Non-cumulative questions:

2. Typically, the story of the colonial project is depicted as monolithic.

1. Most discussions of the colonial project have neglected the matter of public health/
In what ways did class material challenge this percep4on? And how else can
healthcare. Yet clearly it was crucial in the development of the colonial state. How did
we understand the colonial experience?
disease and medicine influence and even shape the French colonial project in Vietnam?
The colonial project is often portrayed as a monolithic entity, but class
1. Disease as an Obstacle and Justification:
materials can challenge this perception by highlighting the diversity and
• Mortality and Labor Shortages: Rampant diseases like malaria, cholera, and
complexity within the colonial experience. For instance, they can emphasize the
dysentery plagued both Vietnamese and French populations, posing a significant
role of power dynamics, racial politics, and the need for political consciousness
obstacle to colonial development. High mortality rates disrupted labor supplies,
in the classroom1. This approach disrupts the monolithic view by
hindering economic ventures like rubber plantations and mining.
acknowledging the pervasive and lasting pain and inequity left by
colonization1.
• "Civilizing Mission": The French used the prevalence of disease as a
justification for their "civilizing mission," portraying themselves as bringing modern
Moreover, class materials can promote the decolonization of knowledge by
medicine and hygiene practices to a supposedly backward Vietnam. This fueled their
diversifying content, addressing power and social justice, and involving
efforts to establish healthcare infrastructure and exert control over Vietnamese
students in the creation of knowledge1. This not only challenges the
bodies and territories.
monolithic perception of the colonial project but also encourages a more
nuanced understanding of the colonial experience.

2. Medicine as a Tool of Control and Surveillance:

Understanding the colonial experience requires a shift from a Eurocentric
perspective to one that centers on the experiences of the colonized. The
• Public Health Initiatives: The French implemented public health initiatives like
colonial experience was not uniform; it varied widely among ethnic and social
vaccinations, sanitation campaigns, and hospital construction. While these improved
groups, and from colony to colony23. It involved absorbing British models of
health conditions for some, they also served as tools for surveillance and control.
government, economy, and religion, and practicing rudimentary forms of self-
Hygiene campaigns often targeted Vietnamese cultural practices deemed unsanitary,
government2.
imposing French norms and values.
Moreover, the colonial experience was shaped by the economic systems of the
• Medical Surveillance: Medical examinations became mandatory for Vietnamese,
time, such as mercantilism, and the exploitation of resources and labor2. It
particularly laborers, allowing the French to monitor their health and fitness for work,
also involved the struggle for religious freedom and the development of
further solidifying their control over the population.
distinct cultural identities3.

3. Disease and Resistance:

In conclusion, the colonial project is far from monolithic. Class materials can
challenge this perception by promoting a more nuanced understanding of the
• Vietnamese Medical Knowledge: Despite French efforts to marginalize
colonial experience, highlighting the diversity within it, and encouraging a shift
traditional Vietnamese medicine, it remained widespread, particularly in rural areas.
from a Eurocentic to a more inclusive perspective.
This created a complex interplay between colonial and indigenous medical practices,
with Vietnamese communities often adapting and resisting imposed biopower.

• Nationalist Movements: Disease outbreaks and perceived inadequacies in the

French healthcare system fueled Vietnamese nationalist movements. The French failure
to effectively combat malaria, for example, became a rallying point for anti-colonial
sentiment.

3. The First Indochina War is often described as a tale of two wars. Why?
What was the nature of each? How did the Vietminh finance the first half of
the war?
The First Indochina War is often described as a tale of two wars due to its
distinct phases and the different nature of each.
The first phase was an anti-colonial war that started after Imperial Japan was
defeated in the Second World War in August 19453. The conflict erupted after
attempted negotiations over the fate of Indochina between Indochinese
nationalists and French colonialists failed3. The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh,
began fighting against the French using guerrilla tactics4. This phase was
characterized by asymmetrical warfare, with the Viet Minh leveraging their
knowledge of the local terrain and support from the local population to wage a
guerrilla war against the better-equipped French forces.
The second phase involved more conventional methods of warfare as the Viet
Minh received weapons and financial support from the Soviet Union and
China45. This phase culminated in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, a conventional
battle where the Viet Minh defeated the French.
As for financing, during the first half of the war, the Viet Minh received
funding from various sources. Due to their opposition to the Japanese, the Viet
Minh received funding from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the
Republic of China6. This financial support enabled the Viet Minh to sustain their
resistance against the French colonial forces during the initial stages of the
war.
4. Discuss the Geneva Accords. What were they? Why did the Geneva Accords
fail?
The Geneva Accords were a collection of documents issued from the Geneva Conference
of April 26–July 21, 19541. The conference was attended by representatives of
Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, France, Laos, the United Kingdom, the United
States, the Soviet Union, the Viet Minh (North Vietnamese), and the State of Vietnam
(South Vietnamese)1. The Accords consisted of 3 military agreements, 6 unilateral
declarations, and a Final Declaration1. The principal provisions were for a cease-fire line
along the 17th parallel (effectively dividing Vietnam in two), 300 days for each side to
withdraw its troops to its side of the line, and communist troops and guerrillas to
evacuate Laos and Cambodia1. It was explicitly stipulated that the partition line should
not be interpreted as constituting a political or territorial boundary1.
The Accords failed for several reasons. Firstly, the United States made it clear that it
was not bound by the agreements1. Secondly, the South Vietnamese also withheld
approval1. The Final Declaration was left unsigned by all parties1. The agreement
temporarily separated Vietnam into two zones: a northern zone governed by the Viet
Minh and a southern zone governed by the State of Vietnam2. A Conference Final
Declaration provided that a general election be held by July 1956 to create a unified
Vietnamese state2. However, after a military buildup in North Vietnam, the State of
Vietnam, under Ngo Dinh Diem, subsequently withdrew from the proposed elections2.
Worsening relations between the North and South eventually led to the Vietnam War2.

