central Electricity Regulatory Commission; CGCC, Coal Gasification Combined Cycle; CHP, Combined Heat
and Power; CPC, Compound Parabolic Collector; CRF, Capital Recovery Factor; CSP, Concentrated Solar Power; DCCOE, Discounted Costs Cost of Energy; DDUGJY,
Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana; DTIRC, Dielectric Totally Internally Refrigeration Concentrator; ED, Electrodialysis; EROI, Energy return on investment;
FMC, Final Moisture Content; GDP, Gross Domestic Product; GHG, Greenhouse Gases; GOI, Government of India; IDC, Interest During Construction; IMC, Moisture
Content; IREDA, Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency; KUSUM, Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan; LCOC, Levelized Cost of Curtailment;
LCOE, Levelized Cost of Electricity; LCOS, Levelized Cost of Storage; LCOT, Levelized Cost of Transmission; LFT, Line Focusing Technology; MD, Membrane
Distillation; MED, Multi-Effect Distillation; MNRE, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy; MSF, Multi-Stage Flash Distillation; MVC, Mechanical Vapor
Compression; NGCC, Natural Gas Combined Cycle; NPCS, Niir Project Consultancy Services; NREL, National Renewable Energy Laboratory; OSOWOG, One Sun One
World One Grid; PFT, Point Focusing Technology; PTC, Parabolic Trough Collector; PV, Photovoltaic; RE, Renewable Energy; RECM, Renewable Energy Certificate
mechanism; RO, Reverse Osmosis; RPO, Renewable Purchase Obligation; SAARC, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation; SAUBHAGYA, Sahaj Bijli Har
Ghar Yojana; SD, Solar Distillation; SDU, Solar distillation unit; SPWP, Solar Powered water pump; SRISTI, Sustainable Rooftop Implementation for Solar Trans­
figuration of India; SRS, Solar Refrigeration System; STC, Solar Thermal Concentrator; TCOE, Total Cost of Energy; TES, Thermal Energy Storage; TPC, Thermal
Power Concentrators; TVC, Thermal Vapor Compression; UCOE, Undiscounted Cost of Energy; UNIDO, United Nations Industrial Development Organization; kWh,
Kilowatt-hour; TWh, Terawatt-hour; EJ, Exajoule; KW, kilowatt; GW, Gigawatt; GT, Gigatons; Ppm, Parts Per Million.
* Corresponding author at: Phytochemistry Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226015, India.
E-mail address: ad.nannaware@cimap.res.in (A.D. Nannaware).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102905
Received 23 August 2022; Received in revised form 1 November 2022; Accepted 16 November 2022
2213-1388/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
increased to 11 %. Hoffman Electronics reached 8 % PV efficiency in
1957, then 14 % in 1958. In India in 1999, PV capacity reached 1000
MW, up from 500 kW in 1977. With technological advancements, solar
energy is used in various applications [1–4].
India is the world’s second-most populous country and placed 5th
position in terms of Global economy. Agriculture is the primary occu­
pation of around 80 % of the people engaged in this sector. Since agri­
culture is the backbone of the country, it contributes more than 20 % of
the gross domestic product (GDP) as per the data released in the year
2020–21. As a developing country with a growing population, India’s
demand for energy has risen rapidly. Global primary energy production
from all sources is 514 EJ (EJ = exajoule = 1018 J), with fossil fuels
accounting for almost 80 % of total energy consumption. It is projected
that global primary energy consumption will reach 800 EJ by the year
2050 [5]. Carbon emissions have increased dramatically as a result of
the widespread use of fossil fuels. Currently, India is the third most
greenhouse gas emitter in the World [6]. In 2016, the World Health
Organization published a list of the top 25 polluted cities of the world,
which included 11 Indian cities [7]. This prompted the researcher to
consider an alternative to fossil fuels. Renewable energy sources are the
only option for meeting energy needs while avoiding environmental
damage in this era of technological advancement. Renewable energy is a
source that is naturally restored over time, for example, the rising of the
sun. It is defined as any energy invention that makes use of renewable
sources. Sustainable energy is defined as any form of energy that meets
the current energy demands while avoiding the risk of unanticipated
depreciation. The use of renewable and sustainable energy sources
should be encouraged because they do not harm the environment [8]. In
comparison with all renewable energy sources, solar energy is the most
potential sustainable renewable energy source. Solar radiations are
classified into three types: direct, diffuse, and scattered. The sum of all
these three radiations is called global radiation [9]. Tropical and sub-
tropical regions receive a large amount of solar radiation. India, a
tropical country, is blessed with intense sunshine with only minor var­
iations during the daytime. It received energy at a rate of 4–7 kW/m2-
day during its three hundred (3 0 0) sunny days per year [7].
Importance of solar energy
The entire world is driven by conventional fossil fuels such as coal,
gasoline, diesel, natural gas, and so on. As fossil fuels are convenient to
use, they also have their consequences. Combustion of fossil fuels re­
leases harmful NOX, SOX, and COX gases, posing a threat to the envi­
ronment and human health. Recent population growth has increased
fuel demand. Due the increased use of fossil fuels, environmental
contamination has reached alarming levels. These causing effects are
known as Global Warming. CO2 emission from the oxidation of fossil
fuels is the main cause of global warming which is bad for the envi­
ronment. So, to overcome global warming, we need to decrease the CO2
level and other toxic gases in the environment. The most effective way to
accomplish this is to increase the use of renewable energy as a power
source. In the renewable energy sector, solar power is the best alterna­
tive energy source because it has no harmful effect on the surrounding
environment [10]. Solar energy has the potential to meet energy de­
mands in terms of sustainability and quality. The solar energy that falls
on Earth’s continents is more than 200 times greater than the annual
total commercial power currently consumed by humans [11]. Solar
energy can be produced simply by using PV cells, which are made of
semiconductors and can store energy in batteries for further use in
various operations. Many industries, schools, offices, and agricultural
sectors generate electricity using solar energy.
Global energy scenario
The consumption of energy in the 19th century increased exponen­
tially due to the enormous growth of technology and the human lifestyle
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
[12]. The majority of this energy consumption is met by traditional
sources such as gas, oil, and petroleum. According to a 2017 energy
consumption survey, fossil fuels account for more than 80 % of total
energy consumption, with renewables accounting for the remainder. An
intriguing data set on the energy requirements for technological growth
was released, revealing that there has been no change in this process
between 1970 and 2015 [13]. The global data on year-wise generation
and consumption of renewable energy has been given in Fig. 1a and b,
respectively.
Current status of solar energy utilization in India
For every developing country, electricity is critical to economic
growth, industrialization, and urbanization [15]. India ranks 3rd in Asia
and 4th in the Globe in terms of electricity generation from solar energy.
The depletion and high cost of fossil fuels compel scientists to find an
alternative source of electricity generation. Renewable energy technol­
ogy is the best alternative source to fulfil India’s energy requirements. In
India it is about 5 quadrillion kWh per year of energy is incident with
daily global radiation of around 4–7 kWh/m2-day [16]. According to the
data given by the MNRE, it is estimated that about 750 GW of solar
power can be generated by installing PV cells on wasteland available in
India [17]. Generally, solar energy can be converted into electricity in
two ways: photovoltaic and concentrated solar power. Photovoltaic
cells, in particular, are more commonly installed in India due to their
lower installation costs when compared to concentrated solar power.
The government had installed 20 GW solar power generation at end
of the year 2017. According to the report of MNRE-GEF-UNIDO, India
has made rapid progress in renewable energy deployment, increasing
installed capacity from 3.5 GW in 2002 to around 80.4 GW (excluding
big hydro) in June 2019 [18]. During the last 6 years, solar has been the
largest contributor of installed renewable energy increasing from 1 % to
38 %. The government of India has targeted around 150 GW renewable
energy implementation by 2022 including solar energy (100 GW), wind
energy (60 GW), biomass (10 GW), and hydropower (5 GW) schemes
(MNRE-GEF-UNIDO report). As there is a rise in demand for electricity,
the government has formulated several state-level policies in terms of
important power plants which are provided in Fig. 2.
Rank of different states of India with solar energy production
Some data of solar power generation statewise from annual reports of
MNRE have been given in Table 1. Karnataka has the largest installed
capacity of solar power generation units at present and from 2016 to
2021. This state showed the fastest growth in solar power generation
capacity (Table 1). The status of solar energy generation in India is
presented in Fig. 3.
Government policies in India to promote solar energy technologies
India began developing non-conventional energy sources in the
1970 s due to oil shortages. Renewable energy technologies for solar,
biomass, and wind have been prioritized for rural energy problems.
Renewable technologies were identified as small-scale energy supply
systems in India’s sixth five-year plan (1980–85). Ministry of new and
renewable energy is the Indian government department that can pro­
mote renewable energy in India [19]. In recent decades Government of
India has launched many electricity policies for the need of people and
promoting the use of renewable resources. Some of them are as follows:
(i) Electricity Act, 2003
The law stipulates that the co-generation and generation of elec­
tricity from renewable sources will be encouraged by the State Elec­
tricity Regulatory Commission (SERC) by providing appropriate actions
for connectivity to the grid and the sale of electricity to any person [20].
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905

