MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

The data gathered should be properly

Gathering and Organizing Data
Key Concepts:
 Categorical data are nominal and
ordinal scales.
 Continuous data are ratio and
interval scales.
 A variable refers to a property
that can take on different values
or categories which can not be
predicted with certainty.
 Independent variable,
dependent variable and control
variable are the three common
types of variables.
 Quantitative variable is one that
can be measured and ordered
according to quantity.
 Qualitative variable is one simply
used as labels to distinguish one
group from another.
organized into grouped data called
frequency distribution. Consider the
following steps:
1. Determine as to estimate number
of classes k, k = 1 + 3 log n, where n
is the number of population.
2. Determine the range, r = highest
value – lowest value
3. Obtain the class size, c = range/ k
4. Set the lowest value as the first
lower limit and get the upper limit
which is equal to first lower limit +
class size – 1.
5. Do the same process again until
you reach the last class limit that
includes the highest value from the
data.
Example. Construct a frequency
polygon for the following data.

The data gathered shall be 10 12 18

presented, analyzed and interpreted 10 11
that can be easily understood by the 19 23 21
reader. Data may be presented in 25 14
textual, tabular, graphical or a 20 15 17
combination of these. Textual 22 14
presentation uses statements with 21 12 24
numerals in order to describe the 20 16
data. Tabular presentation uses Solution:
statistical table to directly display the 1. Determine the value of k = 1 + 3
quantities or values. Graphical log n where n = 20. log 20 =
presentation illustrates data in a 1.3010299957,
form of graphs aiding readers to k = 1 + 3 (1.3010299957)
understand the text easily. k = 1 + 3.903089987

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

k = 5. Therefore, 5 is the
a. Mean, M n =
∑ of values
estimate number of classes in tℎe number of values
these data.

2. r = 25 -10 = 15 Steps:
1. Add all the given values.
3. class size = 15 / 5 = 3 2. Divide the total by the number of
values.
Class limits Frequency
Example: Find the mean of the
25 - 27 1
following scores: 70, 72, 77, 78, 86,
22 - 24 3 84, 79

19 - 21 5 Solution: Mean =
70+72+77+78+86 +84+79 546
16 – 18 3 7
= 7
=
78
13 – 15 3

10 – 12 5 a. Weighted Mean, W M n =
∑ fX
N
Total, n 20 where: W M n = weighted mean
f = frequency
X = score
∑ fX = sum of the
Interpretation of Data product of frequency and score
N = total frequency
Measures of Central Tendency
It determines a numerical value Example: There are 1,000 notebooks
in the central region of a distribution sold at Php 10 each; 500 notebooks
of scores. Central tendency refers to at Php 20 each; 500 notebooks at
the center of a distribution. Php 25 each, and 100 notebooks at
Php 30 each. Compute the weighted
1. Mean. It is also called the mean.
arithmetic mean or average and can
be affected by extreme scores. It is Solution: Prepare the frequency
the balance point of a score in a distribution.
distribution. Notebook’s
f fX
Price (X)
How to compute for the mean? Php
A. Ungrouped Data: Php 10 1000 10,
The mean is the balance point of 000
a distribution. Php
Php 20 500 10,
000

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Php
Php 25 500 12,
500 Solution:
Php 3, Weights
Php 30 100
000 of the f Xm f Xm
Cubs

N = 2,
∑ fX 201 – 210 3 205.5 616.5
= Php 191 – 200 8 195.5 1564.0
100
35, 181 – 190 12 185.5 2226.0
500 171 – 180 11 175.5 1930.5
161 – 170 9 165.5 1489.5

Therefore: W M n =
∑ fX =
35 ,500
=
151 – 160 2 155.5 311.0
N 2,100 ∑ f Xm
16.90 N = 45 =
B. Grouped Data 8137.5

Mn = ∑ f Xm Therefore:
N
Mean, M n =
∑ f X m = 8137.5 =
where M n = mean N 45
f = frequency 180.83
X m = class mark 2. Median. It is the value in the
∑ f Xm = sum of the distribution that divides an arranged
(ascending/descending) set into two
product of frequencies and class
equal parts. It is the midpoint or
marks
middlemost of a distribution of scores.
N = total frequency

How to compute the median?

Assignment #1: The table below
A. Ungrouped Data
summarizes the weights of the cubs.
The median is obtained by
Find the average of the cubs.
inspecting the middlemost value of
the arranged distribution either in
ascending or descending order.

M d = (N + 1)/ 2
Weights of the Cubs
Weights of the Cubs f Example 1: Find the median of the
201 – 210 3 following:
191 – 200 8 48, 35, 12, 65, 60, 55, 50
181 – 190 12
171 – 180 11 Solution:
161 – 170 9 12, 35, 48, 50, 55, 60, 65 N=7
151 – 160 2 Therefore:
M d = (N + 1)/ 2
N = 45

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

M d = (7 + 1)/ 2 = 4th score 24 – 25 3 56

M d = 50 22 – 23 3 53
20 – 21 6 50
Example 2: Find the median of the 18 – 19 6 44
following: 16 – 17 8 38
101, 107, 115, 120, 111, 105 14 – 15 6= 30 =
12 – 13 fm median
Solution: 10 – 11 10 class
101, 105, 107, 111, 115, 120 N = 6 14 24 = cf b
Therefore: 14
M d = (N + 1)/ 2 N = 60
M d = (6 + 1)/ 2 = 3.5th score, that
is between the 3rd and 4th scores. Solution:
M d = (107 + 111)/ 2 = 109 N/2th score = (60/2)th score
= 30th score
B. Grouped Data The median class that contains the
In computing the median of 30th score is 14 – 15 since it has the
grouped data, determine the median 30th score.
class which contains the (N/2)th X LB = 13.5
score under <cf of the cumulative cf b = 24
distribution. fm = 6
i =2
N
(− cf b )
M d = X LB + 2 i N
(
− cf b )
fm M d = X LB + 2 i
fm
Where: M d = median
X LB = the lower boundary or 60
( − 24)
true lower limit of the median class M d = 13.5 + 2 (2)
N = total frequency 6
cf b = cumulative frequency M d = 15.5
before the median class
f m = frequency of the 3. Mode. It is the value that occurs
median class most frequently in the distribution. A
i = size of the class distribution can be unimodal, bimodal
and trimodal. In other words, it can
interval
have more than one mode.
Example: Solve the median for the
following data.
How to find the mode?
A. Ungrouped Data
Class F <cf
The mode of ungrouped data is
Frequency
found by merely inspection.
28 – 29 1 60
26 – 27 3 59

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Example: Find the mode of the 10 – 11 14

following discounts. N = 60
4%, 7%, 3%, 4%, 7%, 6%,
8%, 3%, 7% Solution:
X LB = 9.5
Solution: By inspection, the mode is 7 df 1 = 14 – 0, because
since it has the largest frequency. there is no frequency
below the modal class
B. Grouped Data = 14
To find the mode, determine first df 2 = 14 – 10
the modal class. The modal class is =4
the class with the highest frequency, i =2
and we will use the formula.
M o = X LB + ¿ i
Mode, M o = X LB + ¿ i

Where: M o = Mode
X LB = lower boundary of
M o = 9.5 +
[14
(14+ 4) ]
2 =

9.5 + 1.56 = 11.06

the modal class
df 1 = difference between
Measures of Relative Position
the frequency of the modal
class and frequency above Statisticians often talk about
it. the position of a value, relative to other
df 2 = difference between values in a set of data. The most
the frequency of the modal common measures of position are
class and frequency below percentiles, quartiles, and standard
scores (z-score).
it.
i = size of the class Percentiles
interval Assume that the elements in a
data set are rank ordered from the
Example: Find the mode of the smallest to the largest. The values that
following data. divide a rank-ordered set of elements
into 100 equal parts are
Class Frequency f called percentiles.
An element having a percentile
28 – 29 1 rank of Pi would have a greater value
26 – 27 3 than i percent of all the elements in the
24 – 25 3 set. Thus, the observation at the 50th
22 – 23 3 percentile would be denoted P50, and it
20 – 21 6 would be greater than 50 percent of the
18 – 19 6 observations in the set. An observation
at the 50th percentile would correspond
16 – 17 8
to the median value in the set.
14 – 15 6
12 – 13 10
Ungrouped Data