5. Following victory in 1954, the Democra4c Republic of Vietnam (DRV) faced enormous challenges. How did the DRV seek to consolidate power?

Following the victory in 1954, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) faced significant challenges in consolidating power. The DRV, officially recognized as a sovereign
state in 19541, had to establish its authority and legitimacy in a region that had been ravaged by years of war1.

The DRV sought to consolidate power through several means. One of the primary methods was the establishment of a unitary Marxist-Leninist one-party socialist republic1.

politic
This political structure allowed the DRV to centralize power and maintain control over the state’s institutions1.

The DRV also implemented a new constitution in 19592. The constitution was passed with unanimous support from the present deputies, further solidifying the DRV’s control
over the state2.

In addition to these political strategies, the DRV also embarked on a series of economic reforms known as Đổi Mới3. Initiated in 1986, these reforms aimed to transition
acor ( the country from a planned economy to a market-oriented one3. The economic growth that resulted from these reforms helped to strengthen the DRV’s position and
legitimacy3.

social Furthermore, the DRV sought to consolidate power through the use of state atheism1. By promoting atheism, the DRV aimed to reduce the influence of organized religion,
which could potentially challenge the state’s authority1.

In summary, the DRV consolidated power through a combination of political, economic, and social strategies. These strategies enabled the DRV to establish its authority,
manage internal challenges, and navigate the complexities of the Cold War era123.
6. The Tết Offensive is viewed as the turning point during the so-called
Vietnam War. What was the Tết Offensive? What was its significance?
What was Americaniza ? answer in 300 words
The Tết Offensive was a major escalation and one of the largest military
campaigns of the Vietnam War1. Launched on January 30, 1968, by the
Viet Cong and North Vietnamese People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN), it was
a campaign of surprise attacks against military and civilian command and
control centers throughout South Vietnam2. The offensive was an attempt
to foment rebellion among the South Vietnamese population and encourage
the United States to scale back its involvement in the Vietnam War1.
The significance of the Tết Offensive lies in its psychological impact.
Although it was a tactical defeat for the North, it struck a sharp
psychological blow that eroded support for the war among the American
public and political establishment3. Despite heavy casualties, North
Vietnam achieved a strategic victory with the Tết Offensive, as the
attacks marked a turning point in the Vietnam War and the beginning of
the slow, painful American withdrawal from the region1.
Americanization, in the context of the Vietnam War, refers to the process
by which the United States took over the primary burden of combat from
the South Vietnamese, effectively making the U.S. the main actor in the
war4. This process began after the Gulf of Tonkin incident, and it involved
the escalation of U.S. military involvement, including the deployment of
ground troops and the intensification of bombing campaigns4. Despite this,
the Americanization of the war clearly showed that the South Vietnamese
were incapable of defending the country on their own4.
8. In what ways does public architecture (pagodas, government offices,
cemetaries/ mausoleums, museums) shape the world we live and project
power? Please use examples from class this semester. answer in 300 words
Public architecture, including pagodas, government offices, cemeteries/
mausoleums, and museums, shapes our world and projects power in several
ways:
1 Community Representation: Public architecture often represents the
collective identity of a community1. For instance, pagodas, with their unique
architectural style, reflect the cultural and religious beliefs of a society.
2 Political Statement: Buildings like government offices can project
power and authority2. Their grandeur and strategic location often symbolize
the strength and stability of the ruling power.
3 Preservation of History: Cemeteries and mausoleums preserve
historical narratives and honor influential figures. They serve as reminders of
our past, influencing our present and future.
4 Educational Role: Museums play a crucial role in educating the public.
They house artifacts and exhibits that provide insights into various fields like
history, science, art, and culture.
5 Public Interaction: Public architecture facilitates social interactions
and fosters a sense of community1. Spaces like parks and squares become
venues for social gatherings, promoting inclusivity and diversity.
6 Sustainability: Modern public architecture often incorporates
sustainable design principles3, promoting environmental consciousness and
influencing societal attitudes towards sustainability.
7. With the end of the war in 1975, Vietnam s4ll faced a host of challenges. Please
discuss these and why they were so difficult to overcome?
After the end of the war in 1975, Vietnam faced numerous challenges. The country was left
in shambles, with its economy disrupted, social fabric torn, and population exhausted1. The
war had scarred the countryside with bombs, defoliation, and land mines, and cities and
towns were heavily damaged2.
One of the most immediate challenges was the refugee crisis. The fall of Saigon marked the
beginning of one of the largest and longest refugee crises in history3. Over the next two
decades, more than three million people fled Vietnam3. Those left behind, including former
