Environmental Science and Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20133-0

REVIEW ARTICLE

Advancements in solar technologies for sustainable development

of agricultural sector in India: a comprehensive review on challenges
and opportunities
Amit Kumar Thakur1 · Rajesh Singh2 · Anita Gehlot2 · Ajay Kumar Kaviti3 · Ronald Aseer4 ·
Subbarama Kousik Suraparajud5 · Sendhil Kumar Natarajand5 · Vineet Singh Sikarwar6,7,8

Received: 30 September 2021 / Accepted: 3 April 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Agriculture is the main occupation of the majority of people in India. The majority of the population in India is dependent
(directly or indirectly) on agriculture as an occupation. The agriculture sector requires more freshwater and power for better
yield in the current scenario. Nevertheless, the ever-increasing rate of energy consumption, limited fossil fuels, and rising
pollution have made the expansion of renewable resources essential. Due to the suitable solar potential available in India,
the deployment of solar energy has been more as compared to other renewable resources. The current study aims to discuss
the various technologies, initiatives and policies of solar energy usage in agriculture. This work delivers an assessment
of the advancement of solar energy vis-à-vis agricultural applications through the greenhouse concept and photovoltaic
approach in India. Various agricultural applications of solar energy, such as solar water desalination system, solar water
pumping system, solar crop dryer system for food safety, etc. are discussed as a means to promote solar-based technology.
It also highlights the scenario of solar energy in India with important accomplishments, developmental approaches, and
future potential. In-depth studies of various policies and government initiatives including those in research and development
are also discussed. The current survey on solar technologies will be an aid to agribusiness frameworks to comprehend the
statuses, obstructions, and extent of advancement. Finally, some future recommendations for further developments in this
approach are discussed. This work sheds light on varied areas of solar energy-assisted agricultural systems as a potentially
sustainable and eco-friendly pathway.

Keywords Agriculture · Future potential · Government initiatives · Indian context · Policies · Solar energy

Introduction

The energy request has been rising quickly because of popu-

Highlights
• Examined the deployment of solar energy in Indian
agricultural systems.
• Evaluated the progress of solar energy vis-à-vis horticultural
application through the greenhouse concept.
• Assessed solar energy potential in India w.r.t. accomplishments,
developmental approaches and future potential.
• Discussed various policies and government initiatives to
promote the deployment of solar energy.
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
* Vineet Singh Sikarwar
sikarwar@ipp.cas.cz
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
lace augmentation in India. Clean energy sources are pick-
ing up massive significance over the world, including India.
Among all the sustainable power source advances, solar
power fills in as a compelling sustainable power source for
different applications, particularly in farming, for example,
harvest and grain drying, greenhouse heating, small-scale
water system, water pumping framework so on and so forth.
India is considered the world's best solar energy area, with
large parts of India being awarded sunshine for three hun-
dred days a year. Depending on the situation, the Indian solar
incident varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2 with bright sunshine.
India has a projected solar power capacity of around 749
GW to be utilized to reduce the country's energy scarcity.