Fig. 1. a: Graphical representation of global Renewable Energy Generation in world (2000–2020); b: Graphical representation of global Renewable Energy Con­
sumption in world (2000–2019); TWh: Terawatt hour; Source: Data based on BP Statistical Review of World Energy and Ember [14].

Fig. 2. Important solar power plants and their locations in India (MNRE).

(ii) National Electricity policies, 2005 (iv) National Rural Electrification Policies (NREP), 2006

National Electricity Policy promotes renewable energy electricity
and co-generation facilities. Due to that, there is a rapid increase in sales
of electricity from co-generation by distribution companies through a
competitive bidding process [19]. To promote these technologies there
should be sufficient difference in price with respect to conventional
source technologies [20].
NREP (2006) aims to supply electric power to all houses in the
country at optimum cost and service by 2012. In the rural India, it is
difficult to install a conventional grid electric network at a feasible cost.
NREP provides the off-grid solar photovoltaics solution where grid
connectivity is not cost-effective. It is the alternative option to get
electrified the remote villages or habitats in India [21,22].

(iii) National Traffic Policy 2006 (v) Semiconductor Policy (2007)

The National Tariff Policy (2006) act provided standards for State
Energy Renewable Commission (SERC) to set minimum renewable
purchasing obligations (RPO) at the state level. It also states that
renewable power purchases by DISCOMs will be at the priority rates set
by the SERCs, although in the long-term renewable energy must be
competitive with other sources in terms of the total cost [19].
Semiconductor policy was introduced to uplift the production of
semiconductors in the country because it is an element in a solar
photovoltaic system. In this policy, subsidies were provided for the 20 %
production plant in the special economic zone (SEZ) and 25 % for
manufacturing plants rather than SEZs [22].

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Ch.M.S. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905

Table 1
State-wise installed capacity of solar power generation units in India (in MW).
State/Union Territory 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Andhra Pradesh 572.96 1867.23 2195.46 3085.68 3610.02 4203

Arunachal Pradesh 0.27 0.27 5.39 5.39 5.61 5.61
Assam 0 11.78 12.45 22.4 41.23 42.99
Bihar 5.1 108.54 142.45 142.45 151.57 159.51
Chhattisgarh 93.58 128.86 231.35 231.35 231.35 252.48
Goa 0 0.71 0.91 3.92 4.78 7.44
Gujarat 1119.17 1249.37 1588 2440.13 2948.37 4430.82
Haryana 15.39 81.4 216.85 224.52 252.14 407.83
Himachal Pradesh 0.2 0.73 0.75 22.68 32.93 42.73
Jharkhand 16.19 23.27 25.67 34.95 38.4 52.06
Karnataka 145.46 1027.84 4944.12 6095.56 7277.93 7355.17
Kerala 13.04 74.2 107.94 138.59 142.23 257
Madhya Pradesh 776.37 857.04 1305.55 1840.16 2258.46 2463.22
Maharashtra 385.76 452.37 1239.18 1633.54 1801.8 2289.97
Manipur 0 0.03 0.06 3.44 5.16 6.36
Meghalaya 0 0.01 0.02 0.12 0.12 0.12
Mizoram 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.52 1.53
Nagaland 0 0.5 1 1 1 1
Daman and Diu 4 10.46 10.61 14.47 19.86 40.55
Delhi 14.28 40.27 69.57 126.89 165.16 192.97
Odisha 66.92 79.42 79.57 394.73 397.84 401.72
Punjab 405.06 793.95 905.62 905.62 94.1 959.5
Rajasthan 1269.93 1812.93 2332.77 3226.79 5137.91 5732.58
Sikkim 0 0 0 0.01 0.07 0.07
Tamil Nadu 1061.82 1691.83 1908.57 2575.22 3915.88 4475.21
Telangana 527.84 1286.98 3291.25 3592.09 3620.75 3953.12
Tripura 5 5.09 5.09 5.09 9.41 941.
Uttarakhand 0 0 0 0 0 0
Uttar Pradesh 143.5 336.73 694.41 960.1 1095.1 1712.5
West Bengal 7.77 26.14 37.32 75.95 114.46 149.84
Jammu and Kashmir 1 1.36 1.36 14.83 19.3 20.73
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 0 2.97 5.46 5.46 5.46 5.46
Total (in GW) 6.8 12.3 21.7 28.2 34.6 40.1

(Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India).

Fig. 3. a: Ranks of solar power generation state-wise in India; Source: Annual report of MNRE (2016–2017); b: Solar energy Generation in India; TWh: Terawatt
hour; Source: Data based on BP Statistical Review of World Energy and Ember [14].

(vi) Solar PV generation-based incentive scheme inducement in 2008 to produce grid networks for both solar PV and solar
thermal powered based technologies. This policy has been extended to
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) developed an all certified companies, central and state-owned power generating

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Ch.M.S. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905

plants, and developers of photovoltaic projects in the public/private Fig. 4 showed the classification of different types of solar energy
sector (MNRE). utilization methods.