members of the South Vietnamese army and their families, faced torture and retribution
from the ruling North Vietnamese3.
The new government also faced the task of rebuilding the country. They introduced changes
to transform Vietnam into a socialist society, taking control of all farmland and business
activities1. However, these changes created terrible hardships for the Vietnamese people1.
These challenges were difficult to overcome due to several factors. The devastation caused
by the war was extensive, and the resources needed for reconstruction were scarce1. The
refugee crisis put a strain on the country’s resources and infrastructure3. The economic
embargo established by the United States and other countries to punish Vietnam for its
actions in Cambodia further complicated the situation1.
Despite these challenges, Vietnam has made significant strides in its recovery. The
introduction of economic reforms in the mid-1980s helped revive the economy1. However,
the country continues to grapple with the legacy of the war and the challenges of building
a prosperous and stable nation1.
9. The poet Nguyễn Duy once wrote: “Mọi cuộc chiến tranh/Phe nào thắng nhân dân đều bại
[In every war, no maSer which side wins, the people lose].” In considering Bảo Ninh’s The
Sorrow of War and Nguyễn Huy Thiệp’s The General Re4res, in what ways do the authors
capture Nguyễn Duy’s cau4on? Drawing from our class readings only, please answer this
quesion. answer in 300 words
In “The Sorrow of War”, Bảo Ninh tells the story of Kien, a North Vietnamese soldier who
struggles to reconcile with the aftermath of the Vietnam War12. The narrative is fragmented
and nonlinear, mirroring the chaos and disarray of war. Kien’s traumatic experiences and the
loss of his comrades underscore the profound sorrow and devastation that war brings,
regardless of the side that 'wins’1. The novel suggests that in war, the people, embodied by
soldiers like Kien, lose their peace, happiness, and often their lives1.
“The General Retires” by Nguyễn Huy Thiệp presents a different perspective on the same
theme345. The story revolves around an aging military general who, after years of service,
finds himself alienated and disillusioned in the society he helped shape3. His family lives in
acute poverty, and the society he once fought for seems far from the ideal he had
envisioned35. The general’s despair and ultimate flight symbolize the personal and societal
losses that occur in the wake of war3.
Both authors, through their poignant narratives, echo Nguyễn Duy’s words: “In every war, no
matter which side wins, the people lose.” They highlight the profound and lasting impacts of
war on individuals and societies, reminding us that victory in war often comes at a high
human cost. These works serve as a powerful testament to the sorrow, loss, and
disillusionment that war brings, capturing the essence of Nguyễn Duy’s cautionary sentiment.
 1. During the semester one of the key themes was the idea of transforma4on across history.
It is safe to say that over the past 150 years, Vietnam has seen more change than at any point in
its history. Please discuss how Vietnam has changed since the mid-19th century using examples from
three different periods in our course:

a. French colonialism, 1862-1945

b. Wars of independence, 1945-1975

c. Post-1975

In the course of your essay, consider the impact on culture, clothing, poli4cs, language,
cartography, and iden4ty. Please only use material from class and assigned readings/films.

Vietnam has undergone significant transformations since the mid-19th century, particularly during
the periods of French colonialism (1862-1945), the wars of independence (1945-1975), and
post-1975.

French Colonialism (1862-1945)

During French colonialism, Vietnam experienced drastic changes in its socio-political landscape12. The
French introduced Western-style governance, education, and culture, significantly influencing
Vietnamese society1. The French language became prevalent, altering the linguistic landscape1. The
colonial administration also introduced new cartographic techniques, reshaping the country’s
geographical understanding1. However, these changes primarily benefited the French and a small
class of wealthy Vietnamese, leaving the majority of the population in poverty2.

Wars of Independence (1945-1975)

The wars of independence marked a period of intense transformation for Vietnam34. The struggle
for independence from French colonial rule and later, the conflict with the United States, led to
significant political and social upheaval3. The wars influenced every aspect of Vietnamese life, from
culture and identity to politics and language3. The period also saw the rise of nationalism and the
emergence of a distinct Vietnamese identity3.

Post-1975

Post-1975, Vietnam underwent further changes. The reunification of North and South Vietnam in
1976 led to the formation of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam54. The government introduced
socialist policies, taking control of all farmland and business activities5. However, these changes led
to economic difficulties and widespread poverty5. In response to these challenges, the government
initiated economic reforms in the mid-1980s, known as Đổi Mới4. These reforms led to significant
economic growth and changes in Vietnamese society4.
In conclusion, the transformations in Vietnam over the past 150 years have been profound, affecting
every aspect of Vietnamese life. From the influence of French colonial rule to the impact of the wars
of independence and the changes in the post-1975 period, Vietnam’s history is a testament to its
resilience and adaptability in the face of change.