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Example 1: Mr. Ramirez conducted a
quiz to ten students. The scores
obtained are as follows: 5, 8, 7, 3, 6, 6,
10, 5, 6, 4. What is the 50th percentile
point?
Solution: Since the middle score is 6, it
surpasses half (50%) of the students.
Therefore, P50 = 6.
Example 2: In a class of 50, John got a
percentile rank of 65. How many
students rank below John?
Solution: Since there are 50 students in
all, the number of students who got
scores below John is 50 (65%) = 50
(0.65) = 32.5 or 33
Grouped Data
To compute for the Percentile of
given grouped data, the formula to be
used
is:
Pn= X LB + [ i(nN − F)/ f ]
where: Pn = the score
corresponding to the ith percentile rank
X LB = the lower limit of the
percentile class interval
f = the frequency of the
percentile interval
F = the cumulative
frequency of the interval
before the percentile
interval
i = the class size
n = the rank in decimals
N = the total frequency
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
Quartiles
It divide a rank-ordered data set
into four equal parts. The values that
divide each part are called the first,
second, and third quartiles; and they are
denoted by Q1, Q2, and Q3, respectively.
The chart below shows a set of four
numbers divided into quartiles.
To compute for the quartiles, the
following formula is used:
Q n= X LB + [ i (N / 4 − F)/f ]
where: Qn = the score
corresponding to the ith quartile rank
X LB = the lower limit of the
quartile class interval
f = the frequency of the
quartile interval
F = the cumulative
frequency of the interval
before the quartile interval
i = the class size
4 = stands for the quartile
division
N = the total frequency
Deciles
These are points that divide a
distribution into ten equal parts. Each
part is called a decile.
D n= X LB + [ i( N / 10 − F)/ f ]
where: Dn = the score
corresponding to the ith decile rank
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

X LB = the lower limit of the interval

decile class interval 39 – 41 2 8
f = the frequency of the 36 – 38 1 4
decile interval 33 – 35 1 2
F = the cumulative 1
frequency of the interval N=
before the decile interval 40
i = the class size
10 = stands for the decile In order to remember only one
division
N = the total frequency formula, we can use Q1 = P25

Example: Given the frequency n = 25% = 0.25 and 0.25 x 40 =

distribution below, calculate the 10
following:
X LB = 44.5 f=8
1. Q1
2. P10 F=8 i=3 N=
3. D2 40

Class
F <cf Q 1= X LB + [ i( N / 4 − F )/f ] = 44.5 +
Frequency (3) [ {( 0.25 )( 40 ) −8 } /8 ] = 45.25
60 – 62 2 40
57 – 59 2 38
54 – 56 4 36
51 – 53 5 32
48 – 50 11 27
45 – 47 8 16
42 – 44 4 8 2. P10=X LB + [ i(nN − F )/f ]
39 – 41 2 4
36 – 38 1 2
Class
33 – 35 1 1 F <cf
Frequency
N=
40
40
60 – 62 2 38
57 – 59 2 36
54 – 56 4 32
Solution: 51 – 53 5 27
48 – 50 11 16
1. Q 1= X LB + [ i( N / 4 − F )/f ] 45 – 47 8 8
42 – 44 4 4=
Class 39 – 41 2 percentile
F <cf
Frequency 36 – 38 1 interval
60 – 62 2 40 33 – 35 1 2
57 – 59 2 38 1
54 – 56 4 36 N=
51 – 53 5 32 40
48 – 50 11 27
45 – 47 8 16 = n = 10% and 0.10 x 40 = 4
42 – 44 4 percentile

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

X LB = 38.5 f=2 close, clustered or near performances of

the members of the group are.
F=2 i=3 N=
40 A. Range. It is the difference between
the highest score and lowest score. It
P10=X LB + [ i (nN − F)/ f ] = 38.5 + 3 gives us the quickest estimate.
[ ( 0.10 )( 40 ) − 2 ]/ 2 = 41.5 Example 1: Find the range of the
following data:
a. 10 , 12, 14, 14, 16 b. 45,
50, 55, 60, 52
3. D2=X LB + [ i( N /10 − F )/f ]
Solution: a. Range = 16 – 10 = 6
Class
F <cf b. Range = 60 – 45 = 15
Frequency
40
60 – 62 2 38
57 – 59 2 36 Example 2: Find the range of the
54 – 56 4 32 frequency distribution below.
51 – 53 5 27
Class frequency f
48 – 50 11 16
28 – 29 1
45 – 47 8 8=
26 – 27 2
42 – 44 4 percentile
24 – 25 4
39 – 41 2 interval
22 – 23 3
36 – 38 1 4
20 – 21 5
33 – 35 1 2
1 N = 15
N=
40 Solution: Range = u.b. – l.b.
= 29.5 – 19.5
n = 20% and 0.20 x 40 = 8
= 10
X LB = 41.5 f=4
B. Interquartile Range. It is a more
F=4 i=3 N= reliable measure of variability. It is the
40 difference between 75th percentile or Q3
and the 25th percentile or Q 1.
D 2= X LB + [ i(N / 10− F)/ f ] = 41.5 + 3
I.R. = Q 3 - Q 1
{[ ( 0.20 )( 40 ) −4 ] /4 } = 41.5 + 3 = 44.5
Example: Given Q 1 = 45.25 and Q 3 = 52.3.
Solve the interquartile range.
Measures of Variation Solution: I.R. = 52.3 – 45.25 = 7.05
The degree of variation measures the
degree of the spread of the values. It is
C. Quartile Deviation. It is the half of the
used to determine how varied,
distance or interquartile range. It simply
dispersed, scattered, or distant or how
divide the difference between Q 3 and Q 1.

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Q.D. = ¿ - Q 1)/ 2 Example: Find the mean deviation of the

following.
Example: Given Q 1 = 45.25 and Q 3 = 52.3.
Solve the quartile deviation. X f
30 – 34 4
Solution: QD = (52.3 – 45.25) / 2 = 7.05 / 2 25 – 29 5
= 3.525 20 – 24 6
15 – 19 2
10 – 14 3
N = 20
D. Mean Deviation
It is a measure of variation that
Solution: Calculate the mean first,
makes use of all the scores in a distribution.
It is more reliable than the range and X f Xm fX m
quartile deviation. 30 – 34 4 32 128
Ungrouped Data 25 – 29 5 27 135
20 – 24 6 22 132
To solve the mean deviation for 15 – 19 2 17 34
ungrouped data, we use the formula: 10 – 14 3 12 36
N= ∑ f Xm
MD =
∑ |X − M n| 20 = 465
N
where X = the score in the M n = 465 / 20 = 23.25
distribution
Add two columns for | X m − M n|
M n = the mean
and f | X m − M n|
N = number of
observations X f Xm fX m
30 – 34 4 32 128
Example: Find the mean deviation of the 25 – 29 5 27 135
following ungrouped distribution: 4, 8, 12 20 – 24 6 22 132
15 – 19 2 17 34
Solution: Calculate the mean, M n = 24/3 = 10 – 14 3 12 36
8 N = 20 ∑ f Xm = 4
X | X − M n|
4
8
4
0 MD =
∑ f |X m − M n| = 107.50 =
12 4 N 20
∑|X − M n| = 8 5.375
E. Variance and the Standard Deviation
MD = 8 / 3 = 2.67 The standard deviation, SD is the
most important and useful measure of
Grouped Data
variation. It is the square root of the
For group distribution, the formula to variance, SD 2. It is an average to the
be used is, degree to which each set of scores in the
distribution deviates from the mean value.
MD =
∑ f |X m − M n|
N Ungrouped Data