(vii) National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008 Photovoltaic

NAPCC policy aims to minimize carbon emissions in the surround­
ings and promote energy efficiency. The policy aims to install 100 GW of
solar capacity by 2030. Due to the rapid increase in installed capacity of
the solar technologies, the temporary goal of 20 GW by 2022 was revised
to 100 GW up by 2020 in 2015. NAPCC plan has RPO (Renewable
Purchase Obligation) at 5 % of total grid purchases, but it also has a 10
% year-over-year increase in RPO [21,19].
(viii) Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, 2010
This mission is also known as the National Solar Mission, which came
under the NAPCC plan. India’s solar mission was revised in 2014 and
installed 100 GW of solar-powered grid by 2022. The Indian government
recommended several efforts to help renewable energy technology reach
this goal (IEA).
(ix) State-level Initiatives Policies.
In 2017, the Government of India (GOI) announced the Pradhan
Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (PM-SAUBHAGYA) scheme. GOI is
encouraging the use of solar energy to electrify rural and urban house­
holds through this program. According to reports, the Manipur gov­
ernment has started this scheme [21].
Again in 2017, the Government of India introduced the SRISTI
(Sustainable Rooftop Implementation for Solar Transfiguration of India)
scheme. Under this scheme grant of 40 % will be given for the con­
struction of a rooftop solar system with a capacity of 3 kW to 10 kW
[21].
In 2018, Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan
Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM) scheme was introduced by the GOI (PM
KUSUM). This program provides financial help and water security to
farms by installing solar pumps, solarizing grid-connected conventional
pumps, and setting up renewable energy plants. Farmers can generate
energy for irrigation and sell excess to distribution firms. Providing more
revenue to farmers helps achieve state aims and long-term environ­
mental protection [21].
Recently in 2020, the Government of India announced, ‘One Sun One
World One Grid’ (OSOWOG) scheme. Under this initiative, the GOI in­
tends to create synergy in more than 140 countries in the far east and far
west region, as well as to create consensus and initiate energy policy
imperatives, and also lay the groundwork for global cooperation. An
interconnected grid would share renewable energy resources from all
countries with one another to meet their electricity demand, including
peak demand, and to reduce traffic congestion [21].
A PV solar system typically includes a grid and combinations of PV
panels, a load controller, a DC to AC inverter, a power meter, a circuit
breaker, and, notably, an array of batteries, depending on system size.
PV solar systems have shown promising results in a variety of applica­
tions, particularly those that are off the grid [24–26]. Fig. 5 depicts the
schematic arrangement of the PV solar system. The PV panels produce a
DC output that is controlled by the charge controller and stored in a
battery. When necessary, the energy stored in the battery is converted to
alternating current via an inverter (DC/AC) for AC charging or directly
to power DC loads. A power meter is a device that records and measures
the amount of electricity that flows to a load [27,28]. Fig. 6 showed
different types of PV technologies used in solar system.
The Indian PV sector now consists of nine firms that manufacture
solar cells, 23 companies that manufacture modules, and approximately
60 companies that provide system integration services. A manufacturing
capability of around 2 million silicon wafers per year is also available.
Because solar PV systems cannot emit greenhouse gases (GHGs) or other
pollutants like SO2 and nitrogen during operation, it is expected to 4600
GW of installed PV system would prevent more than 4 GT of CO2
emissions per year by 2050 [29]. Currently, the largest PV plant is
located in the Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park in India with 1000 MW
capacity [21].
Solar concentrators
Solar energy can also be harvested by using a solar concentrator.
Solar concentrators harness solar energy in two technological modes: (i)
Point focusing technology (PFT), (ii) line focusing technology (LFT). PFT
involves the use of parabolic dish, Scheffler dish, or solar tower.
Whereas LFT involves the use of Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC),
Compound Parabolic Collector (CPC), or Linear Fresnel Lens. These
concentrators are mainly used for high-temperature applications and

Solar power integration and harnessing techniques

Solar power integration typically involves the development of

equipment and methods that make it possible for the available solar
energy to be incorporated into the system that controls the distribution
of electricity while maintaining grid performance, stability, and safety.
The following critical components are required for a successful solar
energy integration from solar system to the electrical grid system: Solar
Panels, Inverter, Electricity meter, An AC breaker and disconnector,
cables, safety switches and electricity grid [23].
There are two primary technologies for harnessing solar energy:

1. Photovoltaics (PV)
2. Solar Thermal Concentrators (STC) or Thermal Power Concentrators
(TPC)
Fig. 4. Solar Energy Utilization.