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As indicated in Fig. 1, Rajasthan tops the list followed by
Jammu and Kashmir in terms of solar energy capacity.
In India, solar power can produce more than 500,000 TWh
of electricity per year, an estimated three times higher than
in India by 2015. In Rajasthan and a portion of the Ladakh
region, maximum solar radiation is available. In contrast,
extensive solar radiation is seen in states such as Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra throughout the
year (Kar et al. 2016). In the middle of 2008, eight primary
missions, including the National Solar Project, the National
Energy Efficiency Enhanced Mission, and the National
Green India Mission, began under the National Action Plan
on Climate Change. Solar Mission was introduced in three
stages among these projects, ensuring that power generation
and installations were carried out in different areas within
the defined timeframe. The idea of desalination of seawater
utilizing solar energy for India’s Thar Desert in Rajasthan
three decades ago continues to be evaluated. Nevertheless,
the techniques like solar distillation and desalination have
shown great potential in meeting drinking water require-
ments and other needs in remote areas as it is considered
cheap and easy to build and maintain. To meet the demand
for energy use and water use, drip irrigation operated by the
Fig. 1 Solar capacity in India
(Kar et al. 2016)
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
solar photovoltaic pump will be handy. Off-grid solar lantern
systems in rural areas can be encouraged by removing the
barriers and encouraging low-cost alternatives to seek bet-
ter and practical participation consecutively to augment the
utilization of solar energy. Compared to kerosene lanterns,
solar energy lantern systems can be more cost-effective if
adequate support is given in rural areas to encourage and
incorporate solar energy. Another area of interest could be
the exploitation of the potential of ultra-large solar farms
(Sahoo 2016). The current scenario in India is that solar
energy is entirely focused on photovoltaic (PV). Still, the
state of Rajasthan is of considerable significance because
of its enormous solar potential (Sharma 2011). Smart grid
engineering has gained a lot by successful integration with
the computer network and integrates real-time visibility into
the power grid. Besides, the rooftop installation has received
a boost and is considered a success story in the renewable
energy field (Tripathy 2013). However, there is a lack of
discussion on solar-based agricultural systems for the sus-
tainable development of the agricultural sector. Therefore, a
comprehensive discussion on solar-powered agricultural sys-
tems would be an effective way to address the issues that are
challenging the sustainable development of the agricultural
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
sector. In this regard, the article aims to address the advance-
ments, policies, initiatives, and future potential of the agri-
cultural sector based on solar technologies. Also, the article
aims to elaborately elucidate each solar-based agricultural
system with its challenges and opportunities in the current
scenario. Therefore, the following section of the article
briefly describes the solar energy potential in India, solar
energy initiatives, plans and policies by the government for
uplifting the usage of solar energy in India for sustainable
development of the agricultural sector. Further, the article
describes the various technological advancements in solar-
powered agricultural systems such as solar water pumps,
solar desalination systems, solar dryers, solar heat pump sys-
tems, and process heat generation through solar concentrator
systems for agricultural purposes.
Solar energy and its development in India
The International Energy Agency (IEA) has broadly defined
photovoltaic technologies as the domestic, off-grid, distrib-
uted, and interconnected grid off-grid. A distinctive PV
module is constructed using series-coupled 36 or 72 cells,
enclosed in an aluminium frame, according to the signifi-
cance and type of the cell technology used. Renewable
energy has become humanity’s ultimate source of energy as
demand for electricity has risen beyond expectations (Sahoo
2016). Solar energy has great potential in cold storage sys-
tems and photovoltaic systems. Solar power can be best
utilized in India owing to the ideal location on the globe,
thus making it a perfect venue for generating solar-powered
electricity (Pillai and Banerjee 2009).
The solar incident in India ranges from 4 kWh per
day to 7 kWh per day. The solar mission aims to achieve
20,000MW of solar energy with 2000 MW off-grid energy
and twenty million square meters of solar thermal energy
collector area by 2022 (Garg 2012; Nautiyal and Varun
2012). The Solar mission is designed in three stages from
March 2010 to March 2022, thereby taking the first stage
of construction into account of 1,100 MW of solar grid
plants (Rampinelli et al. 2014). The government of India's
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) has
set a goal of developing an enabling legislative frame-
work for the deployment of 20 GW of solar electricity
by 2022 (Khare et al. 2013). The mission intended to uti-
lize the maximum benefits of solar radiation in India and
help reach the goal by 2022. Solar energy, which is abun-
dantly available and is very reliably obtained from various
sources, has made it possible for the mission to extract
the maximum usable heat to help generate direct electric-
ity (Thavasi and Ramakrishna 2009; Khare et al. 2013).
Figure 2 displays the preliminary state-wise breakdown
of India’s solar target by 2022. It is worth noting that the
National Solar Project of Jawaharlal Nehru (JNNSM) is
targeting 20 GW of solar power by 2022 to provide better
end-user benefits. In the Indian power sector, the problems
in nearly 600,000 villages where electricity access is zero
are ranging from non-access to the electricity grid to high
energy deficits. The release of the JNNSM set its goal of
achieving rapid development in all long-term policies with
large-scale deployment targets using ambitious R&D to
achieve the goal of achieving grid tariff parity by 2022.
Solar power plants at the utility level need approximately
1 km per 20–60 MW of land (Kar et al. 2016).
As of March 2020, approximately 370,106 MW of power
is produced in India by renewable and non-renewable energy
sources, and 45,699 MW of power is generated by hydro
(renewable) sources, which is just 12.40% of the country’s
power generation. In RES (Renewable Energy Sources) the
energy generation accounted for 87,028 MW of electric-
ity, which is 23.5 percent of country power (Government
of India Ministry of New and Renewable Energy n.d.). The
renewable energy sector is the area where India wants to
establish itself. With the help of the JNNSM mission, the
promotion and production of solar energy for the country’s
electricity generation and other subsequent use will become
easy (Sharma et al. 2015).
The solar sector has witnessed rapid growth over the past
2 to 3 years, with installed solar capacity growing steadily
from 18 to around 3800 MW in 2010–2015. These inno-
vations will allow India to attain its current 20,000 MW
goal. Under the JNNSM, the Union Cabinet chaired by the
Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, approved a fivefold
increase in India’s solar target touching 100,000 MW by
2022. The target will consist mainly of 40 GW of rooftop
and 60 GW of connected solar power projects via a grid of
large and medium scale (Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy n.d.). The renewable energy sector has shown posi-
tive growth over the past year until March 2015. It has been
a matter of pride for India to achieve the goal in a short
time since the release of JNNSM in January 2010. The year
2016–2017 recorded the highest ever wind capacity addition
of 5.5 GW. Also, in 2018 and 2019, it was about 28 GW.
In the last 5 years, renewable energy installed capacity has
augmented by 226%. The solar park scheme has doubled
from 20 to 40 GW with the solar tariff getting reduced by
more than 75%. For the overall installed renewable energy
capacity, India stands at the 5th global position. In the
total installed generation capacity of the country, renew-
able energy accounts for 23.39%, i.e., 368.98 GW (up to 29
February 2020). The biggest expansion plan for renewable
power in the world is 175 GW before 2022 will be in India.
In the last 5.5 years, solar capacity has risen from around
2.6 to 34 GW. Slowly, it is moving forward towards its aim,
and by the end of the year 2022, it is possible to reach near
the goal. The year-wise target to be achieved to accomplish
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Fig. 2 Preliminary state-wise
breakdown of India’s solar tar-
get by 2022 (Kar et al. 2016)
the scale-up target of 100,000 MW is illustrated in Fig. 3
(Government of India Power Sector at a Glance ALL INDIA
| Ministry of Power n.d.).
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) aims for the global
deployment of solar energy by 2030. Established by Prime
Minister Narendra Modi and French President Francois Hol-
lande on 30 November 2015, ISA aims to increase solar
energy, solar generation costs by aggregating demand for
solar finance, technology, innovation, research and devel-
opment, and capacity building (National Institute of Solar
Energy International Solar Alliance n.d.).
Solar energy in agriculture applications
The following section gives a brief description of the vari-
ous technological advancements in solar-powered agricul-
tural systems such as solar water pumps, solar desalination
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
systems, solar dryers, solar heat pump systems and process
heat generation through solar concentrator systems for better
yield and sustainable development of the agricultural sec-
tor. Nevertheless, the abovementioned technologies are indi-
vidually having their potential with simple design, economic
operation, and better efficiency. However, the technological
advancements and combination of various approaches of
solar systems in agricultural sectors would be a better choice
for obtaining a better yield which leads to the sustainable
development of the agricultural sector.
Solar water pumping system
A system of solar water pumps is a relatively simple device
usually made up of a water pump, electronic control, solar
panels, and tubing. There is no battery in many systems
of solar water pumps. Solar water pumps can be of two
types such as surface water pumps which can be used to
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Fig. 3 Revised JNNSM target (Government of India Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy n.d.)
raise and pump water up to 20 m deep and submersible
water pumps which can be used in places where there is
water, more widely available, and where open wells are
not available. Such systems can pump up to the maximum
required depth of 50 m. SPVWP (solar photovoltaic water
pumping) is an eco-friendly and economically compe-
tent solution to direct water in remote areas. In terms of
profitability, unwavering quality, and cost viability, the
solar-oriented P.V. water pumping system offers excellent
Fig. 4 The basic structure of
photovoltaic water pumping
system (Benghanem et al. 2013)
performance. The successful show of these structures
urges farmers to try to achieve this moderate innovation
as another feasible option for water supply (Meah et al.
2008). However, the concept of floating PV (Natarajan
et al. 2019a) can also be implemented for better utilization
and safeguarding the water resources. The performance of
the PV water pumping system with water spraying over
the photovoltaic cell is examined in this report. When
water is spread across the photovoltaic cell, the circuit
efficiency and structure are categorically improved. Infla-
tion by 3.26%, 1.40%, and 1.35% is observed, when16
m head drains water over the cell and the cell abilities,
subsystem outputs, and cumulative output are increased.
Because of the system without water fluctuation on cells,
the mean water fluctuation rate in the middle of the test
day was around 479 l per hour, and it achieved 644 l per
hour on account of the water-flushing on the cells. The
evaluation revealed that the splash of water improved the
optical quality by 1.8% (Abdolzadeh and Ameri 2009).
Figure 4 shows the basic structure of PVWPS (photovol-
taic water pumping systems). Different configurations of
PV array [PVWPS1 (PV water pumping system powered
by PV1), PVWPS2 (powered by PV2, PVWPS3 (powered
by PV3), and PVWPS4 (powered by PV4)] were used. The
combined evaluation of the effectiveness of the framework
displayed that the (PVWPS3) is more appropriate relative
to other configurations. Table 1 gives the effectiveness of
the PV powered system over diesel and wind-powered sys-
tems. The (PVWPS4) should be used in the early morning
to offer sufficient power to switch on the pump, and in the
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Table 1 Merits and demerits of System type Merits Demerits

PV, diesel, and wind-powered
systems (Benghanem et al.
2013)
PV • Less or no maintenance required
• Secured life
• Installation is very easy
• No recurring expenses
Diesel • Moderate capital cost
• Can be portable
Wind • Potentially long-lasting
• Work well in a windy site
Solar • Low maintenance costs
• Low emission
Tidal • Long-lasting equipment
• Effective at low speeds
• The initial cost is relatively high
• No output in cloudy weather
• Need maintenance
• Noise fume and dirt problem
• High maintenance
• Seasonal disadvantage
• Expensive tools
• Weather dependent
• Solar energy storage is expensive
• Uses a lot of Space
• High construction costs
• Scarcity of suitable locations