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

For ungrouped data, the formula is – 3 3 -6.60 43.56 476.28

S= √∑ ( X − M ) / N −1
n
2
47
42
4
0
-9.60
-
92.16
158.7
a. Calculate for the mean. – 3 12.6 6
b. Get the difference between each
44 7 0
score and the mean, then square this
39 3
difference. – 4
41 3
c. Get the sum of the squared 36 1
deviations in step b. – 2
38 8
d. Substitute in the formula.
33
Example: Find the variance and standard –
deviation of the following distribution. 35
30
M n = (4 + 8 + 12) / 3 = 8 –
32
X (X − M n ) (X − M n )2
27
4 4–8 16 –
8 8–8 0 29
12 12 – 8 16
N 2113.0
∑ (X − M n )2 = 32 = 0
4
0
S= √∑ ( X − M ) / N −1 =
√ 16 = 4
n
2

√ (32 )
3−1
= Solution: Solve for the mean, M n = 40.60

S= √∑ f ( X − M ) /N −1 =
n
2

√ 2113.00 = 7.36
2 2
S = 4 = 16
40 −1
Grouped Data
2 2
S = (7.36) = 54.1696
For the data organized in a
frequency distribution, the standard
deviation is computed this way:
Standard Scores (Z-scores)
S= √∑ f ( X − M ) /N −1
n
2

Example: Solve for the standard It indicates how many standard

deviation and variance. deviations an element is from the mean.
C.I f Xm Xm - (X ¿ ¿ m− fM(X
2 2
A standard
n ) ¿¿¿ m − M n ) ¿
score can be calculated from
. Mn the following formula.
54 3 5 14.4 207.3 622.08
-56 2 5 0 6 259.92 z = (X - μ) / σ
51 1 5 11.4 129.9 73.96
– 5 2 0 6 145.80
53 6 4 8.40 73.96 34.56 where z is the z-score, X is the value of
48 8 9 5.40 29.16 2.88 the element, μ is the mean of the
– 4 4 2.40 5.76 51.84 population, and σ is the standard
50 6 6 -0.60 0.36 261.36
45 2 4 -3.60 12.96 184.32 deviation.

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Here is how to interpret z-scores.
 A z-score less than 0 represents
an element less than the mean.
 A z-score greater than 0
represents an element greater
than the mean.
 A z-score equal to 0 represents
an element equal to the mean.
 A z-score equal to 1 represents
an element that is 1 standard
deviation greater than the mean;
a z-score equal to 2, 2 standard
deviations greater than the mean;
etc.
 A z-score equal to -1 represents
an element that is 1 standard
deviation less than the mean; a
z-score equal to -2, 2 standard
deviations less than the mean;
etc.
Example: Kyle got 76 marks in his test.
If the marks of the whole class had a
mean of 52 and a standard deviation of
8, what was Kyle’s standard score?
Solution:
z = (X - μ) / σ = (76 - 52) / 8 =
24 / 8 = 3
Box and Whisker Plot
It is a diagram based on the five-
number summary of a data set.
To construct this diagram, we first
draw an equal interval scale on which
to make our box plot. Do not just draw a
boxplot shape and label points with the
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
numbers from the 5-number summary.
The boxplot is a visual representation of
the distribution of the data. Greater
distances in the diagram should
correspond to greater distances
between numeric values.
Using the equal interval scale, we
draw a rectangular box with one end
at Q1 and the other end at Q3. And then
we draw a vertical segment at the
median value. Finally, we draw two
horizontal segments on each side of the
box, one down to the minimum value
and one up to the maximum value,
(these segments are called the
"whiskers").
Example 1: Draw a box-and-whisker
plot for the data set
{3, 7, 8, 5, 12, 14, 21, 13, 18}.
Minimum: 3, Q1 : 6, Median:
12, Q3 : 16, and Maximum: 21.
The Normal Distribution
A normal distribution, sometimes
called the bell curve, is a distribution
that occurs naturally in many situations.
This creates a distribution that
resembles a bell (hence the nickname).
The bell curve is symmetrical. Half of
the data will fall to the left of the mean;
half will fall to the right.
The empirical rule tells you what
percentage of your data falls within a
certain number of standard
deviations from the mean:
• 68% of the data falls within
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

one standard deviation of the mean. The shape of the standard normal
• 95% of the data falls within distribution looks like this:
two standard deviations of the mean.
• 99.7% of the data falls within
three standard deviations of the mean.

The standard deviation controls

the spread of the distribution. A smaller
standard deviation indicates that the
data is tightly clustered around
the mean; the normal distribution will be
taller. A larger standard deviation
indicates that the data is spread out
around the mean; the normal
distribution will be flatter and wider.
Properties of a normal distribution
 The mean, mode and median are
all equal.
 The curve is symmetric at the
center (i.e. around the mean, μ).
 Exactly half of the values are to the
left of center and exactly half the
values are to the right.
 The total area under the curve is 1.
The Standard Normal Model
Standard normal model. Image
credit: University of Virginia.
Practical Applications of the
Standard Normal Model
The standard normal distribution
could help you figure out which subject
you are getting good grades in and
which subjects you have to exert more
effort into due to low scoring
percentages. Once you get a score in
one subject that is higher than your
score in another subject, you might think
that you are better in the subject where
you got the higher score. This is not
always true.

You can only say that you are better in a

A standard normal model is a normal particular subject if you get a score with
distribution with a mean of 0 and a a certain number of standard deviations
standard deviation of 1. above the mean. The standard deviation
tells you how tightly your data is
In the standard normal model, about 5
clustered around the mean; It allows
percent of your data would fall into the
you to compare different distributions
“tails” (colored darker orange in the
that have different types of data —
image below) and 90 percent will be in
including different means.
between. For example, for test scores of
students, the normal distribution would
show 2.5 percent of students
getting very low scores and 2.5 percent
getting very high scores. The rest will be Linear Regression and Correlation
in the middle; not too high or too low.

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Correlation (Diane Keirnan, y = the observed data

2014) refers to the statistical association for the dependent variable
between two variables. It exists between n = sample size
two variables when one of them is ∑ x = summation of x
related to the other in some way. A values
scatterplot is the best place to start. A ∑ y = summation of y
scatterplot (or scatter diagram) is a values
∑ x = summation of the
2
graph of the paired (x, y) sample data
with a horizontal x-axis and a vertical y- square of each of x values
∑ y = summation of the
2
axis.
square of each of y values
A scatterplot can identify several
different types of relationships between ∑ xy = summation of the
two variables. product of the x and y
values
 A relationship has no
correlation when the points on a
scatterplot do not show any
pattern.
 A relationship is non-linear when
the points on a scatterplot follow a
pattern but not a straight line.
 A relationship is linear when the
points on a scatterplot follow a
somewhat straight line pattern.

Linear relationships can be either

positive or negative. Positive
relationships have points that incline
upwards to the right. As x values
increase, y values increase.
As x values decrease, y values
decrease.