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Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
Fig. 5. Schematic arrangement of Solar Photovoltaics System [33].
Fig. 6. Photovoltaic technologies.
solar thermal operations capable of generating large amounts of elec­
tricity. A solar concentrator collects sunlight from a vast region and
concentrates it into a small receiver. Solar concentrators are one of the
best practices to generate electricity while using fewer resources and
spending less money. Generally, materials used for the manufacturing of
the solar concentrators are plastics and glass mirrors which results in a
lower cost when compared to PV. Solar concentrators also reduce the
dependency on silicon and increase cell efficiency by increasing the
intensity of solar irradiance [30,31].
Types of solar concentrators
Thermal collectors are commonly used in solar thermal concentra­
tors to absorb solar energy. These collectors are the equipment in which
solar energy is collected by absorbing the radiation. There are two kinds
of solar thermal energy collectors:
Flat-plate solar collector. The collector and absorber areas are the same
in a solar flat plate collector, but the efficiency is low. The temperature
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
of the working fluid can reach 100 ◦ C when using a flat plate solar
collector with no concentrator. It is made up of five major parts:
i. Metallic flat absorber plate with high thermal conductivity
ii. Tubes or channels
iii. A glass sheet (transparent toughened)
iv. Fiberglass insulation
v. A container enclosing the whole assembly
Concentrating type solar collector. The area receiving solar radiation in a
concentrating type of solar collector is several times bigger than the
absorber area, and the efficiency is likewise quite high. In this case,
mirrors or lenses are commonly used to focus solar radiation on the
absorber. Using the mirror or lenses, the thermic fluid temperature can
be raised to 1000 ⁰C. Many studies have been conducted on the use of
CPC for steam and electricity generation. In this case, CPC trapped the
solar energy and used it to generate the steam. The steam produced is
then used to power the heavy turbine, which directly generates
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
electricity. Furthermore, for better performance, the collector can be
mounted on tracking equipment to face the sun at all times, changing the
position to trap solar radiation. Solar energy in agriculture can be used
to process a variety of delicate agricultural products. Many papers have
been published showing the use of solar collectors for trapping solar
energy for heat generation in solar cooking [32,33]. Kumar et al. [34]
reported many essential features of a focal receiver that absorbs a sig­
nificant amount of reflected solar energy and transfers it to the working
fluid as heat with the least amount of loss. Further, solar concentrators
are classified into four types. These are Reflector, Refractor, Hybrid, and
Luminescent.
Reflector concentrator. Concentrator reflectors are angled straight
mirrors made of silicone-covered metal that capture the rays of the sun.
Mirrors are used in pairs to prevent reflection losses. The angle of
inclination is determined by the installation’s latitude. When the sun’s
rays strike the concentrator, they are reflected in the PV cell [35]. It
involves the use of a parabolic trough, a parabolic dish, a compound
parabolic concentrator, and a hyperboloid concentrator.
Refractor concentrator. When the sun rays strike the concentrator,
they are refracted to the PV cell. Fresnel lenses can be circular, providing
a high concentration power point focus, or cylindrical, providing a low
concentration power line focus. The front of the lens is not smooth, but
rather has rough surface sections that are angled differently to increase
concentration while minimizing the weight and thickness [35]. It in­
volves the use of fresnel lenses [36].
Hybrid concentrator. The sunrays can be reflected and refracted as
they pass through the concentrator before reaching the PV cell [35]. It
involves the use of Dielectric Totally Internally Reflecting Concentrators
(DTIRC), Flat High Concentration Devices, and other components [37].
Luminescent concentrators. The photons will be steered to the PV cell
via complete internal reflection using luminescent concentrators. Light
is refracted in a luminescent film before being directed to a solar cell by
luminescent concentrators. They can concentrate diffuse light without
using mirrors or optical lenses. This concentrator technology eliminates
the need for tracking [35]. It involves the use of the Quantum Dot
Concentrator.
Applications of solar energy in the agriculture sector
Solar energy can be used in agriculture in numerous ways, resulting
in cost savings, increased independence, and reduced pollution. This can
meet and/or supplement the energy needs of many farms. The following
is a brief overview of the use of solar energy technologies in the agri­
culture sector.
Solar drying
India ranks 2nd in fruit and vegetable production [38]. Post-harvest
losses account for 25 % to 30 % of productivity, reducing per capita fruit
and vegetable availability (NPCS-niir.org) [39]. Due to excessive mois­
ture, fruits and vegetables may deteriorate, causing producers signifi­
cant losses. Today’s researchers are focused on solar drying techniques.
This minimises the chance of germs and fungus growing on food, which
causes deterioration. Food can be preserved for a long time without
spoiling when dried. Drying decreases enzyme activity and reaction rate,
increasing product shelf life. Dried products have reduced material and
packaging weight and volume make items easier to transport and store,
hence reducing costs. Solar drying methods provide a way to process
vegetables and fruits under sanitary conditions while using no elec­
tricity. Proper crop planning, decent accommodation till the product
reaches the market at the right time, and value addition of agro products
utilising renewable energy may help farmers’ economies. This saves
energy, time, surface area, product quality, process efficiency, and the
environment [40].
Solar drying is more cost-effective than conventional fuels/elec­
tricity drying, it is hygienic, eco-friendly, has lower operation and
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
maintenance costs, is healthier, and lasts longer. A typical dryer can last
15–20 years with minimal maintenance [41]. The solar drying technique
reduces the cost of post-harvest treatment, which benefits farmers
economically and reduces their dependency on fossil fuels.
Classification of solar dryers
Solar drying methods include open sun, direct, indirect, and hybrid
solar drying. On the basis of drying mode, solar dryers are classified into
the passive type (natural convection), and the active type (forced con­
vection) [42,43] (Fig. 7).
Open sun drying. During the open sun drying process, basic parameters
such as crop temperature, neighbouring temperature, moisture evapo­
ration rate, relative humidity of the air, and wind velocity are effective
[44].
When drying in the sun, convective heat transmission is vital. Heat
transmission coefficient varies by crop and moisture level. This is due to
crop density, porosity, shape, size, and starting wetness [45]. Sun drying
has various drawbacks. Open sun drying requires a vast floor area and
sunshine availability. Sun-drying crops or food raises the danger of food
deterioration.
Direct sun drying. Cabinet dryers are direct-sun dryers. Solar radiation
directly strikes on the glass cover under which agricultural produce will
be kept. Radiation absorbed by the crop surface raises its warmth,
causing it to emit long-wavelength radiations. Unlike open sun drying,
long-wavelength radiations cannot escape the glass cover. The cham­
ber’s temperature rises. Air from below and above the cabinet chamber
removes moisture [46]. There are some limitations in direct sun drying.
(a) Because of its small capacity, it is only suitable for small-scale
applications.
(b) Crop discoloration occurs as a result of direct exposure to solar
radiation.
(c) Condensation of moisture inside glass covers reduces
transmissivity.
(d) An insufficient crop temperature can slow moisture removal.
(e) Use of selective layers on the absorber plate is restricted.
(f) It takes a long duration for drying the product.
Indirect solar drying. Indirect solar drying is one of the most effective
drying methods because the crop is not directly exposed to the sunlight,
cracking and discolorations are not possible. Farmers encounter chal­
lenges with direct solar drying and open sun drying, such as crop quality
degradation from wind, undesirable debris flowing and falling into
crops, and even bird droppings contaminating crops. Researchers
designed indirect solar dryers to meet farmers’ worries. Recently
developed indirect solar dryers include chamber-type dryers (bin type,
tray and rack type dryer, and tunnel type), wind-ventilated dryers, and
chimney-type dryers [47].
The indirect solar dryers also have higher efficiencies when
compared to open sun drying and direct sun drying, resulting in higher
profits for farmers [46–55].
Hybrid solar drying. The combined features of direct and indirect solar
drying are known as hybrid solar drying.
Essential oil distillation
Since the nineteenth century, essential oil has been used in the Indian
Ayurvedic healthcare system for curing a variety of dreadful diseases
[56]. India, as an agricultural country, cultivates many medicinal and
aromatic crops such as mints, lemongrass, palmarosa, vetiver, ocimum,
cinnamon, and so on for the production of essential oils [57]. Essential
oils have a very strong global market presence, producing 1,00,000 to
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
Fig. 7. Types of solar dryer.
1,10,000 MT per year and generating between $80 and $100 million
USD in annual sales. Because of the large production and well-
established market, essential oil demand grows by 2 % per year [58].
Distillation is the most common method for extracting essential oils from
aromatic crops. The volatile nature of essential oil also forces farmers to
use distillation for essential oil extraction. Distillation is one of the most
cost-effective methods for extracting essential oils, but the majority of
farmers used wood-based designs (primitive design).
Limitations of the wood-based designs:
• Chances of explosion due to uneven temperature
• Gives less than optimal yield
• Chances of charring of plant material
• Using fossil fuels and wood leads to depletion of non –renewable
resources
• Burning of 1 kg wood releases around 1.6 to 1.8 kg of CO2
• Environmental pollution
Different distillation designs and drawbacks
“Clevenger” is one of the oldest distillation designs for essential oil.
Clevenger (1928) initially described this apparatus [59]. The Clevenger
hydro-distillation device has various drawbacks. Hydrodistillation ex­
tracts volatile chemicals using water. Steam distillation involves passing
steam through plant material to evaporate, condense, and collect vola­
tile components. Many plants perform better in steam distillation than
hydro-distillation. Some researchers have developed distillation units
that have some limitations such as high residence time, difficult to
handle, Coil type condenser leads to improper condensation, improper
reflux system, and less oil yield [59–63]. There are various constraints
that compel researchers to consider alternative sources to replace wood-
based techniques (natural wood used as fuel) for steam generation.
Solar distillation unit (SDU)
A recent study reported on the use of solar energy for essential oil
extraction [64]. In this study, a new solar-based distillation assembly has
been designed to avoid the previous drawbacks [59–63]. This work
mentioned the use of solar panels, steam generation tank, removable
mesh, removable lid, vertical shell and tube condenser, newly designed
separator, and energy meters. In this study, detachable mesh was used
that prevents plants from fully submerging in water and allows steam
through small pores. The unit’s detachable lid makes plant loading and
unloading easy. The packed column prevents contaminants from
vaporizing. In this study, researcher highlighted the relevance of
employing solar energy for essential oil extraction, which raises the oil’s
quality and purity and boosts farmers’ income. This solar-based distil­
lation assembly is pollution-free and will overcome wood-based distil­
lation’s environmental issues.
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
Solar desalination
Desalination is the technique to separate salt from saline water or a
target substance, such as soil desalination, which is a problem in agri­
culture. Fresh water demands are increasing as a result of industriali­
zation, transportation, and increased human life standards [64]. Due to
lifestyle changes and population growth, drinking water is scarce in
many places of India. By 2025, the UN estimates that approximately
1800 million people would face water shortages [65]. Because agricul­
ture is India’s main industry, farmers will face intense competition. Due
of competition, people started digging ground deeper, lowering water
quality. One million children die in India each year from drinking
contaminated water, and 45 million are affected by water quality issues
[66]. This vast population has a very limited supply of drinking water,
leading researchers to develop technologies to filter dirty water at a
minimal cost and without polluting the environment. Traditional
methods for creating fresh drinking water, such as distillation, mem­
brane separation, electrolysis, chemical coagulation, etc., are energy-
intensive and complex. Traditional methods are expensive and harm
the environment. Solar-powered systems or solar desalination are better
for the environment than traditional methods. Solar desalination in­
volves evaporating and condensing brackish or brine water to remove
salts [67]. Maximum sunlight and flux pass through the cover plate and
reach the basin carrying water in solar desalination. Radiative and
convective heat transmission are essential [68]. The basin’s darkened
surface absorbs incoming radiation rather than reflecting it [69].
Heating the water surface enhances the heat transfer rate and acceler­
ates evaporation. On the cover plate’s inner surface, evaporated water
condenses. Where it condenses and releases the latent heat [70]. It slides
into the trough’s channels and collects in the bottle [69]. Fig. 8 depicts
direct and indirect sun desalination procedures. Direct desalination
combines desalination and solar collection. In indirect desalination, the
unit consists of a solar collector and desalination (Fig. 8) [69].
Types of desalination technologies
Techniques for desalination are broadly classified in non-phase
change, phase change, and hybrid [71].
During the phase change process, the feed is heated to its boiling
point to generate steam, which is then condensed to produce freshwater
(SD, MED, MVC, MSF, TVC). Non-phase change processes separate feed
salts chemically, mechanically, or electrically (ED, RO). In the hybrid
process, the phase change and non-phase change processes are com­
bined (MD, MSF or MED).
The use of concentrated solar thermal-desalination plants offers an
exciting opportunity to build much larger and more effective desalina­
tion plants in the future [72]. Photo Electrodialysis is a process that
combines solar energy with the ED process [73–75]. Reverse osmosis
filtration is the most efficient desalination process [76–78]. RO
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
Fig. 8. Classification of solar desalination systems [57].
desalination systems are commercially available [72]. Ultrafiltration,
microfiltration, and nanofiltration are used to pretreat brackish or
seawater prior to reverse osmosis desalination. In most cases, the MSF
power grid and solar thermal heat source are linked at the same time.
MSF is sometimes connected to a heat engine to provide both heat and
electricity [79]. The MED techniques need both mechanical energy and
thermal energy [80,81]. Low-pressure MED utilised less energy than
high-pressure MSF, according to several studies [82].
Application of solar-powered desalination