ideal daylight, the (PVWPS3) is best suited as suggested
by the researcher (Benghanem et al. 2013).
In fact, in monetary and ecological terms, the solar pho-
tovoltaic water pump system (SPVWP) framework has dem-
onstrated its benefits. The author has demonstrated that the
SPVWP system is economically adaptable and competitive
with conventional water pumping powered by diesel gen-
erator systems. SPVWP’s main application in developed
countries is to feed livestock and wildlife in remote areas.
The investigation aimed to create a new solar water heater
(SWHS) system using a solar pump rather than an electric
pump. The rate of flow of water within the SWHS was found
to range between 12 and 59 l per day. The average daily effi-
ciency of the pump was about 0.0014–0.0019%. Also, the
thermal efficiency of SWHS was found to be 7–13%, while
the performance of a traditional device was 30–60%. The
new method was economically equivalent to that of tradi-
tional (Roonprasang et al. 2008). The purpose of conduct-
ing an exergy analysis of SAGSHP (solar-assisted ground
source heat pump) systems is to identify process efficiencies
and losses in a better manner. Nonetheless, for a realistic
future, exergy can be considered as a critical part. Playing
an exergy inquiry into SAGSHP systems will help to distin-
guish system efficiencies and losses better. This examination
furnishes a better architect for SAGSHP systems (Ozgener
and Hepbasli 2007a). In this paper, water pumping systems
for off-grid wind turbines (WT) and solar photovoltaic (PV)
were individually analyzed and combined as a hybrid sys-
tem. For the hybrid off-grid 900 W WT/320 W PV systems,
the rate of flow of water increased and for 900 W WT/640 W
PV systems, the rate of flow of water decreased in the mid-
August timeframe when compared to W.T. and P.V. array
working separately (Vick and Neal 2012).
Investigations were performed to improve the thermal
efficiency of the solar water heating system (SWHS), using
an integrated solar water pump. Water distribution varies in
the SWHS between 15 and 65 l per day. It was observed that
pump output had a maximum value of 0.0017%. SWHS was
found to have a maximum daily thermal efficiency of 21%,
thus improving the thermal efficiency. SWHS is suitable for
residential use, with less than 1 m of discharge head. The
expense of the SWHS household is lower in comparison
(Sutthivirode et al. 2009). The efficiencies of the system
were reported for up to 60 m in the range of 30–50% for the
system. The effectiveness for the 4 × 1 array was smaller,
showing that the order for this array is underpowered. The
general findings are inspiring and affirm the appropriateness
of the novel structure strategy (D.Langridge et al. 1996).
SWH (solar water heater) innovation has been produced
for over 30 years in China. This assessment uncovers the
utilization of SWHs rather than customary (gas and electric)
water heaters. It has incredible financial advantages, ecologi-
cal benefits, and social dominance. Be that as it may, SWH
frameworks are meeting various bottlenecks in China (Han
et al. 2010). The solar-assisted geothermal heat pump system
and SWTS (small-scale wind turbine systems) were used in
this research project. The research reported that the model
system used 3.13% of total annual power consumption (3568
kWh). In the sense of modelling a passive solar preheat-
ing technology in combination with the geothermal heat
pump system (GHPS) and SWTS, the economic viability
improves (Ozgener 2010). In this research study, designing
and developing a low-cost wireless data acquisition system
for a remote photovoltaic is carried out. In the water pump-
ing system, data is transmitted through remote transmission
techniques. The information is then prepared to utilize the
suitable information procurement programming as depicted
in Fig. 5. The corresponding text is a representation of data
exchange from a lumberjack to a GSM modem. In the field
of information transmission, the use of cell phones, particu-
larly GSM/GPRS is effectively actualized.
This study highlights the policies and programs for
solar irrigation pumps (SIPs) that should focus on building
awareness and confidence, providing responsive assistance,

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Fig. 5 Flowchart of data
transfer from the PV water
pumping station to the computer
(Mahjoubi et al. 2011)
prioritizing areas for deployment of SIPs, and ensuring long-
term sustainability (Agrawal and Jain 2019). This research
work focussed on implementing wireless sensor network
technology (WSNT), to create an automated solar-powered
drip irrigation system (ASPDIS). WSNT contributes to this
purpose not only in saving energy, fuel, fertilizers but also in
ensuring consistent watering at the right time without man-
ual intervention to increase the efficiency and quantity of
farm yields. Research has shown that ASPDIS saves 30–70%
of irrigation energy (Kumar et al. 2017).
Solar water desalination system
Desalination generally refers to removing salts and minerals
from a target substrate (Akkala et al. 2021). The saltwater
is desalinated to create water appropriate for human use or
irrigation (Kaviti et al. 2021). This paper presents the find-
ings of laboratory and outdoor research conducted in the
summer of 2000 in Lisbon. The results are made available in
a small RO. A pilot device is operated by a photovoltaic sys-
tem. The industrial membrane-type MI-TASO spiral-wound
cellulosic compound with dead-end filtration mode coupled
with the low-pressure operation (− 3 bar) allows only low
power consumption, with the permeation of about 100 kJ/
kg. However, these findings must be tested regularly uti-
lizing external operating conditions to correlate production
permeate with energy consumption vs. strain. Nevertheless,
energy usage declines for the small RO pilot as feedwater
recovery and demand for feeding pieces of stuff increases
(Joyce et al. 2001). This paper investigated the fundamental
mechanical structures and developments of the solar-pow-
ered RO, based upon 79 exploration and project units world-
wide. As shown in Fig. 6, PV-controlled RO desalination
is established for business performance. Results show that
reverse osmosis powered by photovoltaic systems for small
systems operating in remote regions with other water sup-
ply sources are technologically mature and economically
competitive (Ghermandi and Messalem 2009). This paper
introduces a small-scale RO desalination system powered
by solar-oriented boards with no battery storage to perform
pilot tests over 3 days in October 2005. For less salty water,
the system appeared to withstand well in bright sky days due
to the direct use of PV boards. It appeared to be a practical
monetary arrangement to drive the current RO plants with
PV boards (De Munari et al. 2009).
Solar energy is plentiful, non-lasting, and accessible at
a cost-free location and free of contamination (Natarajan
et al. 2022). Solar still has a reasonable probability of reach-
ing lower limits in India (Suraparaju et al. 2022a, b). Singh
et al. (2016) discussed the performance of passive single
slope and double slope solar stills. It was conferred that the
single slope solar stills (as shown in Fig. 7) had a better
annual performance relative to double-slope solar stills (as
depicted in Fig. 8).
The impact of water stream over the glass cover has a
significant effect everywhere and warm water mass remains
in the tank. The floating safeguard sheet increases the yield
of the double slope single basin solar still. The various wick
sun-powered still is one of the monetary and proficient
among the current solar-based stills (Arjunan et al. 2009).
Also, Suraparaju et al. investigated the single slope solar
stills with bottom finned absorber basins inserted in paraffin
wax energy storage for enhancing freshwater productivity
(Suraparaju and Natarajan 2021b; Suraparaju et al. 2021c).
In this research, the energy storage material (paraffin wax)
absorbs heat energy and stores that in the form of latent heat
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Fig. 6 A schematic diagram of a PV–RO desalination plant (Ghermandi and Messalem 2009)
Fig. 7 Single-slope passive
solar still (Suraparaju and Nata-
rajan 2021a)
during the sunshine hours. Further, the latent heat is released
and paraffin wax acts as a heat source for the solar still dur-
ing non-shine hours. Therefore, the paraffin is contributing
to the effective operation of solar still during non-sunshine
hours and it is enhancing productivity significantly. Besides,
the authors studied the effect of natural fibers such as ridge
gourd fiber and pond fibers floating over the seawater in the
absorber basin and found that the inclusion of natural fibers
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
enhanced the distillate yield in the solar still (Suraparaju and
Natarajan 2020, 2021c; Suraparaju et al. 2021a). The cost-
effective and eco-friendly materials were used to enhance
the evaporation rate and condensation rate in the solar still
which leads to enhancement of potable water yield (Nata-
rajan et al. 2021; Sampathkumar and Natarajan 2021a, b,
2022; Suraparaju et al. 2021b). Desalination continues to
expand in many areas of the world due to the growing water
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Fig. 8 Double-slope single basin solar still with heat exchanger (Patel et al. 2020)
shortages, population growth, and industrial and financial
progress. Desalination innovations improve water efficiency;
alleviate water scarcity problems dramatically, and enhance
the quality of life and economic prosperity. In water desali-
nation, two primary technologies are currently being used:
thermal processes (phase-change), and membrane processes
(Mohiuddin et al. 2022). The different types of solar desali-
nation systems are categorized as shown in Fig. 9.
A mathematical model simulating the humidification
dehumidification desalination (HDD) process is examined.
The reliability of the model is tested using theoretical as well
as experimental studies with the same authors. The system’s
profitability was found to depend on solar energy, the rate
of wind current, the rate of saline water flow, and the rate of
water flow (Nafey et al. 2004b).
An experimental study was performed on the method of
humidification–dehumidification desalination (HDD) using
solar energy. The test system is composed of a solar water
heater (concentrate-style solar collector), solar air heater
(flat plate solar collector), humidifier frame, and dehumidi-
fier exchanger. The test results depict that the device output
at the humidifier inlet is primarily influenced by the saline
water temperature, the dehumidifier’s cooling water flow vol-
ume, the airflow velocity, and solar power. Wind speed and
atmospheric temperature variations have been shown to have
minimal impact on the efficiency of the device (Nafey et al.
2004a). This analysis emphasized the importance of a cool-
ing tower on a solar desalination device. A prototype solu-
tion was developed using the humidifying and dehumidifying
methods. This desalination unit was found to be capable of
delivering crisp water at high rates (over 37 l per day per m2).
Eventually, in addition to a cooling tower, the author pro-
posed that the best course of action is the device of six phases
of air heating-humidification, as this can generate the most
extreme measure of crisp liquid (Marmouch et al. 2009).
Solar crop dryer system for food safety
Solar dryers are devices that use solar energy for the drying
of objects, mainly food. The solar dryers have two general
types: direct and indirect. Direct solar dryers require dehy-
dration of the item by intense sunlight. The black layer heats
inbound air in indirect solar dryers, instead of heating the
drying content explicitly. The hot air is then forced through
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Fig. 9 Various solar desalination systems
the drying material and sometimes goes up into a chimney,
allowing the material to release moisture.
In the recent past, numerous designs of small-scale solar
dryers with thermal energy storage have been designed mainly
to dry agricultural food products, as shown in Fig. 10. There-
fore, a review of history and present work on thermal energy
storage methods for drying agrarian food products in solar
dryers was attempted in this study. Agricultural food items
could be dried late in the evening with the storage machine,
although drying late at night with a standard solar dryer was
not feasible (Bal et al. 2010). Elangovan and Natarajan inves-
tigated the different configurations of solar dryers for drying
fruits (Bhanu et al. 2021; Elangovan and Natarajan 2021b, c)
and vegetables (Natarajan et al. 2019c; Natarajan and Elavar-
asan 2019; Elavarasan et al. 2021; Elangovan and Natarajan
2021a, d) and the observations reported that the forced con-
vection solar dryer was comparatively better than others. The
usage of an artificial neural network (ANN) during solar dry-
ing is explored in this analysis to predict the variation in the
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
temperature of the food component (potato) using a mixed-
mode solar dryer. Analytical tests show that the four-neuron
network and the logsig transfer process, as well as the Trainrp
backpropagation algorithm, are the most suitable solution for
both potato cylinder and slice-based on reduced error esti-
mates. ANN model’s predictive performance is rated as the
best of all predictive models evaluated, independent of the
morphology of the food sample (Tripathy and Kumar 2009).
This study described comprehensive definitions, principles,
and earlier efforts on solar air dryers as the key constituent for
indirect and mixed solar dryer modes. The indirect mode of
forced convection solar dryer is seen to predominate among
the distinctive types of solar-based dryers within the intensity
and complexity of the drying. The integration of latent heat
storage media into solar-powered drying systems speeds up
the drying process in the middle of the evening cycle and dur-
ing low (El-Sebaii and Shalaby 2012).
This investigation describes how dryer factors are
produced, followed by experiments to determine the
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Fig. 10 A desiccant integrated
solar dryer for drying peas
and pineapple slices (Bal et al.
2010)
effectiveness of smooth and rough plate collectors. The solar
collector thermal output was observed lower due to the slow
convective heat transfer from the absorber plate to the air. The
roughness of the artificial rib at the underside of the absorber
plate amplified the heat transfer coefficient significantly
(Pardhi and Bhagoria 2013). This correspondence outlines
all current trends about the PV-integrated solar greenhouse
dryer. It was found that the forced convection greenhouse
dryer is optimal for crops with high moisture content; nev-
ertheless, it has been found that the typical convection-style
greenhouse dryer is ideal for low moisture crops. Dried crops
in the greenhouse dryer are of better consistency and color,
relative to open-air drying (Prakash and Kumar 2014).
An industry-scale, natural convection solar tunnel dryer
polyhouse was considered for the drying of surgical cotton.
This article addresses the basic design parameters used in
the development of solar tunnel dryers. The planned test site
(Udaipur, India) is projected to have a 7–8-h drying period,
with an approximate peak solar irradiance of 5.5 kW m2. For
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India, the drying conditions are excel-
lent, and a solar dryer would save diesel every day (Rathore
and Panwar 2011). A solar-assisted chemical heat pump
dryer (CHP) is a conventional solar drying system that has
helped to dry items of higher quality, as well as conserve
energy. This research offers a study of the advanced solar-
assisted chemical heat pump dryer. Results revealed that
combining a chemical heat pump with solar power offers
extra energy output thus decreasing the reliance on coal
heating for the drying equipment (Daghigh et al. 2010). A
solar tunnel dryer was used in this analysis to dry the onion
slices. Two drying models were used to extract experimental
data for onion slice drying. Midilli-Kucuk model described
the drying actions of onion slices very effectively. The usage
of a solar tunnel dryer reduces the drying time significantly
relative to sun drying (Priyanka et al. 2017). This study ana-
lyzes solar drying technologies that can handle fruit and veg-
etables under safe, hygienic, and sanitary conditions. It saves
money, time, takes up less space, and improves the quality of
the product (Prasanna and Manjula 2018). Using a (PV/T)
hybrid solar dryer, drying features of ber (Zizyphus mauriti-
ana) fruit were investigated by fitting the data to four mod-
els. The logarithmic model predicted the drying properties
of solar-dried ber fruit, which provided higher determination
coefficient values and lower reduced chi-square and RMSE
values (Poonia et al. 2018). A modified solar tunnel dryer
was designed and used to dry star fruit (Averrhoa carambola
L). The antioxidants, TPC (total phenol content) and TFC
(total flavonoid content) improved relative to the fresh star
fruit. Uniformity was observed in the slices of star fruits
relative to the sun drying (Kondareddy et al. 2020). This
research offers a description of various forms of solar dryers.
Solar drying reduces the usage of energy for agriculture and
marine products. Table 2 displays the merits and demerits of
various solar dryers. Also, low collector power, consistent
performance, and stable handling are the technical specifi-
cations for developing solar drying systems for agricultural
products (Fudholi et al. 2010).
Solar‑assisted heat pump dryer system
A solar heat pump dryer and water heater, as in Fig. 11,
were designed, built, and inspected. The simulation program
13
 Environmental Science and Pollution Research