Correlation coefficients are

computed and the most widely used
measure of correlation is the Pearson
Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient or simply Pearson r:

r = n¿¿

where x = the observed data

for the independent variable

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Linear regression can be computed

using the equation,

y’ = a + bx which is called the least

Linear regression model is a square line or the simple regression
mathematical equation that allows us to line
predict a response for a given predictor
value. It consists of finding the best- where a = the y – intercept
fitting straight line through the points. b = the slope
The best-fitting line is called x = predictor variable
y’ = estimate of the mean
a regression line. The black diagonal
value of the response variable for
line in the (figure below) is the any value of the predictor
regression line and consists of the variable.
predicted score on Y for each possible
value of X. The vertical lines from the
points to the regression line represent
the errors of prediction. As you can see,
the red point is very near the regression TOPIC 5
line; its error of prediction is small. By Week 11: Geometric Designs
contrast, the yellow point is much higher
than the regression line and therefore its
error of prediction is large. INTRODUCTION

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

1. Which is a transformation of moving

an object in space without changing its
Mathematics is integrated in the
size, shape or orientation?
symbology of culture and arts. In arts,
a. Dilation
counting and patterns are the needed
c. Rotation
elements to produce the design and
b. Reflection
style. They are used to project
d. Translation
aesthetics and logic of any craft and
create the real meaning of the structure
2. Which is transformation of expanding
especially of an artist.
or contracting an object without
Mathematical ideas contribute to changing its shape or orientation?
art like patterns, symmetry, tiling, a. Dilation
geometry, fractals, Fibonacci numbers c. Rotation
and golden ratio. Mathematical b. Reflection
operations also occur everyday in arts d. Translation
and even in science.
3. Which is a transformation of flipping
This part discusses Van Heile an object across a line without changing
Theory of Geometric Thinking, its size or shape?
transformation, the psychology of a. Dilation
shapes, geometric patterns and c. Rotation
geometric concepts enriching Filipino b. Reflection
culture and arts. After the discussion d. Translation
and activities provided, you are
expected to apply geometric concepts, 4. Which are two-dimensional figures in
especially isometries in describing and which all points lie in the same plane?
creating designs and contribute to the a. Line
enrichment of the Filipino culture and c. Form
arts using concepts in geometry b. Shape
Before and after the discussion, d. Perspective
there are pre- and post-competency
assessments. You should get a result of 5. Which refers to the arrangement of
at least 75% in the post-competency elements to create a sense of
checklist, otherwise, you need to review equilibrium and harmony?
the lesson and retake the post- a. Form
competency assessment. c. Balance
b. Pattern
d. Perspective

6. In which type of balance are the

shapes and patterns identical on either
PRE – COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT
side of a central boundary?
a. Symmetry
Encircle the letter of the correct answer. c. Perspective
b. Asymmetry
d. Radial

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

enrich one’s own culture. According

7. Which is a collection of shapes, to Rachel Bernstein and Eunice Lee
repeating or altered to create a cohesive (2011), Geometry is everywhere. We
design? can train ourselves to find the the
a. Transformation geometry in everyday objects and in
c. Balance works of art. Line, shape, form,
b. Perspective pattern, symmetry, scale, and
d. Geometric patterns
proportion are the bulding blocks of
both art and math.
8. Which involves taking a preimage
and transforming it in some way to
produce an image? By taking an interdisciplinary
a. Transformation b. Balance approach to art and geometry,
c. proportion d. students can identify and apply
Perspective authentic connections between the
9. Which is principle of design is two subjects and understand
concerned with the size of relationships concepts that transcend the individual
of parts of a composition to each other disciplines.
and to the whole?
a. Proportion b. Pattern Lines. It vary in width, length,
c. Balance d. Dilation curvature, color, or direction.

10. Which is kind of transformation that Shapes. These are two –

is rotating an object about fixed point
without changing its size or shape?
a. Proportion b. Rotation
c. Reflection d. Dilation
LEARNING RESOURCES
In dealing with this module, you will be
employing the learning resources listed
below;
(1) Daligdig, R. (2019).
Mathematics in the Modern
World. Lorimar Publishing,
Inc. Quezon City
dimensional figures in which all points
lie in the same plane. It can be open
or closed, free-form or geometric.
Form. These are three –
dimensional, enclose volume and
help us to understand physical space.
Pattern and Repetition. It is the
recurrence of elements of art at
regular intervals. When lines, shapes,
and foms repeat in a predictable
combination, they form a pattern.
Example: Tesellation

(2) Links Balance. It is the arrangement of

elements to create a sense of
equilibrium and harmony.
GEOMETRIC DESIGNS
Three Types
Geometry can help enhance
1. Symmetry. It is a type of balance in
one’s artistic prowess as well as
which the shapes and patterns are

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
identical on either side of a central
boundary; the two halves of a work
mirror each other.
2. Asymmetry. It is an arrangement of
parts in which the opposite sides,
divided by a central line, are not
identical.
3. Radial symmetry. It is a form of
symmetrical balance in which the
elements of a composition radiates
from a central point in a regular,
repeating pattern.
Proportion. It is the principle of
design concerned with the size of
relationships of parts of a geometric figures. They do not see
composition to each other and to the
whole.
Perspective. It is a system for
representing three – dimensional
objects, viewed in spatial recession,
on a two – dimensional surface. The
simplest form of perspective drawing
is linear perspective, a system that
allows artists to trick the eye into
seeing depth on a flat surface.
There are many ways to set up
creative designs in arts. Basically,
mathematical figures can also be a
product of formation and
transformation. Geometric designs
can be fully appreciated if you
arrange certain figures and shapes in
any way to find the angle of the form.
Van Hiele Theory of Geometric
Thinking
Five Levels of Thinking and
Understanding in Geometry
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
Level 0 – Visualization (Basic
visualization or Recognition)
At this level, the pupils use visual
perception and nonverbal thinking.
They recognize geometric figures by
their shape as a “whole” and compare
the figures with their prototypes or
everyday things.
Example: Squares and rectangles
seem to be different
Level 1 – Analysis (Description)
At this level, students start
analyzing and naming properties of
relationships between properties.
They do not see a need for proof of
facts discovered empirically.
Example: Rectangle have four right
angles
Level 2 – Abstraction (Informal
Deduction or Ordering or Relational)
At this level, students perceive
relationships between properties and
figures. They crate meaningful
definitions. They are able to give
simple arguments to justify their
reasoning.
Example: Simple deduction can be
followed, but proof is not understood.
Level 3 – Deduction (Formal
deduction)
At this level, students can give
deductive geometric proofs. They are
able to diffrentiate between
necessary and sufficient conditions.
The students attain logical reasoning
ability and proves theorems
deductively.
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

guided orientation, explnation, free

Example: Proofs can be written with orientation, integration, which are
understanding approximately not strictly sequential.

Level 4 – Rigor
At this level, students understand Transformations
the way mathematical systems are
established. They are able to use all Transformation means to
types of proofs. The students change. Hence, a geometric
establish and analyze theorems in transformation would mean to
different postulations system. make some changes in any
given geometric shape.
Example: Non Euclidean geometry
There are two different
can be understood.
categories of transformations:
Properties of Levels 1. The rigid transformation,
which does not change the
1. Fixed sequence (order) shape or size of the pre-image.
A student cannot be at level N
2. The non-rigid
without having gone through level (N
transformation, which will
– 1). Therefore, the student must go
change the size but not the
through the levels in order.
shape of the pre-image.
2. Adjacency
At each level, what was intrinsic Types of Transformations
in the preceding level becomes
extrinsic in the current level. Based on how we change a given
image, there are four types of
3. Distinction transformations.
Each level has its own linguistic
1. Translation happens when
symbols an its own network of
we move the image without
relationships connecting those
changing anything in it. Hence
symbols.
the shape, size, and orientation
remain the same.
4. Separation
Two persons at different levels
cannot understand each other. This
property was thought as one of the
main reasons for failure in geometry.

5. Attainment
The learning process leading to
complete understanding at the next
level has five phases – information,

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

2. Rotation is when we rotate the

image by a certain degree. The Psychology of Shapes

The psychology of shapes

presents the shapes and their
meaning. The perceived
meanings that rectangles/squares
exude are balance and tradition,
circles are for infinity, protection
and femininity. Triangles are for
stability, energy and agression.
Rhombus are for vibrant and
contemporary and hexagon is for unity
3. Reflection is when we flip the and balance.
image along a line (the mirror line).
The flipped image is also called the
mirror image.