Solar energy helps pressurize reverse osmosis filtration. As
mentioned, reverse osmosis requires 2.5 kWh/m3 of energy. North Af­
rica and the Middle East get 2 MWh/m2 of annual insolation. The 25 %
of solar energy produced 0.5 MWh/m2 per year for pressurization [72].
This pressurization energy produces 200 m3 of desalinated water per m2
of solar collection surface every year. This technique can make a big
difference if put in a vast area with 25 % efficiency. Only renewable
energy sources can produce this much water. Desalinated water has
appropriate quantities of Ca, Mg, and sulphate [83]. Domingo et al. have
reported the many features of using desalinated water in agriculture,
such as:
a) desalinated water is also rich in nutrients so post-treatment is not
required,
b) presence of boron above 0.5 ppm is toxic to crops,
c) less requirements of manpower,
d) decreased costs and
e) less requirements for civil works.
Crops such as wheat require approximately 60 cm of water per year
for cultivation. This results in vast agricultural cultivation using
renewable energy sources, without diminishing non-renewable sources
[84]. Geothermal brine water should be used for agriculture because
water is necessary for crop growth and the agri-food chain. Geothermal
brine water must be desalinated before being used for irrigation because
it’s an untapped waste stream with a high ionic concentration. High
energy usage hinders desalination. Using the right technology can lower
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
the cost of producing irrigation water [85].
Solar-powered water pumps (SPWP)
Since most people rely on agriculture, water usage grew, leading to
overdependence on nonrenewable sources. Overusing fossil fuels harms
the ecosystem. Since these are nonrenewable sources, they may decline
over time. Emerging technologies include photovoltaic (PV) solar en­
ergy conversion for water pumping. Commercial PV systems put in
remote places had a positive influence [86].
Solar photovoltaic water pumping (SPWP) have solar panels, a
pump, and a motor. Some designs are based on the charge regulator and
storage batteries. Generally, these solar panels are mounted on the roofs
in series or parallel connections. PV panels are attached to an electric
motor (DC or AC), which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy, then into hydraulic energy via pump. Solar pumping system
capacity relies on pressure, water flow, and pump power. SPWP systems
without batteries are cheaper. Solar radiation can reach 1000 W/m2 in
tropical countries. Installing it without a backup battery isn’t a big deal
[87]. PV configuration affects the performance of a PV-powered water
pumping system. PV configuration is the series or parallel arrangement
of PV modules [88,89].
In India, there are currently 30 million agricultural pumps installed,
with nearly 8 million of them being diesel-powered. Furthermore, the
country has installed 20 million grid-connected agricultural water
pumps, with 0.25 to 0.5 million pump sets added annually. The power
shortages and increasing diesel fuel costs affect agricultural production
and crop irrigation. The adoption of solar PV pumps can save consid­
erable electricity and diesel used for irrigation practices in the agricul­
ture sector and for installing PV system for agriculture practices
Government of India provides subsidies to farmers. MNRE launched
India’s solar pumping initiative in 1992, and 2,72,700 solar pumps were
established there between 1992 and 2021. A new goal has been placed
on the solar pumping program in India with the launch of the Jawaharlal
Nehru National Solar Mission (JNSSM) by MNRE in 2010. Under this
program, 3 billion rupees (US $49 million) have been set aside as a
subsidy to be given to small farmers for the installation of PV pumps. In
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
several Indian states for agricultural and drinking water purposes,
16,546 off-grid solar-powered pumping devices has been installed in
2020–21. Installing the SPV water pumping system increases agricul­
tural output and reduces reliance on diesel pumps in Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. Farmers would
receive loans covering 30 % of solar water pumping system costs up to
Rs 57,000 (US$933) per kWp of PV module capacity. The participating
state governments must match at least 15 % of the expenditure with a
grant [90]. India has several solar-powered water pump suppliers, as
seen in Fig. 9. GOI is now pushing this application to a greater scale.
Solar refrigeration system (SRS)
Agricultural producers use refrigeration system to extend perishable
materials shelf life. Cold storage is used to store perishables between
manufacture and marketing processing. Cooling minimizes bacterial
decomposition and humidity in many products. Luo et al. had studied
the proper temperature for crops warehouses during the winter, when
the crops were chilled to below 5 ◦ C by mechanical airing, and the
summer, when the middle and bottom crops layer were kept below
15–20 ◦ C, while the above layer arrived at 32 ◦ C [91]. In India, a 10-
million-ton cold storage capacity was required to minimize 30 % food
waste [92,93].
Working principle
The solar refrigeration system mostly replaces compressor work with
generator-absorption. This system comprises of a solar panel, generator
(which converts solar radiation to heat), condenser, evaporator, and
absorber to absorb rejected heat. Zhang et al. had found that phase
change sun absorption refrigeration and heat pump solar absorption
refrigeration provided good cooling and a greater output-to-input ratio
[94].
Classification of solar refrigeration
The classification of solar refrigeration systems has been done by the
mode of solar power used by any system. Solar cooling systems are
classified as thermoelectric, thermomechanical, and thermal [28]. PV
solar panel cells convert sun energy to DC in the solar electric cooling
system. The generated current charges the battery and runs the
Fig. 9. State-wise Installed Off-grid SPV Water Pumps in India till 30.12.2020 [MNRE].
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
refrigeration compressor.
Photovoltaic solar panel cells convert sun energy to DC in the solar
electric cooling system. The generated current powers the battery and
the refrigeration compressor. Solar panels create current through ther­
mocouples in the thermoelectric cooler. Moria et al. had designed a
thermoelectric cooling system that reached 10.6 ◦ C and 65 ◦ C [95].
Using adequate working fluids, this system was created low refrigeration
temperatures (0 ◦ C) [96].
The solar thermo-mechanical system turns thermal energy into me­
chanical power. Working fluid and refrigerants are needed energy to
vaporise. Condenser and vapour compressor cooled and compressed it.
The evaporator cooled and the cycle was continued. Most thermo-
mechanical solar cooling systems use the solar Rankine cycle. Solar
thermal cooling is desiccant, absorption, and adsorption. Chemical or
physical changes between sorbent and refrigerant provide cooling.
Solar greenhouses
There are numerous publications on solar greenhouses that may be
accessed [97,98], however not all of them will necessarily be relevant to
this area. Sethi and Sharma [99] and Gozal et al [100] proposed the
earth-to-air system (EAHES) model as the sole system that has enhanced
greenhouse temperature regulation. To maximize heating, pipes are
buried 2 to 4 m underground. The digging is expensive, complex, and
impractical to monitor after installation. ACCFHES (Aquifer Coupled
Cavity Flow Heat Exchanger System) is an integrated thermal model
with an aquifer-coupled cavity flow heat exchanger [99]. This model
heats and cools greenhouse air better. It can raise greenhouse temper­
atures, enhancing plant production.
Social and environmental impact of solar energy technology
In order to validate the practicality of deploying the solar system,
general ways such as social, economic, and environmental aspects of
solar energy technologies are investigated.
Environmental impact
The use of fossil fuels, nuclear power, and other energy sources has a
negative environmental impact. Solar energy is infinite and renewable
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
and can help communities deal with fossil fuel price instability. Unre­
liable power and energy supply threatens human health. Most activities
require cheap and enough electricity for effective processes [101]. Solar
panels are pollution-free, easy to install anyplace in the sun, low-
maintenance, easy to use, and long-lasting. When their functional life
ends, these cells must be discarded properly. Burning fossil fuels releases
21.3 billion metric tonnes of CO2 annually. 50 MW solar power plant can
reduce 80,000 tonnes of CO2 per year [102].
Social impact
During the manufacturing and installation of solar technologies,
some employment will be generated which also show positive social
impacts. Rural communities rely heavily on household energy for
cooking, lighting, space and water heating, etc. Village lighting pro­
motes nighttime safety and productivity. Electricity has given societies
education, entertainment, and information. Rural kerosene consump­
tion in India creates 6.5 million tonnes of CO2 per year. Electricity might
save 35 MT CO2 annually by replacing kerosene lights [103]. In un­
derdeveloped countries, 89 million individuals can afford solar illumi­
nation [104]. Off-grid solar power systems may be employed in remote
locations where grid connectivity is not viable or cost-effective. Pro­
ductivity increases life quality and wealth. 85 percent of the 1.3 billion
people in developing countries without electricity live in low-income,
rural, or isolated locations. This hurts any country’s economy. Due to
their many benefits and low cost, solar panels are gaining popularity
Worldwide. By 2030, oil is expected to produce 16,604.65 million
tonnes of energy and be used 16,631.56 million tonnes [105]. The re­
sults showed that energy generation is less than consumption, leading to
depletion. Some researchers have linked fossil fuel depletion to climate
change.
LCA (Life cycle Assessment)
In addition to being marketed, solar photovoltaic technology is still
being developed and researched for further advancements in order to
achieve highly efficient and renewable energy sources. Life cycle
assessment (LCA) is growing in popularity for evaluating the access of
energy and the environmental impact of solar energy. During life span,
all systems can affect their performance. The solar PV technology gua­
rantees 80 % efficiency to its rated efficiency, and the technology life­
cycle is usually guaranteed for 20–25 years. When solar photovoltaics
are used, the cost of the solar panels is recovered after around 5–7 years
of use, giving the system an operational life of 15–18 years without solar
photovoltaics and requiring very little maintenance. Solar energy is
primarily used in agriculture to perform operations like distillation and
desalination rather than burning wood. Since solar energy does not
depend on burning wood, utilizing clean energy may reduce the expense
of burning wood as well as environmental degradation [106]. Based on
research, it is assumed that C-Si based technology will last 30 years for
m-Si and 25 years for p-Si [107]. Based on the circular economic
approach LCA of solar photovoltaic energy system boundary of the solar
photovoltaics bounded in four phases-.
(i) Production phase
(ii) Construction phase
(iii) Operational phase
(iv) End-Of-Life phase
As of now, Indian projections indicate that the intended target will be
achieved not sooner than 2029 as India’s ambitious goal is to install 100
GW of solar power by 2022 [108]. Polycrystalline PV modules have a
much shorter lifespan and lower efficiency than monocrystalline PV
modules, which result in much worse environmental performance
[108]. Approximately 6,576 tonnes of solar PV waste are expected to be
generated between 2034 and 2059, which will require end-of-life
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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
treatment with a recovery rate of 90.7 %, resulting in 678.6 MWh of
electricity used, 648 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions, and USD 11.8
billion in financial costs, respectively. Furthermore, recovering
aluminium and glass directly saves more than 70 GWh annually by
eliminating the need to extract and process raw materials [108]. End-of-
life energy consumption is expressed in tonnes of PV waste, whereas the
energy required during the first three phases, specifically, production,
construction, and operation, is reported in kwh/m2. The energy payback
time in rooftop PV is less as compared to ground-mounted PV. The En­
ergy return on investment (EROI) for ground-mounted PV technologies,
m-Si and p-Si is 13.7 and 12.5, respectively and for rooftop PV tech­
nologies, m-Si and p-Si is 17.5 and 16.8. EROI is a dimensionless ratio
that is used for comparing and analysing different types of technologies.
Higher EROI was indicated higher competence in terms of making
economically useful energy output [109].
The rate of GHG emissions is a helpful metric for assessing a PV
system’s efficiency in relation to global warming. The comparison of
CO2 emissions from traditional coal-based power generation and
renewable PV modules is shown in Fig. 10. According to the available
information, compared to coal-based power generation, CO2 emissions
are relatively low during the whole life cycle. In the first phase of a solar
photovoltaic system’s life cycle, when upstream processes are taking
place, the CO2 emissions are around 60–70 %; in the second life phase,
known as the operational life, the PV module produces around 21–26 %
of the CO2 emissions; and in the final phase, known as the downstream
phase, it produces about 5–20 % CO2; in contrast, coal-based power
plant units emit more than 98 % of CO2 during the operational phase.
Total amount of CO2 emitted from photovoltaic cell is 40 gCO2eq/kWh
which is very less as compared to amount of CO2 emitted by coal power
plant (1000 gCO2eq/kWh) [110].
Solar energy systems economic analysis
Agriculture is vital to the state’s economic development. Solar en­
ergy has a significant impact on agricultural productivity, either directly
or indirectly. The economics of solar energy include manpower costs,
maintenance costs, and capital investment for installing solar systems to
supply electricity for commercial and domestic uses. The current situ­
ation is more favorable for the expansion of solar energy potential, and
the National Solar Mission100 GW energy target has heralded a new era
of solar power in India. Due to technology, solar systems are being used
professionally and residentially. Shukla et al. reported on the economics
of a standalone rooftop solar PV system and according to this study, the
solar PV modules and components are expensive [105]. As a result, the
cost of generated electricity will be expensive. However, due to recent
price reductions in solar PV systems, this technology is now cost-
competitive with traditional energy sources. The large initial invest­
ment required to purchase solar PV systems has been a key impediment
to their widespread adoption. The suggested system’s economic analysis
helps determine the possible energy cost, initial investment, subsidies,
and support that could make off-grid PV installations more appealing in
India. For grass-roots implementation, a cluster-based strategy for solar
project deployment should be tested. Governments should subsidize the
purchase and installation of rooftop solar PV systems by more than 25 %
to make them popular and spread this energy source.
Fossil and renewable fuel electricity generation cost analysis
Energy consumption has climbed by 5.4 % in the recent decade
(2008 to 2018), mostly due to economic and population expansion. Coal
is used as more than 50 % of total primary energy consumption of
commercial fuel in India, which generates a large amount of CO2 and
other hazardous gases (Fig. 11a) [111].
The Fig. 11b shows the median LCOE of 750 different countries. The
above graphical representation can differentiate the geographical re­
gions’ median LCOE on its different sources of electricity generation. In
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905

Fig. 10. Comparison of Life Cycle Stages of Solar Photovoltaic and Coal based Power generation in terms of carbon emission per kWh energy generation [110].

India, the median LCOE of electricity generation from coal is much
higher than the other sources as well as renewable energy sources [112].
Two-thirds of global GHG emissions are from energy production and
usage. The GDP of the G20 member countries is 86 % of the Global GDP.
Three-quarter of the energy is also needed by the G20 countries along
with 85 % of the energy consumption. About 87 % of the Global
renewable power capacity has also been developed in the G20 member
countries. The Indian government needs 227 GW of renewable energy
capacity by 2022, far more than the Paris agreement target of 175 GW.
Depending on the geographical and sectorial integration, the LCOE
(Levelized Cost of Electricity) ranged from 67.2 to 71.6 USD/MWh.
The RECM (Renewable Energy Certificate mechanism) is a market-
based tool that promotes renewable energy sources and advances the
electricity market. Solar and non-solar are the two different categories of
RECM to fulfill the RPO of the correspondent category. It is the reason
that the cost of solar energy based engendered electricity is very
upraised as comparison to other sources of the electricity generation.
The distributed REC is legal only for 1095 days.
CERC (Central Electricity Regulatory Commission) has calculated the
capital cost for solar PV at $ 657559.49 USD/MW for the financial year
2016–2017. This is declined to 17 % in the year 2015–16 (Fig. 11b)
[113].
Average cost comparison for different sources of electricity generation
The electrical energy produced by the thermal power plants is
located very far from the exact consumption site, hence the cost of
transport of electricity and also loss in the conveyance process is very
high. The cost of the electricity generation is depending on the two
factors first is the fixed cost and another one in variable cost. Fixed cost

12
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905

Fig. 11. a: Commercial fuels energy consumption scenario in 2018 (Global average and in India); b: Median technology cost by country.

of the plant is like initial investment of land accusation and capital cost
of the equipment’s. The variable cost is just like plant operational cost
for electricity generation. Table 2 clearly shows the comparison in be­
tween the average capital cost (USD$/kw) and average operating cost
(USD$/kwh) for different sources of electricity generation power plants.
Table 2 reveals that the average capital cost required for the coal-
based thermal power plant is around $ 750 USD/kw. On the other
hand, the photovoltaic solar plant is much higher, and it is around $
4500 USD/kw. The majority of the fixed costs of producing power are
comes under capital and land costs. The operational costs of a power
plant include fuel, labour, and maintenance. Total operating costs, as
opposed to fixed capital costs, are determined by the amount of power
produced and sold by the plant. In power plants, the trade-off between
capital and operating expenses is common. Plants with higher capital
costs often have lower operating costs. Table 2 compares the typical
operating costs of coal-based and solar photovoltaic power plants [114].
Challenges and limitations

The consumption of fossil fuels cannot be reduced due to the high

Table 2 energy demand caused by overpopulation. Additionally, for agricultural
Typical capital and operating cost for power plants electricity generation [112]. needs and household appliances, a large chunk of our rural area still
Source of generation Average capital cost ($ Average operating cost lacks power. Solar energy has the potential to play a significant role in
USD/kw) ($ USD/kwh) resolving this issue.
Pulverized-coal combustion 750 0.03
The main concern in the development of solar energy is the high
Natural gas combustion 600 0.07 price and low efficiency of solar-related technologies. Furthermore,
Coal Gasification Combined 6000–10,000 0.06 unlike fossil fuel technologies, the output of the solar energy technology
Cycle (CGCC) systems is influenced by location and weather conditions. Though this
Natural Gas Combined Cycle 900 0.07
technology is gaining popularity throughout the Globe and the imple­
(NGCC)
Wind turbine (included 3100 <0.01 mentation is now accelerating in India. The impact of radiation intensity
offshore wind) due to the topological and seasonal diversity associated with solar
Nuclear 3100 0.03 technology can be overcome. Till date, this technology is required high
Photovoltaic solar ≥4500 <0.01 capital investment, but it can be compensated due to least economic
Hydroelectric 3100
burden of the running cost in long-term solar project evaluation. The
<0.01