Table 2 Merits and demerits Categorization Merits Demerits

of various types of solar dryers
(Fudholi et al. 2010)
Passive dryers Simplest Low capacity
Small investments and expenses for operating
Active dryers Do not depend on climatic conditions More complex and costly
Short drying time compared with passive dryers
Hybrid solar dryers The better ability of drying Costly
Capability to operate without sun
Faster drying process relative to passive and active dryers

Fig. 11 Solar-dryer and water heater using a heat pump (Hawlader et al. 2003)

is designed utilizing the FORTRAN language to assess the
device output and effect of the different variables. The out-
come metrics are a solar fraction (SF) and a performance
coefficient (COP) with and without the water heater.
The simulation and experimental COP values are 7.0 and
5.0, respectively, whereas the benefits to the solar fraction
(SF) are 0.65 and 0.61. To test the simulation program, a
variety of experiments are performed. The results from the
simulation define the experimental conditions very well
(Hawlader et al. 2003). Solar-assisted solar thermal pump
dryer (SAHPD) systems have demonstrated better qual-
ity control of heat-sensitive products, decreased energy
consumption, high-performance coefficients, and reliable
thermal dryer efficiency. The solar heat pump (SHP) is a
mechanism that represents the operation of a heat pump and
a single controlled array of thermal solar panels. The after-
effects of SAHPD mechanisms also displayed that, relative
to traditional heat pump dryers, the COP of such devices
may be significantly increased. For item quality monitor-
ing, reduced exploitation of vitality, and decreased natural
effects, the SAHPD frameworks can be beneficial. Such
devices can be more effective than regular dryers (Daghigh
et al. 2010). This research work proposed an economical
solar heat pump (SAHP) system with flat plate collectors
and a heat pump for water supply. In the drying phase, mush-
room drying was studied experimentally. The machine also
built a computer program. The usage of PLCs has been reg-
ulated and managed with normal air temperature, relative
humidity, the weight of the component, etc. as illustrated by
different scenarios in Fig. 12.
This method is cost-effective, high quality, and efficient
to produce improved product quality and enhanced perfor-
mance. Therefore, products may be dried using minimum
energy and in a stable climate (Ji et al. 2008). In this study,
a new solar thermal pump (PV-SAHP) system has been
suggested. In 4 days of very close conditions, the complex
efficiency of this PV-SAHP method was evaluated, and the
determinants were acknowledged. The findings display a
higher COP of PV-SAHP devices than traditional heat pump
systems and a higher photovoltaic efficiency (Ji et al. 2008).
Heat pump systems with solar connections have significant
environmental benefits over conventional housing systems.
An experimental setup consisting of twelve solar flat-plate
collectors was installed to measure the selection ability, heat