4. Dilation is when the size of an

image is increased or decreased
without changing its shape.

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
According to Kayla Darling
(2018), shapes are the bases of most
images and designs. Different shapes
can evoke different meanings.
Combining these shapes in different
ways can create entirely new meanings.
Geometric patterns are
collection of shapes, repeating or
altered to create a cohesive design.
Kayla Darling enumerated 40
brilliant ways on how to use geometric
pattern in the designs.
1. Use patterns to create images.
Simple shapes, on their own, can be
appealing; using a variety of shapes to
create a whole image, however, can
work even better.
2. Play with asymmetry.
Not all geometric patterns have to be
symmetrical; sometimes creating
something where shapes and lines differ
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
across the board can create a striking
effect.
3. Combine patterns with photos.
Geometric patterns can be a great,
creative way to spice up ordinary
photos. The collage ultimately offers an
entirely different, unique experience,
giving the images more personality than
if they were displayed alone.
4. Use lighting and shadows creatively.
Shadows and highlights can be used to
enhance shapes—and sometimes
create them.
5. Connect shapes in unique ways.
We’ve already explored how shapes
can create images; exploring how those
shapes connect can create new and
interesting effects.
6. Make a collage.
Try making a collage out of different
shapes—something that guides viewers
and makes your pattern easier on the
eyes
7. Use diagonals.
Diagonals create a clear path for the
eye to follow, offering the bonus of a
cohesive design.
8. Create isometric patterns.
Isometric patterns—or patterns that
appear to be three dimensional—can
really make an image pop, if used
correctly.
9. Create patterns with font.
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
If you want to really stretch your
creativity, try using the typeface itself to
create your patterns.
10. Play with symmetry.
While asymmetry creates a more free-
flowing, fun look, symmetry can be used
in geometric patterns to create
something more elegant.
11. Use patterns within patterns.
If you want something more complex,
including geometric patterns within
already existing shapes can be the way
to go.
12. Keep it simple
Conversely, not everything has to be
complex—simple shapes can be just as
appealing.
13. Think about different ways to use
lines.
Lines are the most basic elements of
any shape; using them creatively can
help create new effects, and can create
a nice flow between images and
information.
14. Create a theme.
Patterns on their own are great; patterns
used to connect images are even better,
especially when those patterns all relate
to one another.
15. Use gradients.
Everyone loves a good color scheme;
geometric gradients can enhance that,
making a gradient background or image
pop.
16. Create characters.
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
Geometric patterns can create not only
images but also character.
17. Combine several different images.
Shapes can be used to combine several
different images together—in ways to
may both be expected and unexpected.
18. Emulate an effect with shapes.
Shapes can be incredibly effective if
used to resemble certain actions or
consequences.
19. Create a background.
If you want something a little more
subtle, try sticking to a simple geometric
background. These can add a little
excitement to a website or presentation,
without being too obvious and
distracting.
20. Create overlapping shapes.
Sometimes, all it takes is a simple trick
to create complexity —Experiment with
how different shapes overlap, and see
what might work for you.
21. Relate patterns to the subject.
Give the pattern a purpose by relating it
directly to the subject.
22. Use patterns in the letters.
You can create patterns within the
letters.
23. Use a pattern to alter images.
You can use patterns to alter parts of an
already existing image. Shifting different
parts of an image can create a different
effect, and can create something quite
original.
24. Choose colors that work together.
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Whenever using colors with geometric
patterns, you’ll want to make sure you
have ones that work well together—
especially if they happen to be on
shapes that border each other.
25. Use shapes that enhance the
experience.
Find shapes that fit and flow well
together, and that create a more
seamless whole, rather than something
that seems thrown together.
26. Create unique effects.
You can use a lot of different styles and
shapes to create something completely
your own.
27. Create a border.
A border is a good way to enhance an
image with shapes, without it being too
distracting.
28. Add simple animation.
With technology, we have the benefit of
enhancing various geometric patterns
for the internet—like, for example,
adding simple, alternating animation
between two geometric patterns.
29. Make it subtle.
Not everything has to be obvious; subtle
shapes can be just as effective.
30. Use patterns to segment
information.
Patterns are a great way to separate
and categorize information, making it
easier for viewers to find.
31. Create hand-drawn patterns.
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
Traditional art appeals to nostalgia, and
allows you to create something a bit
more personal.
32. Use patterns to highlight certain
elements.
Patterns and lines are quite effective at
drawing the eye to certain elements.
Think about what elements in your work
you’d like to highlight, and use shapes
to lead the eye to them.
33. Combine several patterns.
You don’t have to stick to one pattern—
using multiple makes the image more
engaging.
34. Choose uncommonly used shapes.
No one says you have to stick to the
standard circles, squares, and triangles;
in fact, a design might work better using
less traditional shapes.
35. Create a “web” between shapes.
Lines are great at drawing the eye to
elements; why not use them to create a
web between different subjects.
36. Limit complex patterns.
Complex patterns are great, but too
many can be overwhelming. Know how
and where to use your pattern, and
you’ll be more likely to keep your
viewers’ attention.
37. Make it good in black and white.
Not every pattern needs color; keeping
it black and white can be just as
appealing, and can make a pattern
more widely applicable.
38. Incorporate real-life elements.
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
If you want something that screams
“personal,” try including geometric
patterns that you see in your everyday
workplace.
39. Accent other material.
You don’t have to leave the pattern on
certain subjects—you can branch
across various products.
40. Use patterns sparingly.
Probably the simplest tip, but one of the
easiest to forget: less is more.
Geometric patterns don’t need to be
plastered all over your page.
Geometric Concepts Enriching
Filipino Culture and Arts
According to Dr. De Las Penas
(Versoza, 2014) various geometric
elements and algebraic structures are
present in the elegant colored repeating
patterns of mat weaving. She
highlighted the fact that even without
advanced mathematical training, the
weavers are able to create, by hand,
complex geometric designs depicting
advanced levels of geometry and
algebra using a combination of weaving
and counting technique. She and others
found out the finite designs and
repeating patterns occurring in art forms
of various Philippine ethnic communities
are studied through an analysis of their
symmetry groups and colored
symmetrical structures. It is aticipated
that this study focuses on the
mathematics inherent in local designs
can promote better appreciation for
Philippine heritage and culture.
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
TOPIC 6
Week 13 – 14: Codes
INTRODUCTION
The utility of mathematics goes
beyond the mundane. Mathematics
enables the development of codes and
ciphers that are useful to individuals and
to society.
This part discusses the common
coding schemes, the binary number
system and the logic gates. After the
discussion and activities provided, you
are expected to use coding schemes to
encode and decode different types of
information, identification, privacy and
security purposes and exemplify
honesty and integrity when using codes
for security purposes
Before and after the discussion,
there are pre- and post-competency
assessments. You should get a result of
at least 75% in the post-competency
checklist, otherwise, you need to review
the lesson and retake the post-
competency assessment.
PRE – COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT
Encircle the letter of the correct answer
for each item.
1. Which of the following is a numbering
system that represents numeric values
using two unique digits.
a. Decimal b. Octal
c. Binary d.
Hexadecimal
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

2. Which is the smallest addressable

unit of memory?
a. Byte b. Bit
c. Integer d. Code
a. AND b. OR
3. Which is used in computer c. NOT d. NAND
networking that refers to an 8 – bit
quantity? 9. What is the name of the logic gate
a. Byte b. Octet below?
c. Bit d. Code

4. Which is the simplest form of

computer code or programming data a. AND b. OR
represented by system of digits c. NOT d. NAND
consisting of a string of consecutive
zeros and ones? 10. What is the name of the logic gate
a. Correction code below?
c. Computer logic
b. Detection code
d. Binary code

5. Which numbering system uses base a. AND b. NOR

16? c. NOT d. NAND
a. Decimal b. Octal
c. Binary d.
Hexadecimal
LEARNING RESOURCES
6. What is the name of the logic gate
below?
In dealing with this module, you will
be employing the learning resources
listed below;

a. AND b. OR (1) Daligdig, R. (2019).

c. NOT d. NAND Mathematics in the
Modern World. Lorimar
7. What is the name of the logic gate Publishing, Inc. Quezon
below? City

a. AND b. Codes
OR c.
NOT d. NAND
Coding scheme (Tabut, 2015) is a
convention that associates each
8. What is the name of the logic gate
below? character with character set with a

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

unique bit-pattern – a binary IBM (Internet Business Machines) is

representation of the integers from 0. the largest computer company in the
world.
Three Common Coding Schemes:

1. ASCII (American Standard Code

for Information Interchange)
It is the most common format for
text file in computers and on the
internet. In an ASCII file, each
alphabetic, numeric, or special
character in representation with a 7 –
bit binary number (as string of seven
O’s or 1’s).
A bit (shorter for binary digit) is the
smallest unit of data in a computer. A
bit has a single binary valueeither 0
or 1.