13
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
deployment of solar energy technologies is being deliberated due to lack
of organizational funding for primary stage exploration. In many
developing countries, there is a scarcity of specific training for solar
energy technologies in vocational schools, universities, technical
training, and labour centers [101]. Apart from these, the installation of
solar energy setup requires power-wise space due to which the space
used may face competition to be used for even more purposes. The
quantity of space needed for utility-scale solar power facilities. At pre­
sent, India needs about 1 km2 space to generate every 20–60 MW of solar
energy which is burdening the availability of space in India. India is now
ranked 7th in the world for solar photovoltaic (PV) cell production and
ranked 9th in solar thermal systems, trailing only Japan, China, and the
United States.
To maximise space use in India, which has a population of over 132
million, scientists came up with a solution. The new design uses solar
tree panels on roofs, reducing civil building costs. India’s populous cities
use these designs. It can be scaled up for local sustainable energy needs.
SWOT analysis
A SWOT study for solar energy technology is given below.
Strength: India’s government has launched several solar power
projects to make the country energy self-sufficient and a significant solar
power producer in the near future. To stimulate solar’s growth and
expansion, the government has offered incentives including low-interest
financing. India’s tropical climate provides abundant sunlight that can
be transformed into electrical and thermal energy. This technique helps
farms reduce fossil fuel use and increase income.
Agricultural and industrial product like solar dryers, solar re­
frigerators, water heating, solar cooking, etc. utilize works on solar
electricity directly or indirectly. During biomass gasification, the feed­
stock’s moisture content should not exceed 20 %; sun driers can remove
the moisture. In locations with strong sun and no power, many people
cook food with solar energy [115].
Indian government is supporting solar energy utilization through a
variety of techniques. The government has proposed allocating $ 13
crore USD to the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission and the for­
mation of a Clean Energy Fund in the 2010–11 budget plan. It’s a $ 5
crore USD increases over the previous budget. In order to encourage
private solar fumes, customs duty reduction has been provided up to 5 %
as well as excise duty exemption in the budget. This is predicted to lower
the number of solar panels installed on roofs by 15 % to 20 % [102].
Weakness: India, a tropical country, has many sunny days, yet
they’re misused. We need the technological infrastructure to efficiently
capture this plentiful energy. Solar electricity is expensive to install
compared to fossil fuels. Each kilowatt-hour costs two to three times as
much as power from other fossil fuels. Solar energy’s multipurpose in­
tegrated strategy can boost rural development, farming, and agriculture
[116].
Opportunity: Government of India has taken many initiatives to
promote solar energy technologies, with the goal of spreading the
network uniformly by 2022 through extensive use, rapid diffusion, and
exploitation at a scale that leads to cost savings in research, pilot pro­
jects, infrastructure improvement, and local manufacturing. Since 2009,
the cost of solar panels/concentrator has declined by 80 %, and their
performance has improved dramatically, which has been reflected in
energy pricing. The government is also enabling financial assistance to
the priority sector for rooftop PV adoption in distant areas. Associations
like as AREAS (Association of Renewable Energy Agencies of States) and
CEEW (The Council on Energy, Environment, and Water) also contribute
in the monitoring of solar programmes and the establishment of high-
tech green jobs in the market. In India, research on a new centralised
solar aroma distillation model for eco-friendly essential oil extraction
has not been reported. Solar distillation unit using solar thermal
concentrator/solar panel for eco-friendly essential oil can advance rural
development and farming [117].
14
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
Threats: Solar energy is clean and green. Solar energy doesn’t emit
harmful emissions. Solar energy is a green energy production technol­
ogy, but it can pollute indirectly.
Environmental Progress (EP) report says old solar panel waste poses
a global environmental problem. Solar panel disposal, which includes
lead, chromium, and cadmium, is prevalent, but little is done to lessen
the detrimental impact.
A carbon footprint is the amount of greenhouse gases produced
directly or indirectly by a product. Solar power facilities leave an
environmental footprint over their lifecycles. CSP (Concentrated solar
power) emits 20 g of CO2 per kWh of energy. Photovoltaic (PV) power
facilities have carbon footprints that can surpass 12 g/kWh.
Fossil fuels have long been used globally. Countries that use fossil
fuels as energy have invested heavily in power stations. These well-
established technologies make it difficult to switch from conventional
to solar fuel [118].
Research gap
Solar energy technology is most beneficial because it’s widely
available. Solar energy research primarily aimed to cut costs and boost
efficiency until recently. Today, these aren’t the only aims being sought;
others include closing the gap between market and industrial need,
increasing research, combining and integrating technologies, etc. Solar
energy technologies need ongoing fresh efforts to improve efficiency,
reach, and deployment in sustainable development scenarios. Solar and
wind energy are leading the way in sustainable energy, which requires
next-generation modules. Technology must balance performance,
innovation, and cost-reduction.
Solar energy is not economical for many consumptions due to its high
initial installation cost, accessibility, capacity, and the inefficiency of
current solar energy technology. Commercially available solar photo­
voltaic energy efficiency is 22–25 %. Researchers can also make highly
efficient solar cells, although that technique is still in testing. Solar en­
ergy is clean renewable energy, so current research aims to reduce the
cost of solar photovoltaic and increase its efficiency. This technology
requires a high capital investment, but it can be compensated by the
least economic burden of running costs in long-term solar project eval­
uation [101]. India needs 1 km2 for every 20–60 MW of solar energy,
which strains its space. India ranks 7th for solar PV cell production and
9th for solar thermal systems, after Japan, China, and the US. Indian
government supports solar energy use [102].
The government must encourage Indian farmers to install and use
solar energy-based technologies at competitive prices through various
channels and subsidized schemes. The Indian government’s energy
policies and desire to reduce CO2 emissions support the usage and
installation of solar energy technologies, which is good for long-term
sustainable development. India’s sustainable energy goals will also
require a roadmap. The government aims to phase out fossil fuels by
2050. Future solar energy generation and use will require more infra­
structure investment, integration, and capacity building. Adjust agri­
cultural subsidies to use only the necessary amount of energy. Global
environmental policy and the World Bank gave China $40 million for
solar energy capacity. China became a leading solar manufacturer in the
recent decade. Due to India’s topography, renewable energy loans and
financial support should be encouraged internationally for the devel­
opment of solar energy technologies. Solar energy serves society, the
economy, and the environment, but its high installation costs hinder its
growth. In India, extensive R&D efforts are underway to improve solar
installations and cut production costs.
Conclusion
Renewable and sustainable solar energy has high impact, and it is an
effective substitute of conventional fossil fuels. Its use mitigates CO2
emission and greener option to overcome the Global warming threat.
Ch.M.S. Kumar et al.
Presently India generating more than 100 GW solar power, and scope for
generating 750 GW solar power through PV cells if appropriate cost-
economic technologies available in near future. PFT and LFT are the
most effective solar concentrator used for harvesting of solar energy and
presently the hybrid concentrator made the process more promising.
The present review explains the use and importance of solar energy
in various agricultural applications such as water pumping, refrigera­
tion, distillation, desalination, drying, and so on. The solar energy used
for the above applications are proved most efficient as compared to the
conventional powered source. The main goal of this summary is clearly
narrated the various applications that can help farmers to earn high
income at low input cost of energy; researchers for conducting and
developing further experiments and technologies to improve the effi­
ciency of the solar energy-based technologies, and the cost-effectiveness
of the presently available technologies; finally, industrialists for pro­
duction and deployment of the technologies at ground level. The greater
potential of solar energy technologies should be developed for better
utilization of solar power for agricultural activities to minimize the
dependency on the fossil fuels-based energy. Finally, it concluded that,
despite various technologies are available for agricultural activities in
front of farmers, still substantial gap has been observed in the pur­
chasing and adaptation of solar energy-based technologies by Indian
farmers because the technical knowledge, satisfaction level and pur­
chasing capacity of farmers is not up to the mark, and these factors need
substantial improvement. Majorly, there is a need to develop low-cost
solar energy-based technologies for using in agricultural sector.
Finally, the researchers, technologists and policy makers sincerely ef­
forts are needed to minimize the capital cost for successful imple­
mentation of solar energy in various sector.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest in this work.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ch. Mohan Sai Kumar: Writing – review & editing. Suman Singh:
Writing – review & editing. Manglesh Kumar Gupta: Writing – review
& editing. Yogesh M. Nimdeo: Supervision. Ravi Raushan: Writing –
review & editing. Ankit V. Deorankar: Writing – review & editing. T.M.
Ananda Kumar: Writing – review & editing. Prasant Kumar Rout:
Supervision. C.S. Chanotiya: Supervision. Vinod D. Pakhale: Writing –
review & editing. Ashween Deepak Nannaware: Supervision,
Conceptualization, Writing – original draft.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The present review article includes data that was cited in our article
and added in reference section (Article’s DOI has also been added in
reference list)
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to CSIR-FTT (FC2020-23/MLP-21), Aroma
mission (HCP-0007, PE-II), New Delhi, India and NECTAR (GAP-469),
Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for financial support
and Director, CSIR-CIMAP for permission to publish this review paper.
15
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 55 (2023) 102905
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