13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Fig. 12 Flow diagram of a
PLC system and air-water flow
(Sevik et al. 2010)
pump efficiency, and system output. Results revealed that the
energy-dependent on sunlight can be used for private heating
in Turkey’s eastern Anatolia with an icy atmosphere (Bakirci
and Yuksel 2011). In one of the works, a PV-SAHP/HP sys-
tem was developed and worked. The results showed that when
working in the solar-based heat siphon mode, the PV-SAHP/
HP system achieved a better efficiency and functional value
of exergy viability (Fu et al. 2012). The research work used
a solar photovoltaic dryer equipped with a hot siphon unit
for drying saffron to lessen the use of non-renewable energy
sources. Applying a hot siphon unit with the dryer resulted in
a decrease in drying time and efficiency use, with a boost in
the solar-based collector’s electrical output. The regular usage
of overall energy decreased by 33% when a heat pump was
used along with the dryer (Mortezapour et al. 2012).
Process heat generation through concentrating
solar collectors
Steam generation and processing for various agricultural appli-
cations are some of the key research in the current scenario
(Ravi Kumar et al. 2021). The generation of steam through
solar thermal systems such as solar parabolic trough col-
lector system (SPTC) and solar parabolic dish concentrator
system (SPDC). In the SPTC and SPDC, the water is circu-
lated inside the receiver where the inlet water is converted as
steam by taking the heat from the receiver. The water inside
the receiver takes the heat and the temperature of the water
will be increased enormously due to the heat transfer between
water and receiver. Thus, at the outlet, the steam is converted
and used for several applications. The experimental test rig
of SPDC for steam generation is as shown in Fig. 13 a and b.
Sahu et al. designed and developed a novel design of receiver
(double trumpet shape) with which a secondary reflector is
introduced for better convergence of incoming solar radia-
tion. The converged rays with a secondary reflector improve
the heat generation in the SPDC. The SPDC and SPTC with
different energy storage materials (Kumaresan et al. 2012;
Lamrani et al. 2020; Thirunavukkarasu et al. 2020; Ray et al.
2021), different shapes of receivers (Sendhil Kumar and Reddy
2008; Kumar and Reddy 2010; Natarajan et al. 2012; Kumar
Sahu et al. 2019; Natarajan et al. 2019b; Thirunavukkarasu and
Cheralathan 2020; Kopalakrishnaswami and Natarajan 2021;
Sahu et al. 2021c), thermoelectric generators (Suraparaju et al.
2019; Sripadmanabhan Indira et al. 2020; Sahu et al. 2021a),
and enviro-economic analysis (Natarajan et al. 2019d; Reddy
and Ananthsornaraj 2020; Sahu et al. 2021b; Vazini Modabber
and Khoshgoftar Manesh 2021) of various configurations of
SPDC/STPC was experimentally investigated for better pro-
cess heat generation.
Solar energy in horticulture applications
through greenhouse concept
Significant reform and strengthening of India’s agricul-
tural discovery and extension system is one of the criti-
cal, crucial rural development requirements. In the past,
13
 Environmental Science and Pollution Research

Fig. 13 The experimental test

rig of SPDC for a steam genera-
tion. a Schematic of SPDC with
a novel receiver. b Novel double
trumpet-shaped receiver (Sahu
et al. 2021c)

13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
horticulture has played and will keep on playing a pre-
dominant part in the development of the Indian economy
within a reasonable time frame. The water transporta-
tion framework assumes vital parts to build the horti-
culture development rate situation of the agriculturists.
This research discusses the performance characteristics
of a solar-assisted ground source heat pump (SAGSHPS)
device, as seen in Fig. 14 for greenhouse heating. An inno-
vative system had been developed to analyze the thermal
performance of a SAGSHPS (Ozgener and Hepbasli 2005).
This work investigates the environmental conditions in
Turkey, through a greenhouse heating system (BSGSH-
PGHS) for biogas, solar, and a land-source heat pump.
A trial system for examining the thermal performance
of a BSGSHPGHS was developed and investigated for
better results (Esen and Yuksel 2013). The other work
provides an efficient simulation of the greenhouse heat-
ing system (SAGSHPGHS) using a solar-assisted verti-
cal ground source heat pump (GSHP). The performance
of an installed SAGSHPGHS is evaluated to see how
the values of energy and exergy change with the system.
The device’s average exergy performance is calculated at
Fig. 14 Schematic of the SAGSHPGHS (Ozgener and Hepbasli 2005)
68.11% (Ozgener and Hepbasli 2007b). An experimental
system was built and tested to examine the exergetic per-
formance of solar photovoltaic technology (PV) assisted
by an earth-to-air heat exchanger (EAHE) (underground
air tunnel) used for greenhouse cooling. The total exergetic
efficiency value of the machine was calculated to be 32.2%
(Yildiz et al. 2011). Besides this, other research deals with
the idea of providing a closed greenhouse mixed approach
as in Fig. 15 coupled with technologies for thermal energy
storage (TES). The concept of TES technology is used
in terms of heat storage because in a completely closed
greenhouse, the latent heat has to be eliminated due to
little ventilation. This heat can be retained using TES tech-
nology, which can be used later to satisfy the greenhouse
heating requirement. The evaluation showed that a closed
greenhouse helps fulfil neighboring building demand
while fulfilling its own. Semi-closed greenhouse benefits
from a completely closed greenhouse while more signifi-
cant levels of solar energy may be harnessed through an
utterly private greenhouse (Vadiee and Martin 2012).
One of the fast, non-destructive, and inexpensive tech-
niques called chlorophyll fluorescence imaging effectively
13