3. UNICODE (Universal code) is the

coding schemes that is new ANSI
(American National Standards
Institute) standards. It supports most
of the world’s languages and is
becoming the Internet standard. It
represents text, symbols, characters
in multilingual environment. It is
implemented by character encoding
and commonly used encoding
scheme. It uses 8 – 32 bits per code.

2. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded

Decimal Interchange Code)
It is a binary code for alphabetic,
numeric characters that IBM
developed for its largest systems.

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Binary code (techopedia) is the
simplest form of computer code or
programming data. It is represented
entirely by a binary system of digits
consisting of a string of consecutive
zeros and ones.
Binary Number System
It is a numbering system that
represents numeric values using two
unique digits (0 and 1). Most
computing devices use binary
numbering to represent electronic
circuit voltage state, (i.e., on/off
switch), which considers 0 voltage
input as off and input as on.
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
Binary File
It is a type of computer file that is
used to store binary data. It may
contain any type of formatted or
unformatted data encoded within
binary format.
Binary Digit (Bit)
It is the smallest unit of
information in a computer. It is used
for storing information and has a
value of true/false, or on/off. An
individual bit has a value of either 0 or
1, which is generally used to store
data and implement instructions in
groups of bytes.
Integer in Computers
In computer science, an integer
is a datum of integral data type, a
data type that represents some range
of mathematical integers. Integral
data types may be of different sizes
and may or may not be allowed to
contain negative values.
Integers are commonly
represented in a computer as a group
of binary digits (bits)
Bytes and octets
The term byte initially meant ‘the
smallest addressable unit of memory’.
In the past, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8- and 9-bit
bytes have all been used.
The term octet always refers to
an 8-bit quantity. It is mostly used in
the field of computer networking,
where computers with different byte
widths might have to communicate.
Word
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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

The term ‘word’ is used for a

small group of bits that are handled Binary
simultaneously by processors of a Suppose the number 101 is in
particular architecture. The size of a base 2 or binary.
word is thus CPU-specific.
four two one
Short Integer (2¿¿ 2)¿ (2¿¿ 1)¿ (2¿¿ 0)¿
It can represent a whole number
that may take less storage, while 3 2 9
having a smaller range, compared
with a standard integer on the same = one (4) + zero (2) + one (1) = 4 +
machine. 0+1=5
So, 101 in binary = 5 in decimal.
Long Integer
It can represent a whole integer Addition of Binary Numbers
whose range is greater than or equal To add binary numbers, let us
to that of a standard integer on the remember the following “MagicTable”
same machine.
0+0=0
Binary, Octal, Decimal and 1+0=1
Hexadecimal Systems 0+1=1
Computer systems regularly use 1 + 1 = 10
numeral systems of bases other than 1 + 1 + 1 = 11
10. Base 2 (Binary), Base 8 (Octal),
and Base 16 (Hexadecimal) numeral Example 1:
systems are used because designing
a computer system is simpler in this 111 11
manner than for other bases. 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 = 1 (26 )+1(25 )+0(24 )+1(23 )
+0 (22 )+1(21 )+1(20 )=64+32+8+2+1 =
Operations on Binary Numbers
107
+ 1 1 1 0 0 1 = 1(25 )+1(24 )+1(23 )+ 0(22 )
Decimal
Let us have this example 329 for + 0(21 )+1(20 )=64+32+8+2+1 =
the base 10 or decimal. 57
10 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 1(27 )+0 + 1(25 )+0+0+ 1
2
Hundred ten one (2 ) +0+0 = 128 + 32 + 4 =
(10¿¿ 2)¿ (10¿¿ 1)¿ (10¿¿ 0)¿ 164

3 2 9 Subtraction of Binary Numbers

To subtract binary numbers, then
= three (100) + two (10) + 9 (1) = let us use the following “Magic Table”:
three hundred + twenty + nine
= three hundred twenty-nine = 329 1–1=0
0–0=0

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

1–0=1 upon which all computer systems are

0 – 1 = 1 but carry is required 10 – 1 = 1 built.

Example 1: These logical operations have truth

1 0 1 1 1 = 16 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 23
-1 0 1 0 1 = 16 + 4 + 1 = 21
00010=2 =2
Multiplication of Binary Numbers
To multiply binary numbers, we
will do the same process as decimals.
tables associated with them, which
enumerate the output signals for
particular combinations of inputs.
The part of a digital logic circuit which
performs one of these operations is
called a gate.

Example 1: The Basic Logic Gates

Digital systems are said to be
0 1 0 1 =4+1 =5 constructed by using logic gates.
x 1 0 1 1=8+2+1 =
x 11 1. AND Gate
0 1 0 1 It is an electronic circuit that gives
55 a high input (1) only if all its inputs are
0 1 0 1 high. A dot is used to show the AND
0 0 0 0 operation (i.e. A.B.).
0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 = 32 + 16 + 4 +
2 + 1 = 55

Division of Binary Numbers 2. OR Gate

In dividing binary numbers, we It is an electronic circuit that gives
will use the same process as in a high output (1) if one or more of its
decimals. inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to
show the OR operation.
0 0 1 1 0 1
11 1 0 0 1 1 1 (Borrow 3. NOT Gate
1 from the next digit) It is an electronic circuit that
1 1 produces an inverted version of the
0 1 1 input at its output. It is also known as
1 1 inverter.
0 0 1 1
1 1 4. NAND Gate
0 0 – This is a NOT-AND Gate which is
remainder equal to an AND gate followed by a
NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND
Computer Logic is an aspect of gates are high if any of the inputs are
computer design concerning the low.
fundamental operations and structures

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
5. NOR Gate
This is a NOT-OR gate which is
equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT
gate. The output of all NOR gates are
low if any of the inputs are high.
6. EXOR Gate
The Exclusive-OR gate is a circuit
which will give a high output if either, but
not both, of its two inputs are high. An
encircled plus sign is used.
7. EXNOR Gate
The Exclusive-NOR gate circuit
does the opposite to the EOR gate. It
will give a low output if either, but not
both, of its two inputs are high.
Here is the summary table for the logic
gates;
POST – COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT
Perform the indicated operations. Show
your complete solution. (2 points each)
1. 1010 + 1010
2. 11101 + 1010
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
3. 11111 + 11111
4. 1001 – 11
5. 101 x 10
TOPIC 7
Week 15: The Mathematics of Finance
INTRODUCTION
Mathematical finance, also
known as quantitative finance and
financial mathematics, is a field of
applied mathematics, concerned with
mathematical modeling of financial
markets. Generally, mathematical
finance will derive and extend the
mathematical or numerical models
without necessarily establishing a link to
financial theory, taking observed market
prices as input.
This part discusses the simple
and compound interest, credit cards and
consumer loans and home ownership.
After the lesson and activities, you are
expected to distinguish simple interest
from compound interest, solve problems
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
on simple and compound interest and
differentiate credit cards from consumer
loans, stocks, bonds and mutual funds
from home ownership.
Before and after the discussion,
there are pre- and post-competency
assessments. You should get a result of
at least 75% in the post-competency
checklist, otherwise, you need to review
the lesson and retake the post-
competency assessment.
PRE – COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT
Find out how much you already
know about this module. Take note of
the items that were not able to answer
correctly and find the right answer as
you go through this module.
Identify each statement if it is true or
false. Write your answer on the
space provided.
_________1. Interest is the amount paid
for the use of money.
_________2. The formula being used
for computing the simple interest is I =
Prt.
_________3. Credit card is a plastic
card that lets you access the credit limit
that credit card issuer gives you.
_________4. A credit limit is not like a
loan.
_________5. If you miss a payment, the
credit card company may raise your rate
in addition to charging you a late fee.
_________6. A stock is an ownership in
a company.
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
_________7. Bonds are considered
conservative types of investments.
_________8. Corporate bonds is one of
the types of bonds.
_________9. The money deposited or
borrowed is called the principal (P).
_________10. Charging of interest may
not vary according to the terms and
conditions.
LEARNING RESOURCES
In dealing with this module, you will be
employing the learning resources listed
below;
(1) Daligdig, R. (2019).
Mathematics in the Modern
World. Lorimar Publishing,
Inc. Quezon City
Simple and Compound Interest
Interest is the amount paid for the
use of money. It is also paid for the
money borrowed from a bank. The
money deposited or borrowed is called
the principal (P), the money paid for its
use is called interest (I), and how much
is to be paid per P100 is called the rate
of interest (r) including the time (t)
involved usually given in years.
Simple Interest
The formula is I = Prt or A = P (1 + rt)
Example 1: A 2 – year loan of P500 is
made with 4% simple interest. Find the
interest earned.
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

P = the principal investment

Solution: amount (the initial deposit or loan
amount)
Time is 2 years: t = 2 r = the annual interest rate
Initial amount is P500: P = 500 (decimal)
The rate is 4% (write as decimal): r = n = the number of times that
0.04 interest is compounded per year
t = the number of years the
Apply the formula; money is invested or borrowed
I = Prt for
I = (500)(0.04)(2)
I = 40 Example: If an amount of P 6, 000 is
deposited into savings account at an
Example 2: A business takes out a annual interest rate of 5%, compounded
simple interest loan of P10,000 at a rate monthly, the value of the investment
of 7.5%. What is the total amount the after 10 years.
business will repay if the loan is for 8 Solution:
years?
Given: P = 6,000, r = 5/100 = 0.05, n =
Solution: 12, t = 10
t=8
(nt)
r = 0.075 r
A = P(1+ )
P = 10,000 n
[ ( 12 ) ( 10 ) ]
0.05
A = 6,000(1+ )
Using the simple interest formula for 12
future value, A = 9,882.06

A = P (1 + rt) So, the investment balance after 10

A = 10,000 (1 + (0.075)(8)) years is P 9,882.06.
A = 10,000 (1 + 0.6)
A = 10,000 (1.06) The theories and concepts on simple
A = 10,600 and compound interest are applicable in
business transactions when people are
in to credit and loans.
Compound Interest

(nt)
r Credit Cards and Consumer Loans
The formula is A = P(1+ )
n
where: A credit card is plastic card that
A = the future value of the lets you access the credit limit that the
investment/loan, including the credit card issuer gives you (Latoya
interest Irby, 2019). A credit limit is like a loan.

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
According to Janet Berry-
Johnson (2019), the APR (Annual
Percentage Rate) is one of the key
factors you should consider when
shopping for a credit card.
Here’s what you should look for:
Introductory/promotional APR. Many
cards offer an introductory APR, usually
0 percent on balance transfers or
purchases for anywhere from a few
months to a year.
Regular APR. after the introductory
period, most cards offer arange of
variable APRs depending on your credit
worthiness. The lower end of APR
range is reserved for customers with
good to excellent credit.
Cash advance APR. Banks and issuers
typically charge higher rate for cash
advances, and interest accrues the
moment you take the advance.
Penalty APR. if you miss a payment,
the credit card company may raise your
rate in addition to charging you a late
fee.
Consumer loans means
secured or unsecured loan given to
customers for personal, family, or
household purposes, or for consumable
items such as a car, boat, manufactured
home, etc. It is usually given on the
basis of borrower’s integrity and ability
to pay. It is called consumer lending.
Consumer loans must comply
with the consumer protection regulation
and they are monitored by government
regulatory agencies.
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
Stocks, Bonds and Mutual Funds
A stock is ownership in a
company. When you buy a stock, you
buy a piece of the company (Britney
Castro, 2013).
The best way to describe a bond
is to think of it like a loan. You loan your
money to the government or a
company, and in return they pay you
interest for the term of that loan. These
are considered conservatives types of
investments because you can choose
the length and term of the bond.
Mutual funds represent another
way of to invest in stocks, bond, or cash
alternatives. You can think of a mutual
fund like a basket of stocks or bonds.
Your money is pooled, along with the
money of other investors, into a fund,
which then invests in certain securities
according to a stated investment
strategy.
Home Ownership or Owner -
Occupancy
It is a form of housing tenure
where a person, called the owner-
occupier, owner-occupant, or home
owner, owns the home in which he/she
lives. It also functions as a real estate
investment..
POST – COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT
I. Find the missing terms:
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

of voting system, methods of

(Show your complete solution)
apportionment and the weighted voting
systems. After the discussion and
Principal Rate Time Interest
activities provided, you are expected to
1. P 2, 500 12% 3.5 yrs. familiarize the concepts on
2. P 8, 500 13% P 4, 420 apportionment and voting, enumerate
the common methods of apportionment
3. 7% 4 yrs. P 24, 000
and voting, and give practical examples
on the use of apportionment and voting.
II. Solve the following.
1. Mr. Sanchez borrowed P 110, 000 at 5% Before and after the discussion,
simple interest to pay as down payment for there are pre- and post-competency
a house and lot. If he was able to pay after assessments. You should get a result of
6 months, how much in all did he pay? at least 75% in the post-competency
checklist, otherwise, you need to review
the lesson and retake the post-
2. If interest is compounded quarterly, how competency assessment.
much will P 100, 000 be at the end of one
year at 12% compound interest?

PRE – COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT

Find out how much you already

know about this module. Take note of
the items that were not able to answer
correctly and find the right answer as
you go through this module.

TOPIC 8
Use the following preference schedule to
Week 16: Apportionment and Voting answer the following questions.

Voters 8 5 6 3 9
INTRODUCTION 1st A A B C D
2nd B D C B B
3rd C C D A A
Vote! In a democracy, the rights 4th D B A D C
and duties of citizenship are captured in
1. How many candidates are in this
that simple one-word mantra. The
election?
paradox is that the more opportunities a. 5 b. 4
we have to vote, the less we seem to c. 31 d. 16
appreciate and understand the meaning
of voting. Why should we vote? Does 2. How many people voted in this election?
our vote really count? How does it a. 5 b. 4
count? c. 31 d. 16

This part discusses the methods

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
3. Using the plurality method, who is the
winner?
a. A b. B
c. C d. D
4. Using the plurality-with-elimination
method, who is eliminated 1st?
a. A b. B
c. C d. D
5. How many distinct ballots were cast?
a. 5 b. 4
c. 31 d. 16
APPORTIONMENT AND VOTING
A voting or electoral system is the
way we pick our representatives. The
type of system we use sets the rules
for how our politicians behave,
whether our government represent us
and whether we can hold them to
account if they let us down.
The Common Methods of Voting
System
1. The Plurality Method
Each voter votes for one
candidate. The candidate with the
most first-place votes is the winner.
2. Plurality with Runoff Method
Each voter votes for one
candidate. If a candidate receives a
majority of votes, that candidates is
the winner. If no candidate receives a
majority, eliminate all but the two top
candidates hold a runoff election. The
candidate that receives a majority in
the runoff election is the winner.
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
3. The Borda Count Method
Voters rank candidates from
most to least favorable. Each last-
place vote is awarded no point; each
next-to-last place vote is awarded
one point, each third-from-last-place
vote is awarded two points, and so
on. The candidate who receives the
most points is the winner.
4. Plurality with Elimination (The Hare
Method)
Each voter votes for one
candidate. If a candidate receives a
majority of votes, that candidates is
the winner. If no candidate receives a
majority, eliminate the candidate with
the fewest votes and hold another
election. Repeat this process until a
candidate receives a majority.
5. Pairwise Comparison Method
Voters rank candidates from
most to least favorable. Each
candidate is then compared with each
of the other candidates. If candidate
A is preferred to candidate B, then A
receives one point. If candidate B is
preferred to candidate A, then B
receives one point. If there is a tie,
each candidate receives one-half
point. The candidate who receives
the most overall points is the winner.
6. Approval Voting
Each voter does not have to rank
all the candidates first, second, third,
and so on. Instead, each voter simply
approves (A) or disapproves (D) each
candidate. Thus, if you are a voter,
you can vote for one candidate, two
candidates, three candidates, and so
on. When the votes are counted, the
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

candidate with the most approval bought to 50 recliners to be

votes wins. distributed among the five units.

Solution:
Apportionment
It is the act of distributing by SD = 90/50 = 1.8
allotting or apportioning; distribution
according to a plan. It is the process Actu
Roun
of allocating political power among a Patie al
Unit SQ ded
set of principles (or defined nts Num
Down
constituencies). ber
15/
Methods of Apportionment 1.8
Here are some important Medical 15 = 8 8
formulas to be used in using the 8.3
methods of apportionment; 3
30/
1. Formula for Standard Divisor 1.8 16 +
Surgica
30 = 16 1=
l
SD = 16. 17
total population∈tℎe group 67
be apportioned ¿
total number ¿ 12/
1.8
2. Formula for the Standard 6+1
Cardiac 12 = 6
Quota =7
6.6
7
population ∈tℎe group 8/1.
SQ =
SD Transiti 8=
8 4 4
onal 4.4
4
A. Alexander Hamilton’s Method 25/
1.8 13 +
It is the earliest methods of Progre
25 = 13 1=
apportionment. ssive
13. 14
89
Example: The second floor of Totals 90 50 47 50
Brandon Hospital Houses five
intensive care units: Medical (M),
Surgical (S), Cardiac (C),
Transitional (T), and Progressive
(P). The maximum number of
patients that each unit can house is
shown in table below. The total for
all units is 90. The hospital was

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

B. Jefferson’s Method C. Webster’s Method

Rou Mo Rou Example: Use the Webster method to

Pati nde difi nde apportion the five states shown with
S
Unit ent d ed d their respective populations in the
Q
s Dow Qou Dow 1830 census I n table below. The
n ta n modified divisor MD selected by
15 8 Webster was 49,800, and the total
/1. population was 12, 860, 702.
Medi 8 15
15 8 =8.82
cal = 1.7 Solution:
8.
33 The MQ is found by dividing the state
30 17 population by 49,800.
/1.
8 MQ (New York) = 1,918,608/
Surgi 30
30 = 16 =17.65 49,800 = 38.53 or 39
cal 1.7
16 MQ (Pennsylvania) = 1,348,233/
.6 49,800 = 27.07 or 27
7 MQ ( Kentucky) = 687,917/
12 7 49,800 = 13.81 or 14
/1. MQ (Vermont) = 280,652/ 49,800
Cardi 8 12 = 5.64 or 6
12 6 =7.06
ac = 1.7 MQ (Louisiana) = 215,739/
6. 49,800 = 4.33 or 4
67
8/ 4 Popula Apportion
State MQ
1. tion ment
Trans 8 8 New 1,918,6 38.
8 4 =4.71 39
itional = 1.7 York 08 53
4. Pennsyl 1,348,2 27.
27
44 vania 33 07
25 14 Kentuck 687,91 13.
14
/1. y 7 81
Progr 8 280,65 5.6
25 Vermont 6
essiv 25 = 13 =14.71 2 4
1.7
e 13 Louisian 215,73 4.3
4
.8 a 9 3
9
Total 50
90 47
s

D. Adam’s Method

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

and euler circuits, weighted graphs and

graph coloring. After the discussion and
activities provided, you are expected to
Modified
Unit Patients describe graphs, Euler path and
15circuits, use Euler’s formula in solving
Medical 15 =7.89
1.9some problems and discuss the
30 properties of graph coloring.
Surgical 30 =15.79Before and after the discussion,
1.9
12there are pre- and post-competency
Cardiac 12 =6.32
1.9assessments. You should get a result of
8 at least 75% in the post-competency
Transitional 8 =4.21
1.9checklist, otherwise, you need to review
25 the lesson and retake the post-
Progressive 25 =13.16
1.9 competency assessment.
Totals 90

PRE – COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT

Weighted Voting Systems
Put a check (/) if the given shape has an
euler character and (x) if it is not.
Weighted voting is an electoral
system in which not all voters have
the same amount of influence over ______ 1.
the outcome of an election. This type
of electoral system is used in
shareholder meetings wher votes are
weighted by the number of shares ______ 2.
that each shareholder owns.

TOPIC 9
Week 17: Mathematics of Graphs
______ 3.

INTRODUCTION

______ 4.
In mathematics, graph theory is
the study of graphs, which are
mathematical structures used to model
pairwise relations between objects. A
graph in this context is made up of ______ 5.
vertices, nodes, or points which are
connected by edges, arcs or lines.
This part discusses the graphs

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Graphs and Euler Circuits
An Euler path is a path that uses
every edge of a graph exactly once.
An Euler circuit is a circuit that uses
every edge of a graph exactly once.
An Euler path starts and ends at
different vertices while an Euler circuit
starts and ends at the same vertex.
Weighted Graphs
These are graphs having a
weight, or number, associated with
each edge. The weight of an edge
can represent:
Cost or distance is the amount of
effort needed to travel from one place
to another.
Capacity is the maximum amount of
flow that can be transported from one
place to another.
Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida
Euler’s Formulae
There are two important
mathematical theorems of Leonhard
Euler. The first is a topological
invariance relating the number of
faces, vertices, and edges of
any polyhedron. It is
written F + V = E + 2, where F is the
number of faces, V the number of
vertices, and E the number of edges.
This first formula states that
polyhedra follow certain rules: F + V –
E = 2. The second formula, used
in trigonometry was eix =
cos x + isin x where e is the base of
the natural logarithm and i is
the square root of −1.
Example:
GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

It is an assignment of labels
traditionally called “colors” to each
F vertex. It must have a special property:
+ given two adjacent vertices such that
Face Vertice Edge
Shape V there exists an edge between them,
s s s
– they must not share the same color.
E
4
+
4
Tetrahedr
4 4 6 –
on
6
=
2
6
+
8
–
Cube 6 8 12
1
2
=
2

Example:

1. Solve e ix for x = π

ix
e = cos x + i sin x
e = cos ( π ¿ + i sin (π )
iπ

iπ
e = -1 + i (0)
iπ
e = -1

2. Solve e ix for x = 2 π
ix
e = cos x + i sin x
e = cos (2 π ¿ + i sin (2 π )
i2π

iπ
e = 1 + i (0)
iπ
e =1

Graph Coloring

Reference: Gec 2 | John Argie G. Betchaida GEC 2 |JErome U. Imperial