Fig. 15 Closed greenhouse con-
cept (Vadiee and Martin 2012)
tests plant photosynthetic behavior. This technique is based
solely on point scales, and the normal variability of photo-
synthetic expression over the surface of the leaf. Agglom-
erating the effects of non-imaging chlorophyll fluorescence
with chlorophyll fluorescence imaging (CFI), this issue
requires a more robust solution. It is competent in both pre-
harvest and post-harvest situations in stopping biotic or abi-
otic stress. It has reaped benefits in stress recognition before
visible signs arise. This analysis, therefore, focuses mainly
on the significant advance that CFI has produced in horti-
cultural science, explaining how it can be utilized for this
reason and where it can be extended to other subjects in the
immediate future (Gorbe and Calatayud 2012).
This experimental work used a low-cost greenhouse
to maintain a good climate for plant production. Promis-
ing vegetable cultivation systems in the farm sector have
been tested, validated, and popularized. This culminated in
an improvement in the quality of production and obtained
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
strong returns from investments in greenhouse farming. This
greenhouse cultivation will resolve food and nutrition pro-
tection concerns for people living in hill and mountain areas
(Kumar et al. 2019). The trans-Himalayan Ladakh area con-
tinues to be cut off due to heavy snowfall for over 6 months
in a year. A variety of passive greenhouse solar systems
have been built and tested in this region. The greenhouse
design must be upgraded to grow a variety of crops that are
economically viable and technologically feasible, especially
during the winter months (Angmo et al. 2019). A conceptu-
alized model for a circular greenhouse fitted with a double-
wall solar chimney and the fogging system has been pre-
sented in this paper. The model estimates the ventilation rate
inside the greenhouse, as well as the air temperature. The
findings indicate that when compared with other natural ven-
tilation greenhouses, solar chimneys dramatically increase
ventilation efficiency. Solar radiation strength and the height
of the solar chimney will significantly influence greenhouse
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
performance (Mishra and Ghosh 2018). Table 3 gives an
overview of progress and main works on the research of
solar power-assisted agriculture and horticulture systems.
Government initiatives and plans to support
solar power‑assisted agriculture system
in India
India is an agriculture-dependent country. Agriculture offers
subsistence for more than 50% of the people in India. At
present, the sector contributes 18% to the region’s GDP.
However, the agriculture industry wants adequate irrigation
facilities and other resources to enjoy the necessary ben-
efits. Within this area, the greatest constraint is the farmers’
dependence on irrigation pumps. Many farmers use pumps
mostly connected to the grid while other pumps use diesel
and other fossil fuels. Another concern relates to the condi-
tion of farmers in this market. Since some of the crops are
seasonal, most growers are robbed of daily revenue sources.
Also, the farmers cannot gain anything from their dry/uncul-
tivated land.
Solar energy is commonly implemented in the domestic,
commercial, and manufacturing sectors and has immense
potential to support the agricultural industry. Therefore,
the Indian government has initiated numerous projects to
provide solar pumps, for farmers. The scheme is split into
three different parts—stand-alone solar pump installations,
grid-connected pump solarization, and grid-connected solar
power plant commissioning. Via this scheme, the Govern-
ment expects to build 25,750 MW of integrated solar power
(all three components) by 2022. This system would guar-
antee 2 MW by 2022 of localized ground-mounted grid-
connected renewable power plants. All diesel-powered
agricultural pumps will be substituted by solar pumps and
all grid-connected agricultural pumps would have to be
solarized by 2022. The Indian government announced the
introduction of a new solar scheme for farmers to gain more
income by solar panels from their farmlands. It seeks to
introduce the solar scheme for farmers to ensure the mini-
mum annual revenue of INR 1 lakh. This scheme would
allow farmers to use their land to build solar panels and
the government would buy the power generated. The land
would be rented to investors for the needy farmers who
do not have enough resources to put up the solar panels.
Under these terms, if the solar installation is carried out by
the investors, the farmers would get possibly 30–35 paise
per unit to guarantee an annual income of Rs 1 lakh. The
government's guaranteed procurement of electricity would
help to enable farmers to implement renewable energy in
those places where grid connectivity or power supply has
been challenging. Thus this scheme will help accomplish
the government’s objective to double the income of farmers
by 2022. The solar proposal is the newest contribution to
the Government’s 2017 plan (Government of India Power
Sector at a Glance ALL INDIA | Ministry of Power n.d.).
The scheme will help shift farmers away from farming to
diversify their sources of revenue, to minimize unemploy-
ment through lean times or offseason while growing farm-
land profitability in the process.
The Government of Maharashtra has decided to give as
freebies two LED lamps, a DC fan, and a mobile charging
socket to allow farmers to use solar farming pumps. The
State launched the Atal Solar Krishi Pump Yojana (ASKP)
for farmers on solar pump sets with a subsidy of up to 95%.
The State plans to install a one lakh solar pump. By adopting
the program, the State seeks to reduce losses related to non-
payment of energy bills and also to encourage solar power.
To meet Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s dream of doubling
farmers’ income by 2022, the central government has initi-
ated several projects to provide the country’s farmers with
sustainable productivity. Maintaining the farmers’ produc-
tivity is one of the big obstacles in Indian agriculture’s pre-
sent scenario. The government has introduced several meas-
ures to fill this void, out of which some completely stood
out and others did not. In this show, KUSUM (Kisan Urja
Suraksha evam Uthaan Mahabhiyan) promises to solve farm-
ers' irrigation and water problems by providing the farmer
with a 60% subsidy to set up pump sets and tube wells on
their land. Besides, this solar pump system is all set to oper-
ate diesel/electric pumps used for irrigation in the country
with solar energy where farmers have to pay just 10% of
total expenditure. The government has introduced a subsidy
program for farmers using solar irrigation pumps (SIPs) in
their fields. This scheme would help farmers produce power
for their tube wells. Not only will the solar pumps help to
irrigate the crops, but they will also enable healthy energy
generation. Farmers may also offer extra power to corpora-
tions supplying power. It will let them raise more money
for themselves. Under the system, the farmer should earn
incentives for new and upgraded solar pumps. The farmers
would have to pay just 10% of the gross budget to purchase
a solar pump system and the government would manage 60%
of the costs and the bank will take charge of the remaining
30% as credit.
The PM KUSUM scheme has been extended to include
20 lakh farmers. It took the Center more than a year to
secure the approval of the Cabinet for the same part due
to the huge budgetary support needed. It was originally
proposed that this 1.44-lakh crore scheme will solarize any
agricultural pump and substitute all grid-connected pumps
over 10 years with solar power. Under the scheme approved
by the Cabinet, the Centre is to provide INR 10,000 crore
for 4 years. The Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency (IREDA) must borrow INR 6000 crore for the first
period (lasting for 1 year) to finance the investment from the
13
 Table 3 Some important works vis-à-vis solar-assisted agricultural systems
13
S. no. Researchers Ref. Applications/research work Summary of important findings

1. Ghoneim (2006) (Ghoneim 2006) Solar-assisted pumping system To evaluate the efficiency improvement of PV
pumping systems, a computer simulation method
is implemented. It is believed that the expense of
the photovoltaic water pumping project is more
economical than the expense of the regular fuel
frame.
2. Abdolzadeh and Ameri (Abdolzadeh and Ameri 2009) Photovoltaic water drawing framework. Experimental tests show that the cell capacity of
(2009) the photovoltaic cells is increased due to splash-
ing water.
3. Ramos and Ramos (2009a) (Ramos and Ramos 2009a) Water pumping framework Two configurations were investigated in this
network-associated setting, one with no water
turbine and the other with a water turbine. The
device without a water turbine proved to be more
cost-effective as the electricity tariff, as well as
the water turbine prices, are not yet as high.
4. Parida et al. (2011) (Parida et al. 2011) Solar photovoltaic technologies This paper examines photovoltaic innovation, it
is capable to produce energy, and its ecological
point of view combined with an assortment of its
applications.
5. Langridge et al. (1996) (D.Langridge et al. 1996) Photovoltaic pumping system A PV pumping framework because of a helical
rotor pump and brushless D.C. engine has been
outlined, reproduced and a model was built. Effi-
ciencies between 30 and 50% were accomplished.
6. Chandel et al. (2015) (Chandel et al. 2015) Water pumping framework. Solar pumping is a desirable alternative to irriga-
tion applications in developed countries, and
urban and rural drinking water pumping applica-
tions.
7. Gopal et al. (2013) (Gopal et al. 2013) Water pumping systems Renewable energy sources (RESs) play a critical
role in reducing the use of traditional energy
sources for water pumping applications and their

Environmental Science and Pollution Research

environmental impacts.
8. Ramos and Ramos (2009b) (Ramos and Ramos 2009b) Solar-powered pumps A PV advanced model was used in this work to
study the possible use of solar energy for water
supply in rural or isolated zones.
9. Sethi and Sharma (2008) (Sethi and Sharma 2008) Greenhouse applications This paper examines and compares all available
heating technologies for agricultural greenhouses
it was observed that each system’s output depends
on the location, climate conditions, and green-
house size.
10. Gorbe and Calatayud (Gorbe and Calatayud 2012) CFI (chlorophyll fluorescence imaging) procedure This research highlighted that CFI can be used not
(2012) only for horticultural research but also to help
improve plant production and product quality.
 Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Table 3 (continued)
S. no. Researchers Ref. Applications/research work Summary of important findings

11. Rymbai et al. (2014) (Rymbai et al. 2014) GIS (geographic information system) in horticul- The paper examines the potential utilization of
tural crops GIS strategies in soil reasonableness, climatic,
biological suitability, supplements administration,
yield checking, germplasm administration, irrita-
tion and sickness administration, and promotion
of various natural product harvests.
12. Al-Karaghouli et al. (2009) (Al-Karaghouli et al. 2009) Water desalination This paper summarizes the characteristics of dif-
ferent desalination technologies. Solar and wind
power can provide efficient energy sources for
reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and ultra- and
nanofiltration.
13. Garcı́ (2003) (García-Rodríguez 2003) Desalination system The use of renewable sources of power in seawater
desalination indicates a fascinating possibility, or
maybe the best way to supply fresh water.
14. Bouchekima (2003) (Bouchekima 2003) Solar desalination plant This study aims to improve the performance of the
solar distillation plant for treating brackish water
and making it available for drinking purposes.
15. Laborde et al. (2001) (Laborde et al. 2001) Water desalination system An optimization strategy is provided for designing
and running a small-scale solar-powered reverse
osmosis desalination device.
16. Blanco et al. (2009) (Blanco et al. 2009) Solar energy applications to water processes The fundamental solar-based vitality applications
for water forms displayed in this paper are (i)
solar detoxification, (ii) solar desalination, and
(iii) solar disinfection.
17. Li et al. (2013) (Li et al. 2013) Solar-assisted seawater desalination This research concluded that desalination with
solar assistance has proven to be technologically
feasible, but the mixture of solar and fossil fuel
desalination with low-grade waste heat desalina-
tion will render it cheaper.
18. Werner and Schäfer (2007) (Werner and Schäfer 2007) Solar desalination unit A variety of activities and management recommen-
dations are drawn from this preliminary assess-
ment, concerning membrane selection, recovery
rate, and maintenance, to ensure the socially
sustainable implementation of ROSI’s potential.
19. Al-Karaghouli and (Al-Karaghouli and Kazmerski 2014) Desalination processes The paper discusses and analyzes technologi-
Kazmerski (2014) cal properties, energy use, environmental, and
renewable energy potential for the key desalina-
tion processes. RO and ED are the two economic
approaches for the desalination of brackish water.
13
 Table 3 (continued)
13
S. no. Researchers Ref. Applications/research work Summary of important findings

20 Suraparaju and Natarajan (Suraparaju and Natarajan 2020, 2021a, c; Solar still Single-slope solar still for enhancing the freshwa-
(2020,2021a and 2022a) Natarajan et al. 2021; Suraparaju et al. 2021a, b; ter productivity from seawater desalination. The
Sampathkumar and Natarajan 2022) desalinated water can be useful for agricultural
practices for a better yield of crops.
21. Bal et al. (2010) (Bal et al. 2010) Solar dryer Solar dryer with thermal energy storage technology
is very helpful in drying agricultural food prod-
ucts and also very useful for humans and energy
conservation as well.
22. El-Sebaii and Shalaby (El-Sebaii and Shalaby 2012) Solar drying of agricultural products Improving the solar air heater will lead to better
(2012) drying system efficiency, as has rightly been
concluded.
23. Belessiotis and Delyannis (Belessiotis and Delyannis 2011) Solar drying This explains various direct and indirect applica-
(2011) tions for solar drying and some of the numerous
solar dryers. The drying of grapes to produce
black-current raisins is also explained by indirect
solar radiation.
24. Pardhi and Bhagoria (Pardhi and Bhagoria 2013) Solar dryer with forced convection This paper compared the efficiency of the smooth
(2013) and roughed plate collector and results revealed
that solar collector thermal output was weaker.
25. Prakash and Kumar (2014) (Prakash and Kumar 2014) Solar greenhouse drying This study concluded that dried goods are found to
be of superior quality in the greenhouse dryer as
opposed to those in open sun drying.
26. Fadhel et al. (2011) (Fadhel et al. 2011) Solar dryer The integration of chemical heat pump dryers and
solar power offers additional energy output for
agriculture produce.
27. Kumar et al. (2016) (Kumar et al. 2016) Solar dryers The paper provides an overview of various types
of solar dryers. Indirect convection dryer modes
were superior for drying speed and quality drying
among the different types of solar dryers.

Environmental Science and Pollution Research

28. Daghigh et al. (2010) (Daghigh et al. 2010) Heat pump drying systems This paper discussed improvements in solar heat
pump drying systems in terms of low energy
utilization, higher COP, and high dryer efficiency
for agricultural and marine products.
29. Bakirci and Yuksel (2011) (Bakirci and Yuksel 2011) The solar heat pump system This study concluded that the device though
installed in the coolest climate could be beneficial
for residential heating.
30. Mortezapour et al. (2012) (Mortezapour et al. 2012) Solar dryer Applying a heat pump with a dryer for saffron dry-
ing resulted in reduced drying time and energy
consumption, and improved solar collector
electrical output.
31. Elavarasan et al. 2021) (Natarajan and Elavarasan 2019; Bhanu et al. Solar dryer Single slope direct solar dryer to dry the various
2021; Elangovan and Natarajan 2021a, d) food items for better shelf life.
 Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Table 3 (continued)
S. no. Researchers Ref. Applications/research work Summary of important findings

32. Yildiz et al. (2012) (Yildiz et al. 2012) Solar greenhouse cooling This research revealed that an earth-to-air heat
exchanger (EAHE)-assisted solar photovoltaic
device (PV) (underground air tunnel) can be used
in greenhouses for more efficient passive cooling.
33. Qiblawey and Banat (2008) (Qiblawey and Banat 2008) Solar thermal desalination technologies Solar energy combined with desalination offers
promising prospects to meet key power and water
requirements in remote regions where public grid
connectivity is either not economically viable
or is not feasible, and where there is significant
water scarcity.
34. Natarajan et al. (2019a) (Nafey et al. 2004b) Solar desalination A numerical analysis is conducted on the method
of humidification dehumidification desalination
(HDD) using solar power. To simulate the HDD
distillation device a numerical computer pack-
age was created. Results revealed that the area
of the solar water collector greatly impacts the
efficiency of the system, more so than the area of
the solar air collector.
35. Ahmed et al. (2016) (Ahmed et al. 2016) Renewable energy sectors This paper presents a comparative and comprehen-
sive review of CIP (China, India, and Pakistan)
renewable energy sectors and possible sharing
opportunities.
36. Bayrakci and Koçar (2012) (Bayrakci and Koçar 2012) Renewable energies in agriculture This thesis aims to examine the utility of renewable
energy for farming activities. Also, it includes
proposals and recommendations for renewable
energy rather than fossil fuels.
37. Byrne et al. (2015) (Byrne et al. 2015) Desalination systems This article identified a membrane distillation unit
coupled to the condenser of a heat pump and
an ice slurry process to perform cooling and/or
desalination.
38. Chandel et al. (2015) (Chandel et al. 2015) Water pumping system Solar photovoltaic water pumping technology was
effectively used for irrigation, rural, and urban
drinking water.
39. Fabrizio (2012) (Fabrizio 2012) Agricultural greenhouses heating It was found that examining energy efficiency can
contribute to a significant reduction in the energy
demand for greenhouse climate control for crop
production.
40. Hassanien et al. (2016) (Hassanien et al. 2016) Solar energy in agricultural greenhouses This paper looks at solar energy application
technologies (cooling, heating, and lighting), in
particular electricity produced from photovoltaic
13

and solar panels and irrigation water pumping

systems.
 Table 3 (continued)
13
S. no. Researchers Ref. Applications/research work Summary of important findings

41. Kumar et al. (2015) (Kumar et al. 2015) Irrigation system It was concluded that the solar-powered micro-
irrigation system could provide uniform emitter
discharge over the small plot of 18 m × 6 m.
42. Purohit and Michaelowa (Purohit and Michaelowa 2008) SPV pumps This research study revealed that under the CDM
(2008) (clean development mechanism) SPV (solar pho-
tovoltaic irrigation) pumps displaced greenhouse
gas emissions while contributing to sustainable
rural growth.
43. Ranjan et al. (2016) (Ranjan et al. 2016) Solar distillation systems Productivity and efficiency of the system increased
employing an effective thermodynamic method,
namely energy, and exergy analysis of solar stills.
44. Sharma et al. (2012) (Sharma et al. 2012) Solar energy in India This research reviews the availability and existing
status of solar energy options in India.
45. Prakash et al. (2016) (Prakash et al. 2016) Solar dryers Various modelling techniques for the solar dryer
system were found helpful in predicting the mois-
ture content of the crop, drying rate, quality of the
crop, and color of crops.
46. Agrawal and Jain (2019) (Agrawal and Jain 2019) Solar irrigation pumps (SIPs) The study emphasizes that SIP policies and initia-
tives concentrate on building knowledge and
confidence, providing responsive support in need,
prioritizing areas for implementation of SIPs, and
ensuring long-term sustainability.
47. Kumar et al. (2019) (Kumar et al. 2019) Greenhouse farming Greenhouses have helped to maintain a congenial
plant growth environment. A promising method
of growing vegetables has been researched,
validated, and popularized in the field of farm-
ers. This resulted in increased manufacturing
performance.
48. Angmo et al. (2019) (Angmo et al. 2019) Passive solar greenhouse Results revealed that improvement in greenhouse
design will help grow a variety of crops that will

Environmental Science and Pollution Research

be economically viable and technically feasible,
particularly during the winter months.
49. Mishra and Ghosh (2018) (Mishra and Ghosh 2018) Circular greenhouse This research work used a naturally ventilated cir-
cular greenhouse supported by the solar chimney
applicable to hot and arid regions. The findings
indicate that when compared with other natural
ventilation greenhouses, solar chimneys dramati-
cally increase the ventilation rate.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Center, and INR 15,000 crore for the second step, which will
last for 1 year. The budget has broadened the reach of the
KUSUM scheme to substitute 15 lakh grid-connected pumps
with solar pumps now. Under “Mukhyamantri Saur Krushi
Pump Yojana,” the Maharashtra government has planned
the installation of 100,000 off-grid solar-driven agriculture
pumps in a phase-wise manner.
The Government of Andhra Pradesh is developing a
10,000-acre solar farm. According to industry reports, the
government is also receiving separate proposals from vari-
ous companies. The solar energy market is experiencing
high-energy growth. The Government of Gujarat insists on
going for renewable forms of electricity. Everything had
begun off as a dream. Gujarat’s government is undertaking
a $10 billion project and would approve the world’s big-
gest solar power plant in India. Rajasthan can shine in the
sunshine when things go in the right direction. The desert
situation will draw INR 45,000 crore investments in the solar
energy industry for producing 2500 MW of solar energy.
HAREDA (Haryana Renewable Energy Development
Agency) has agreed to build three solar electric projects to
enable commercial/industrial enterprises to use solar power
in Gurgaon, Haryana. Also, the missions like National Solar
Project, the National Energy, Efficiency Enhanced Mission,
and the National Green India Mission, etc., are directly ben-
efitting the farmer community, and further, it is leading to
the sustainable development of agriculture in India. The mis-
sions like solar projects and national energy are primarily
promoting the usage of renewable energy powered devices
in agricultural practices. Furthermore, Efficiency Enhanced
Mission and National Green India Mission are promoting
the effective usage of eco-friendly and renewable-powered
agricultural systems for better yield.
Challenges in the implementation
of solar‑assisted equipment in Indian
agriculture systems
Based on the above literature survey, the key challenges in
the implementation of solar-assisted equipment in Indian
agriculture systems are as follows:
• The initial investment of solar-assisted agricultural sys-
tems is high compared to conventional agricultural sys-
tems which would be a backstepping factor for farmers
in installing solar-assisted agricultural equipment.
• The skill level of the farmers in solar-powered systems
is another factor for the limited use of solar integrated
agricultural systems.
• The awareness about the solar-powered agricultural sys-
tems in the farmers of India is less which was another
challenge to be addressed immediately for sustainable
agricultural practice in India.
• The place/site for installation of the solar assisted agri-
cultural equipment is also a key factor that was stopping
farmers to adopt solar systems in agricultural practices.
• The maintenance, the immediate availability of spare
parts, and the unavailability of skilled technicians of the
solar systems is the major drawback in implementing
solar systems in agricultural applications.
However, the above challenges, drawbacks, and limita-
tions can be overcome by following:
• The subsidy should be given to the farmers all over India
for installing the solar-powered agricultural systems.
• The technical, non-technical, and hands-on training
workshops should be organized irrespective of literacy
level and the importance of solar systems should be
explained to the farmers.
• The awareness of the solar-powered agricultural systems
should be increased by conducting various programs all
over India.
• The syllabus of the technical education should be
reframed by focusing on the importance of renewable
energy systems in various applications.
• The startups for manufacturing and maintenance of
renewable energy powered systems should be encour-
aged with subsidies from the government.
• Rooftop and floating solar systems should be given pri-
mary importance in research development for sustainable
agricultural practices.
Conclusions
The food and energy nexus is the requirement in the cur-
rent scenario to meet the demands of livelihood. Sustain-
able agriculture with better yield is only possible when it is
integrated with renewable energy systems. The researchers
are endeavoring hard to develop novel, feasible, and viable
agricultural systems with low-energy consumption. Further,
solar-based agricultural systems have a better yield com-
pared to fossil fuel-powered systems. In this regard, the solar
energy potential in India, the status of national renewable
energy, the state renewable energy level, various agricultural
systems, and their technological advancements, challenges,
and opportunities have been deeply discussed in the current
article.
It is observed that India needs to increase its efforts to
achieve the renewable energy targets set by the Govern-
ment of India. These aims would be met not only by pro-
viding clean energy but also by opening up a new sector
where millions of young citizens will be able to find career
13

openings. The increasing electricity demand would pos-
sibly be fulfilled by green energy sources, i.e., solar power.
Solar power supply networks focused on solar technology
will be influential in fulfilling the energy requirements for
agricultural growth. In the current article, India’s solar
potential and highlight significant milestones, and various
missions for promoting solar energy agricultural systems
have been elaborately discussed. Various solar-assisted
agriculture/horticulture initiatives taken all around the
world have been discussed through this review, and the
benefits indicate that solar-assisted agriculture has a great
future in the Indian context.
The Indian Government is seeking to electrify as many
villages as possible. In India, there are several places
where solar energy projects can be installed to cater to the
need of agriculture. In India, solar production can also be
an effective tool to boost agricultural growth, especially in
many underdeveloped states, where boundless and sustain-
able solar power systems can grow most effectively. This
will provide domestic manufacturing with a reliable power
supply. The challenges should be taken as an encourage-
ment to design and develop advanced solar-based tech-
nologies for agricultural systems. Hence, it is concluded
that deployment of solar-based dryer systems, heat pumps,
water pumps, desalination systems, and process heat gen-
eration systems for the development of sustainable agri-
cultural systems. Further, the technological advancements
in the above systems could be able to give more yield at
economic prices. It is also recommended to develop the
above systems with economic designs for further develop-
ment of sustainable agricultural systems in India.
Author contribution Amit Kumar Thakur: conceptualization, writ-
ing—original draft, writing—review and editing, investigation. Rajesh
Singh: formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and
editing. Anita Gehlot: formal analysis, writing—original draft, writ-
ing—review and editing. Ajay Kumar Kaviti: conceptualization, formal
analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing. J Ron-
ald Aseer: conceptualization, writing—original draft, writing—review
and editing. Subbarama Kousik Suraparaju: formal analysis, writing—
original draft, writing—review and editing. Sendhil Kumar Natarajan:
conceptualization, writing—review and editing, supervision. Vineet
Singh Sikarwar: conceptualization, writing—review and editing, fund-
ing acquisition, supervision.
Funding V. S. Sikarwar is grateful for the funding support by Czech
Specific University Research (Grant #A1_FTOP_2022_001).
Data availability No data is used in the review article.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent for publication Permissions obtained.
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
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Authors and Affiliations
Amit Kumar Thakur1 · Rajesh Singh2 · Anita Gehlot2 · Ajay Kumar Kaviti3 · Ronald Aseer4 ·
Subbarama Kousik Suraparajud5 · Sendhil Kumar Natarajand5 · Vineet Singh Sikarwar6,7,8
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional
University, Phagwara, Punjab 144001, India
2 6
Uttaranchal Institute of Technology, Uttaranchal University,
Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
3 Czech Republic
Department of Mechanical Engineering, VNR VJIET,
Nizampet, Hyderabad, Telangana 500090, India
4 and Technology, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute
of Technology Puducherry, Karaikal, Union Territory
of Puducherry, Puducherry 609609, India
5
Solar Energy Laboratory, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, National Institute of Technology
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
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091
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Puducherry, Karaikal, Union Territory of Puducherry,
Puducherry 609609, India
Institute of Plasma Physics of the Czech Academy
of Sciences, Za Slovankou 1782/3, 182 00 Prague 8,
7
Department of Power Engineering, University of Chemistry
8
Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ghent
University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium