(eBook PDF) Purchasing and Supply

Chain Management, 8th Edition

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/ebook-pdf-purchasing-and-supply-chain-manage
ment-8th-edition/
purchasing and supply chain management Eighth Eighth Edition
Edition
The publication of Purchasing & Supply Chain Management, Eighth Edition marks the 28th anniversary
since the first edition was published, and it continues its claim to be the most comprehensive textbook on
purchasing and

chain management
purchasing and supply
purchasing and supply chain management currently available. It is also of value to professionals and those

supply chain
specialists in other fields who need an understanding of the role and influence of this vital area of business
performance.

The authors have used extensive knowledge of real-life events to bring the subject matter to life and to

management
provide a truly international focus on purchasing and supply chain. The economic climate is a massive
influence on the need for effective purchasing and supply chain management. Similarly, natural events
such as the Japanese earthquakes present the profession with unique challenges. The content of the book
will help focus attention in the appropriate risk areas of business. This new edition has been fully revised,
covering new developments in the purchasing and supply chain field. There is an increased emphasis on
key decisions, supplier relationships, pricing control and negotiation.

This new edition contains: Kenneth Lysons

• Clarity on strategy and policy making
• Key facets of public and private sector practices
• E-procurement, RFID, value for money and relevant skills
Brian Farrington
• Source material to facilitate further reading and study
• New case studies
• Past CIPS examination questions and discussion questions
• A comprehensive bibliography, index and glossary
• New teaching resources, including an Instructors Manual and comprehensive PowerPoint
slides available from www.pearsoned.co.uk/farrington

Purchasing & Supply Chain Management strives to be of great value to those aspiring to be leaders in
the profession and who are engaged in professional studies for the Chartered Institute of Purchasing and
Supply examinations. It will also provide valuable source information for practising professionals. The
content covers a great deal of the syllabus of the Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply at both the
Foundation and Professional stages.

Dr Brian Farrington is the Managing Director of his specialist company, Brian Farrington Limited. They
provide training and consultancy support to the public and private sectors of business. They work on major
projects and high-value, high-profile procurements. He has extensive experience in the USA, Canada,
Southern Africa, Hong Kong and Europe.

Lysons
and
Front cover image:
© Getty Images

Farrington
Purchasing and Supply Chain Management is published in association with the
Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply (CIPS), which is the central reference
point for the purchasing and supply profession. Details about courses, conferences www.pearson-books.com
and other services are available at www.cips.org
 Contents

Preface xvi
Acknowledgements xvii
Publisher’s acknowledgements xviii
Plan of the book xix

Part 1 Introduction and strategy 1

1 What is purchasing? 3
Learning outcomes 3
Key ideas 3
Introduction 3
1.1 Perspectives on purchasing 4
1.2 Definitions 5
1.3 The evolution of purchasing 9
1.4 Purchasing and change 16
1.5 World class purchasing 17
1.6 The status of purchasing and supply management (PSM) 19
Case study 26
Discussion questions 27
Past examination questions 27
References 28

2 Strategy and strategic procurement 30

Learning outcomes 30
Key ideas 30
Introduction 31
2.1 Strategic thinking 31
2.2 What is strategy? 32
2.3 Strategy development 34
2.4 Levels of organisational strategy 37
2.5 Corporate strategy 38
2.6 Growth strategies 38
2.7 Business-level strategy 41
2.8 Strategic management 44
2.9 Strategic analysis 44
2.10 Important environmental factors 45
2.11 Internal scrutiny 49
2.12 Strategy formulation 51
2.13 The evaluation of alternative strategies 56
2.14 Strategy implementation 67
2.15 Post-implementation evaluation, control and review 71
2.16 Strategic purchasing and supply chain process models 73

vii
Contents

Case study 76
Discussion questions 77
Past examination questions 78
References 79

3 Logistics and supply chains 81

Learning outcomes 81
Key ideas 81
Introduction 82
3.1 What is logistics? 82
3.2 Materials, logistics and distribution management 83
3.3 Reverse logistics 88
3.4 Supply chains 89
3.5 Supply chain management (SCM) 92
3.6 Supply chain vulnerability 97
3.7 SCM and logistics 98
3.8 Value chains 98
3.9 Value chain analysis 103
3.10 Supply chain optimisation 106
3.11 Supply chains and purchasing 109
Case study 112
Discussion questions 113
Past examination questions 114
References 114

4 Structure and supply chains 117

Learning outcomes 117
Key ideas 117
Introduction 118
4.1 Organisational structures 118
4.2 New type organisations 125
4.3 Networks 126
4.4 Factors in configurations 134
4.5 Lean organisations 138
4.6 Agile organisations and production 140
4.7 Supply and value chain mapping 144
Case study 148
Discussion questions 149
Past examination questions 150
References 150

5 Purchasing structure and design 153

Learning outcomes 153
Key ideas 153
Introduction 154
5.1 Business environmental factors and purchasing structures 154
5.2 Purchasing as a functional department 156

viii
 Contents

5.3 Horizontal organisations and processes 157

5.4 Teams 159
5.5 Cross-functional purchasing 160
5.6 Some problems of cross-functional teams 161
5.7 Cross-organisational teams 162
5.8 Divisional purchasing structures 162
5.9 Centralised purchasing 164
5.10 Decentralised purchasing 165
5.11 Purchasing in multi-plant organisations 166
5.12 Evolving purchasing structures 169
5.13 Organisational change 170
Case study 174
Discussion questions 175
Past examination questions 176
References 176

6 Purchasing procedures and supporting tools 178

Learning outcomes 178
Key ideas 178
Introduction 178
6.1 The sequence and impact of purchasing procedures 179
6.2 Analysing a procurement process 180
6.3 E-commerce, e-business, e-SCM and e-procurement 181
6.4 The evolution of e-procurement models 184
6.5 Electronic data interchange (EDI) 185
6.6 E-hubs, exchanges, portals and marketplaces 189
6.7 E-catalogues 192
6.8 E-auctions 195
6.9 Reverse auctions 196
6.10 E-payment 200
6.11 Low-value purchases 202
6.12 Purchasing manuals 203
6.13 Supplier manuals 205
6.14 Legal aspects of purchasing 206
Case study 210
Discussion questions 211
Past examination questions 212
References 212

Part 2 Strategy, tactics and operations 1: purchasing factors 215

7 Supplier relationships 217

Learning outcomes 217
Key ideas 217
Introduction 217
7.1 Relationship purchasing and purchasing relationships 218
7.2 The contrast between transactional and relationship purchasing,
taking account of contractual requirements 218

ix
Contents

7.3 Collaborative business relationships 218

7.4 Relationship formation 221
7.5 Models of supplier relationships 223
7.6 Practical considerations of supplier relationship management 229
7.7 The termination of relationships 232
7.8 Further aspects of relationships 234
Case study 235
Discussion questions 236
Past examination questions 236
References 237

8 Purchasing: product innovation, supplier involvement and development 238

Learning outcomes 238
Key ideas 238
8.1 Innovation and kaizen 240
8.2 Environmentally sensitive design 243
8.3 Purchasing and new product development 246
8.4 Early supplier involvement (ESI) 248
8.5 Advantages and problems of ESI 250
8.6 Supplier development 251
8.7 Supplier associations (SA) 254
Case study 256
Discussion questions 257
Past examination questions 258
References 258

9 Specifying and managing product quality 260

Learning outcomes 260
Key ideas 260
9.1 What is quality? 261
9.2 Quality systems 263
9.3 The importance of TQM 263
9.4 Specifications 268
9.5 Alternatives to individual specifications 272
9.6 Standardisation 275
9.7 Variety reduction 279
9.8 Quality assurance and quality control 280
9.9 Tests for quality control and reliability 280
9.10 The cost of quality 293
9.11 Value management, engineering and analysis 293
Case study 305
Discussion questions 305
Past examination questions 307
References 308

10 Matching supply with demand 309

Learning outcomes 309
Key ideas 309
10.1 Inventory, logistics and supply chain management 309

x
 Contents

10.2 Reasons for keeping inventory 310

10.3 Inventory classifications 310
10.4 Scope and aims of inventory management 311
10.5 Some tools of inventory management 312
10.6 The economics of inventory 317
10.7 Inventory performance measures 318
10.8 Safety stocks and service levels 319
10.9 The right quantity 322
10.10 The nature of demand 323
10.11 Forecasting demand 324
10.12 ‘Push’ and ‘pull’ inventories 329
10.13 Independent demand 330
10.14 Dependent demand 334
10.15 Just-in-time (JIT) 334
10.16 Materials and requirements planning (MRP) 341
10.17 Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) 345
10.18 Enterprise resource planning (ERP) 347
10.19 Supply chain management systems 349
10.20 Distribution requirements planning (DRP) 349
10.21 Vendor-managed inventory (VMI) 351
10.22 Purchasing and inventory 354
Case study 354
Discussion questions 355
Past examination questions 356
References 357

11 Sourcing and the management of suppliers 358

Learning outcomes 358

Key ideas 358
11.1 What is sourcing? 359
11.2 The sourcing process 360
11.3 Sourcing information 361
11.4 Analysis of market conditions 361
11.5 Directives 363
11.6 E-sourcing 365
11.7 Locating suppliers 365
11.8 Supplier assessment 366
11.9 Supplier approval 374
11.10 Evaluating supplier performance 375
11.11 Policy issues in sourcing 378
11.12 The supplier base 379
11.13 Outsourcing 380
11.14 Outsourcing manufacturing 381
11.15 Outsourcing services 386
11.16 Drivers of outsourcing 388
11.17 Types of outsourcing 388
11.18 Benefits of outsourcing 388
11.19 Problems of outsourcing 389

xi
Contents

11.20 Handling an outsourcing project 390

11.21 Sub-contracting 392
11.22 Partnering 393
11.23 Intellectual property rights and secrecy 403
11.24 Support for marketing 404
11.25 Intra-company trading 405
11.26 Local suppliers 406
11.27 Purchasing consortia 406
11.28 Sustainability 407
11.29 Sourcing decisions 408
11.30 Factors in deciding where to buy 410
Case study 412
Discussion questions 413
Past examination questions 414
References 415

12 Managing purchase prices 417

Learning outcomes 417
Key ideas 417
12.1 What is price? 418
12.2 The buyer’s role in managing purchase prices 418
12.3 Supplier pricing decisions 426
12.4 The supplier’s choice of pricing strategy 428
12.5 Price and cost analysis 430
12.6 Competition legislation 433
12.7 Collusive tendering 435
12.8 Price variation formulae 436
Case study 438
Discussion questions 440
Past examination questions 441
References 442

Part 3 Strategy, tactics and operations 2: buying situations 443

13 Contrasting approaches to supply 445

Learning outcomes 445
Key ideas 445
Introduction 446
13.1 Industrial products 446
13.2 Capital investment items 446
13.3 Capital expenditure 447
13.4 Factors to be considered when buying capital equipment 448
13.5 Controlling the acquisition of capital equipment 449
13.6 New or used equipment 450
13.7 Financing the acquisition of capital equipment 452
13.8 Selecting suppliers of capital equipment 456
13.9 Evaluating capital investments 458
13.10 The buyer and capital investment purchases 461

xii
 Contents

13.11 Production materials 462

13.12 Raw materials 462
13.13 Futures dealing 464
13.14 Methods of commodity dealing 467
13.15 Purchasing non-domestic gas and electricity 470
13.16 Energy regulation 470
13.17 Energy supply chains in the UK 470
13.18 Markets 471
13.19 Pricing 472
13.20 Procuring energy contracts 473
13.21 Energy consultants and management 476
13.22 Component parts and assemblies 476
13.23 Consumables 477
13.24 Construction supplies and bills of quantities 478
13.25 Purchasing services 480
Case study 487
Discussion questions 489
Past examination questions 490
References 492

14 Buying from overseas 493

Learning outcomes 493
Key ideas 493
14.1 Terminology 494
14.2 Motives for buying from overseas 494
14.3 Sources of information for overseas suppliers 495
14.4 Overcoming challenges when sourcing overseas 496
14.5 Incoterms 500
14.6 Ocean shipping terminology 505
14.7 Customs and excise 506
14.8 Transport systems, costs and considerations 507
14.9 Freight agents 509
14.10 Methods of payment 512
14.11 Countertrade 514
14.12 The true cost of overseas buying 517
14.13 Buying capital equipment overseas 517
14.14 Factors in successful overseas buying 519
Case study 520
Discussion questions 520
Past examination questions 521
References 522

Part 4 Strategy, tactics and operations 3: negotiation, support

tools and performance 523

15 Negotiation 525
Learning outcomes 525
Key ideas 525

xiii
Contents

Introduction 526
15.1 Approaches to negotiation 529
15.2 The content of negotiation 529
15.3 Factors in negotiation 533
15.4 The negotiation process 537
15.5 Pre-negotiation 538
15.6 The actual negotiation 543
15.7 Post negotiation 549
15.8 What is effective negotiation? 550
15.9 Negotiation and relationships 550
15.10 Negotiation ethics 552
Case study 556
Discussion questions 557
Past examination questions 558
References 559

16 Support tools 560

Learning outcomes 560
Key ideas 560
16.1 Tendering 561
16.2 Debriefing unsuccessful tenderers 564
16.3 Post-tender negotiation (PTN) 565
16.4 Application of costing techniques 566
16.5 Lifecycle costing 566
16.6 Target costing 571
16.7 Absorption costing 573
16.8 Activity-based costing (ABC) and management 577
16.9 Standard costing 582
16.10 Budgets and budgetary control 584
16.11 Learning curves 584
16.12 Project management 589
16.13 Scheduling 591
16.14 Operational research (OR) 599
Case study 602
Discussion questions 602
Past examination questions 604
References 605

17 Purchasing research, performance and ethics 606

Learning outcomes 606
Key ideas 606
17.1 Purchasing research 606
17.2 Purchasing performance evaluation 611
17.3 Accounting approaches 613
17.4 The purchasing management audit approach 616
17.5 Benchmarking and ratios 621
17.6 Integrated benchmarking 628
17.7 Management by objectives (MBO) 631

xiv
 Contents

17.8 Miscellaneous approaches applicable to measuring purchasing

performance 632
17.9 Purchasing ethics 632
17.10 Some ethical issues relating to suppliers 633
17.11 Ethical codes and training 636
17.12 Ethical decisions 640
17.13 Purchasing and fraud 640
17.14 Environmental aspects of purchasing 647
Case study 657
Discussion questions 657
Past examination questions 659
References 659

Appendix 1: Code of professional ethics – Chartered Institute of

Purchasing and Supply (CIPS) (Approved by the CIPS Council,
11 March 2009) 662
Appendix 2: Principles and standards of ethical supply management
conduct (ISM) (Adopted May 2008) 664

Definitions, acronyms and foreign words and phrases 665

Index of names and organisations 670
Subject index 675

Supporting resources
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/farrington to find valuable online resources

For Instructors:
n Comprehensive Instructor’s Manual containing teaching tips and notes on case
studies for each chapter
n Downloadable PowerPoint slides containing figures from the book

For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales
representative or visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/farrington

xv
 Preface

Within a short time of the seventh edition being published, Dr Kenneth Lysons sadly
passed away. He had dedicated his professional life to influencing the role and impact
of purchasing. The fact that this book is now in its eighth edition is testimony to his
foresight, diligence and ability to explain complex matters in such a way that all levels
of the purchasing profession can identify with.
Dr Brian Farrington has accepted the role of lead author for the eighth edition. In
this regard there are some important points to make.
1 The publisher’s research showed that, broadly, the content of the book should
remain the same. The book’s intended purposes of providing a comprehensive input
supporting those engaged in professional studies and providing practitioners with
reference materials, meets defined needs.
2 Dr Farrington has used the resources of Steve Ashcroft and Ray Gambell to assist in
the considerable research that was undertaken. Both are professional colleagues
in Brian Farrington Ltd, a specialist consultancy and training company.
3 The eighth edition remains true to the principles and rigour of Dr Lysons, although
much of the content has been refreshed and brought up to date, taking due account
of developments in purchasing and supply chain management.
4 A greater balance of private and public sector practices has been included. There are
practices that are transferable.
5 As a textbook, coverage is provided of the syllabus of the Chartered Institute of
Purchasing and Supply at both the Foundation and Professional stages. The book
should be useful to students taking the examinations of the Institute of Logistics
and Transport and first and higher degrees in Business Strategies and Management,
which contain Purchasing and Supply Management Elements.
There are countless opportunities for the purchasing profession. There are unpre­
cedented challenges even as this edition was being finalised. The world economy is in
a serious downturn, there are supplier financial failures, energy costs are spiralling,
environmental considerations are paramount, the public sector is in a funding crisis and
the consequences of the world banking and financial crisis are still being played out.
Purchasing needs to have a strategic role in which it influences long­term business
decisions. Without question, purchasing is rapidly becoming a profession requiring an
extensive range of skills and knowledge, embracing technical, financial, contractual,
logistics, psychology, negotiations and strategic business inputs.
The names of people and organisations used in the case studies are, and are intended
to be, fictitious and any similarity to real people and organisations is entirely accidental.

xvi
 Acknowledgements

Dr Farrington is indebted to many organisations and people who gave their valuable
time sharing real life experiences. There are too many to name, but the support of David
Stanley (University of Manchester), Stephen Barnes (Chief Executive, Pendle Borough
Council), Doug Bridson (ex­Scottish Power), Brian Gibson (Sefton MBC), Sandy
Duckett (Standard Life) and Julie Muscroft (Walker Morris) deserve special mention.
The Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply kindly gave permission to use
questions set at the Foundation and Diploma Stage examinations and to quote from
publications written for the Institute by Kenneth Lysons.
Brian Farrington places on record the assistance and support given by Steve Ashcroft
and Ray Gambell. They are business colleagues and personal friends. Inevitably,
authors have to sacrifice some family life when producing books of this magnitude.
Brian’s wife, Joyce, has displayed patience, support and the ultimate belief that the
book’s success is a family achievement. She is right!
Sandra Small has project managed the production of the manuscript with impeccable
diligence. She has coped with the stress of meeting deadlines in an admirable way.
Thank you!
Without the encouragement, drive and enthusiasm of Rufus Curnow and Mary Lince
at Pearson it is unlikely that the book would have come to fruition. To them, a very
personal thanks.

xvii
 Publisher’s acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:

Figures
Figures 1.4, 1.5 from Improving Purchase Performance, Pitman (Syson, R. 1992)
pp. 254–5; Figure 2.12 adapted from Purchasing must become supply management,
Harvard Business Review, Sept/Oct, pp. 109–17 (Kraljic, P. 1983); Figure 2.16 from
Rob Atkins and Bracknell Forest (UK) Borough Council; Figure 2.18 adapted from
http://www.cips.org/Documents/Resources/PSM_model_Feb03.pdf; Figures 3.14, 3.15
adapted from Integrated materials management: the value chain redefined, International
Journal of Logistics Management, 4(1), pp. 13–22 (Hines, P. 1993); Figures 3.16, 3.17
from Bourton Group, Half delivered: a survey of strategies and tactics in managing the
supply chain in manufacturing businesses, 1997, pp. 26–7; Figure 4.7 from Industrial
Technological Development: A Network Approach, Croom Helm (Hakansson, H.
1987); Figure 4.9 from New organizational forms for competing in highly dynamic
environments, British Journal of Management, 7, 203–18 (Craven, D.W., Piercy, N.F.
and Shipp, S.H. 1996); Figure 6.10 from The CIPS E-procurement guidelines: measur-
ing the benefits, CIPS; Figure 12.8 from Review of the UK’s Competition Landscape
(National Audit Office); Figure 15.4 adapted from Marketing by Agreement: A Cross-
cultural Approach to Business Negotiations, Wiley (McCall, J.M., and Norrington, M.B.
1986); Figure 15.5 adapted from Effect of delivery systems on collaborative negotia­
tions for large­scale infrastructure projects, Journal of Management in Engineering,
April 2001, 105–21 (Pena­Mora, F., and Tamaki, T.).

Tables
Table 4.2 from An initial classification of supply networks, International Journal of
Operations and Production Management, 20(6) (Lamming, R., Johnsen, T., Zheng, J.
and Harland, C. 2000); Table 4.4 from New organizational forms for competing in
highly dynamic environments, British Journal of Management, 7, 203–18 (Craven,
D.W., Piercy, N.F. and Shipp, S.H. 1996).

In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material, and
we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.

xviii
 Plan of the book

Part 1 Introduction and strategy

Chapter 6
Chapter 2 Chapter 5 Purchasing
Chapter 1 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Strategy and Purchasing procedures
What is Logistics and Structure and
strategic structure and and
purchasing? supply chains supply chains
procurement design supporting
tools

Part 2 Strategy, tactics and operations 1: purchasing factors

Chapter 8
Purchasing:
Chapter 9 Chapter 11
product Chapter 10 Chapter 12
Chapter 7 Specifying and Sourcing and
innovation, Matching Managing
Supplier managing the
supplier supply with purchase
relationships product management
involvement demand prices
quality of suppliers
and
development

Part 3 Strategy, tactics and operations 2: buying situations

Chapter 13 Chapter 14
Contrasting approaches to supply Buying from overseas

Part 4 Strategy, tactics and operations 3: negotiation, support tools and performance

Chapter 17
Chapter 15 Chapter 16
Purchasing research,
Negotiation Support tools
performance and ethics

xix
Part 1

Introduction and strategy

 Chapter 1

What is purchasing?

Learning outcomes
This chapter aims to provide an understanding of:
n the scope and influence of purchasing
n the stages of purchasing development and future trends in purchasing
development
n factors influencing the internal and external status of purchasing.

Key ideas
n Purchasing as a function, process, supply or value chain link, a relationship,
discipline and profession.
n Definitions of purchasing and procurement.
n The evolution of purchasing and supply management (PSM) from a reactive
transactional to a proactive strategic activity.
n Globalisation, information technology, changing production and management
philosophies as factors in the evolution of purchasing.
n Characteristics of purchasing in the future and world class purchasing.
n Leverage, focus and professionalism as factors contributing to the status of
purchasing within a particular organisation.
n Purchasing as a change agent.

Introduction
There is no one definition of Purchasing as will be shown later in this chapter. Neither
is there a term to describe the activity of committing expenditure. It is variously referred
to as Purchasing, Buying, Procurement, Materials Management, Supply Chain
Management, Purchasing and Supply Chain Management and Sourcing Management.
For consistency, the term Purchasing is used throughout the book. Where other terms
are used they will be defined.
The thrust of this book is to advance the view that purchasing applied at world class
standards has a focus on strategy, risk management, decision making, innovative supply

3
Part 1 · Introduction and strategy

chain creation, financial prudence, high ethical standards and finding sustainable
solutions for long-term supply needs.

1.1 Perspectives on purchasing

The study of purchasing can be approached from several perspectives. Such perspec-
tives include those of function, process, link in the supply or value chain, relationship,
discipline and profession.

1.1.1 Purchasing as a function

In management studies, a ‘function’ is often defined as a unit or department in which
people use specialised knowledge, skills and resources to perform specialised tasks.
A function is also what a resource is designed to do, so, for example, the function of a pen
is to make a mark. A distinction can therefore be made between the purchasing function
and the purchasing department. The former, in a business context, involves acquiring
raw materials, components, goods and services for conversion, consumption or resale.
The latter is the organisational unit responsible for carrying out this function. In too
many organisations, purchasing remains an inconsequential clerical function that has
little influence on third-party expenditure. In contrast, other organisations have created
integrated structures to cope with design, source selection, purchasing, logistics and
long-term product support.

1.1.2 Purchasing as a process

A process is a set of sub-processes or stages directed at achieving an output. The various
tasks or stages can be depicted as a process chain. Thus, as with Figure 1.1, purchasing
can be depicted as a process chain leading to the acquisition of supplies.
The link in the purchasing process chain is information. The challenge for purchasing
is to manage information at all phases of the process chain and ensure every stakeholder
is informed on the current status. A comprehensive knowledge management system is
essential.

1.1.3 Purchasing as a link in the supply or value chain

Supply and value chains are discussed in Chapter 3, where it is shown that, in his value
chain model, Porter1 regards procurement as one of four support activities that contribute
to the competitive advantage of a business. Purchasing within a manufacturing business
will link with production, warehousing and transportation. This may be contrasted

Figure 1.1 The purchasing process chain

4
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
[180]subversion of their political liberties. The dogma of self-denial
has not prevented our financial pharisees from amassing fortunes
that would dwarf the spoils of a Roman triumphator; but the
hospitality of Mæcenas has not survived the religion of Nature. Our
philosophers have to study the problems of life in a personal struggle
for existence; our poets have to choose between starvation and
hypocrisy. Patriots are left to the consoling reflection that virtue is its
own reward. The endowers of theological seminaries seem to rely on
the mercy of Christ to cancel the odium of their shortcomings in the
recognition of secular merit. Kepler, Campanella, and Spinoza
perished in penury. Locke and Rousseau, the recognized primates of
the intellectual world, were left to languish in exile, admired and
neglected by a host of “friends”—Christian friends—in every city of
the civilized world. Schubert, Buerger, and Frederick Schiller, the
idols of a poetry-loving nation, were left to fight the bitter struggle for
existence to an extreme of which all the records of pagan antiquity
furnish only a single parallel. Anaxagoras, the founder of a
philosophic school counting its disciples by thousands, was left to
languish in exile, till the rumor of his extreme distress brought the
most illustrious of those disciples to the sick-bed of his neglected
teacher. “Do not, do not leave us!” he cried, in an agony of remorse;
“we cannot afford to lose the light of our life!”

“O Pericles,” said the dying exile, “those who need a lamp should
take care to supply it with oil!”

But how many lights of our latter-day lives have [181]thus been
extinguished before their time! Not one of the plethoric British
aristocrats who spiced their leisure with the sweets of poetry ever
dreamed of relieving the cruel distress of Robert Burns, or of cutting
the knot of the financial embroglio that strangled out the life of Sir
Walter Scott.
[Contents]

E.—REFORM.

Time is the test of truth; and the fallacies of the “Brotherhood in

Christ” plan have been abundantly demonstrated by their
consequences. Instead of being a bond of union, the doctrine of
renunciation has been found to be a root of discord and rancor, and
in times of need the fellowship of its converts has proved a most
rotten staff. Even the wretches who betrayed their friends to the
spies of the Holy Inquisition had no difficulty in palliating the infamy
of their conduct with the sanction of scriptural precepts. For centuries
the appeals of martyrs to the cause of freedom and Freethought
have been answered with the advice of Christian submission to the
“powers that be,” and our modern pharisees rarely fail to reprove the
“worldliness” of a poor neighbor’s lament for the loss of his earthly
possessions.

The founder of “Positivism,” the Religion of Humanity, proposes to

dedicate the days of the year to the leaders of progress, and inscribe
our places of worship with the names of discoverers, reformers, and
philosophers rather than of bigots and world-despising saints. And
for the sake of those who would not wish to repeat the mistake of
sacrificing [182]the present to the past, the builders of those
sanctuaries should add a temple of Friendship. From the adoration
of self-torturing fanatics, from the worship of sorrow and the love of
enemies, mankind will at last revert to the ancestral plan of elective
affinities, and the dread of preferring natural to theological duties will
not much longer prevent our fellow-men from recognizing their
obligations to their earthly benefactors.
[Contents]
CHAPTER XV.
 EDUCATION.

[Contents]

A.—LESSONS OF INSTINCT.

The doctrine of Pythagoras, the philosophic Messiah of Paganism,

included the strange tenet of metempsychosis. After death, held the
confessors of that dogma, the souls of men and brutes would
reappear in new forms, higher or lower, according to the character-
traits of the dying individual. Thus the soul of a wealthy glutton might
be reborn in a pig-sty, that of a high-minded peasant perhaps on the
throne of a king. Death and rebirth are the upper and lower spokes
of a wheel that turns and turns forever, and in the persons of their
neighbors the Pythagoreans saw wanderers that might have walked
this earth thousands of years ago.

The strangeness of such a theory is still increased by the

circumstance that its teacher was an eminent astronomer, an
accomplished mathematician, and the leader of a memorable
hygienic reform. Our astonishment [183]is not lessened by the well-
established fact that, under some form or other, the doctrine of soul-
migration has for ages been the accepted creed of a large plurality of
our fellow-men. It is well known, however, that to his trusted disciples
Pythagoras imparted an esoteric or explanatory version of his
dogmas; and if we learn that the great philosopher attached a
special importance to the influence of hereditary dispositions, the
truth at last dawns upon us that the doctrine of metempsychosis
referred to the reappearance of individual types, passions, and
dispositions in the bodily and mental characteristics of the next
generation. “Parents live in their children.” The instinctive recognition
of that truth reconciles our dumb fellow-creatures to the prospect of
death. At the end of summer the night-moth carefully deposits her
eggs in a silver cradle, hidden safe in the crevice of some sheltering
nook, where they will survive the rigor of the winter and answer the
first summons of spring. Having thus, as it were, insured the
resurrection of her type, the parent moth quietly resigns herself to
the fate of sleeping her own winter-slumber in the arms of death. On
the Orinoco wounded river-turtles will use their last strength to climb
the slope of some bush-hidden sand-bank, and after intrusting their
eggs to the protection of the deep drift sand, will reënter the water
and quietly float off with the seaward currents. In the virgin-woods of
Southern Mexico, where the harpy-eagle fills the maws of her hungry
brood by incessant raids on the small denizens of the tree-tops, the
traveler D’Armand once witnessed a curious [184]scene. An eagle
had pounced upon a nursing mother monkey, who at first struggled
desperately to free herself from the claws of the murderer; but,
finding resistance in vain, she loosened her grasp on the branches,
and, just as the eagle carried her off, she disengaged the arm of her
baby from her neck, and shaking off the little creature with a swing of
her arm, she deliberately flung it back into the sheltering foliage of
the tree-top, thus taking the last possible chance of surviving in her
child.

The “dread of annihilation” reveals itself in the instincts of a dying

philosopher as plainly as in the instincts of a wounded animal; but,
on self-examination, that fear would prove to have but little in
common with a special solicitude for the preservation of material
forms or combinations—conditions which the process of organic
change constantly modifies in the cradle as well as in the grave. It is
rather the type of the body and its correlated mental dispositions
which the hope of resurrection yearns to preserve, and even
childless men have often partly realized that hope by impressing the
image of their soul on a younger mind, and transmitting their
cherished projects and theories through the medium of education. In
the consciousness of that accomplished task Socrates could as
calmly die in the arms of his disciples as the Hebrew patriarch in the
arms of his children and grandchildren. “You kill a sower,” cried St.
Adalbert under the clubs of his assassins, “but the seed he has
planted will rise and survive both his love and your hatred.”

Even the influence of a great practical example has [185]often

impressed the mental type of a reformer or patriot on a series of
subsequent generations. The Buddhist Calanus, preaching the
doctrine of renunciation to an audience of scoffers, deeply affected
the most thoughtless of his witnesses by proving his personal
convictions in the flames of a funeral pile. “I leave no sons,” were the
last words of Epaminondas, “but two immortal daughters, the battles
of Leuctra and Mantinea.” Rousseau smiled when he learned the
intrigues of his enemies who were trying their utmost to enlist the
coöperation of a violent pulpit-orator. “They are busy recruiting their
corps of partisans,” said he, “but Time will raise me an ally in every
intelligent reader of the next generation.”

[Contents]

B.—REWARDS OF CONFORMITY.

In the simple lives of the lower animals every day may bring the
sufficient reward of its toil; but the problem of progress, even from
the first dawn of civilization, involves tasks too apt to extend beyond
the span of individual existence. The forest-clearing husbandman,
the state-founding patriot, the scientific inquirer, all risk to receive the
summons of night before the completion of their labor. Before
reaching the goal of their hopes their earthly pilgrimage may end at
the brink of the unknown river, and education alone can bridge that
gulf, and make every day the way-station, of an unbroken road.
Children or children’s children will take up the staff from the last
resting-place of their pilgrim father; and, moreover, all progress is
cumulative. Every laborer works with the experience of his
forefathers, as well as his own; [186]every son stands on the
shoulders of his father. Even the failure of individual efforts
contributes a helpful lesson to the success of the next attempt:

Freedom’s brave battle, once begun,

Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son,
Though often baffled, e’er is won.

Persistent adherence to the programme of a traditional policy has

often made the work of successive centuries the triumphant
execution of a single plan. The empire of Islam sprung from the seed
which the prophet of Mecca had planted in the soil of his native land.
The storm of the Protestant revolt rose from the anathemas of a poor
Wittenberg friar; the unquenchable fire of the French Revolution was
kindled by the burning indignation of a Swiss recluse, and his fervid
appeals:

Those oracles that set the world aflame,

Nor ceased to burn till kingdoms were no more;

and the vast fabric of our republican federation was founded by the
poor colonists who sought independence in the freedom of the
wilderness, and combined against the power of a selfish despot.
Education sows a seed which may sprout even during the life-time of
the sower, and bless individual life with the sweets of a guaranteed
triumph over the power of death. Resurgam, “I shall live after death,”
expresses the significance of that triumph, and of the “esoteric
doctrine of Pythagoras.”
[Contents]

C.—PERVERSION.

The Christian church has constantly perverted the purpose of

education, but has never yet deserved the [187]reproach of having
neglected its means. From the very beginning the sect of the
apostle-training Galilean has been a sect of assiduous educators.
They were not satisfied with founding schools and opening their
doors to all comers, but went forth in quest of new converts, and
pursued their aim with a persistence of zeal and a versatility of skill
that could not fail to accomplish its purpose. As soon as a sufficient
increase of power enabled them to control the institutes of primary
instruction they turned their chief attention to the dogmatical
education of the young. They derived no aid from the attractiveness
and still less from the plausibility of their doctrine, but they realized
Schopenhauer’s remark that “there is in childhood a period
measured by six, or at most by ten years, when any well-inculcated
dogma, no matter how extravagantly absurd, is sure to retain its hold
for life.” And though the propagation of an unnatural creed is not
favored by natural fertility, the naturally barren doctrine of
renunciation was thus successfully propagated by a system of
incessant grafting. By the skilful application of that process the most
dissimilar plants were made subservient to its purpose. The
“Worship of Sorrow” with its whining renunciation of worldly
enjoyments, and its indifference to health and physical education,
was grafted on the manful naturalism of the Hebrew law-giver. Saint-
worship, the veneration of self-torturing fanatics, was grafted on a
stem of pagan mythology, and dozens of Christian martyrs have thus
usurped the honor and the sacrifices of pagan temples. Christian
holidays were grafted on the festivals of [188]the nature-loving
Saxons. But persuasion failing, the missionaries of the cross did not
hesitate to resort to more conclusive measures. Like refractory
children cudgeled along the path of knowledge, the obstinate
skeptics of northern Europe were harassed with fire and sword till
they could not help admitting the dangers of unbelief. The garden-
lands of the Albigenses were wasted till they found no difficulty in
yearning for the peace of a better world. Philosophers were tortured
in the prisons of the Holy Inquisition till the sorrows of life favored the
renunciation of its hopes.

For thirteen centuries the sunshine of millions of human hearts was

ruthlessly sacrificed to promote the task of luring mankind from life to
ghost-land, and during all those ages education was systematically
turned from a blessing into an earth-blighting curse.

[Contents]

D.—PENALTIES OF NEGLECT.

There is a story of a Portuguese slave-dealer who carried a private

chaplain on his pay-roll, and frequently expressed his solicitude for
the spiritual welfare of his shackled captives. A very similar kind of
spiritual duty has for centuries been made the excuse for an almost
total neglect of secular education. Divorced from the control of
common sense, religion soon degenerated into mere ceremonialism.
A priest who would travel twenty miles through a snow-storm to
supply a dying man with a consecrated wafer had no sympathy with
the needs of the living. He would extort the last penny of his
[189]tithes at the risk of starving a village full of needy parishioners.
He would groan at the sight of an unbaptized child, but had not a
drop of water to cool the brows of burning Moors or Jews. He would
rave about the cruelty of a prince who had deprived the clergy of
their mass-shillings, but had no ear for the laments of the exiled
Moriscos or the curses of starving serfs.

Such was the morality which arrogated the right of suppressing that
system of physical and intellectual education which had filled the
homes of the Mediterranean nations with all the blessings of health,
science, and beauty. Theological training had failed to kindle the
dawn of a supernatural millennium, but had thoroughly succeeded in
extinguishing the light of human reason. Not absolute ignorance
only, but baneful superstition—worse than ignorance by just as much
as poison is worse than hunger—was for centuries the inevitable
result of all so-called school-training; and the traditions of that age of
priest-rule have made religion almost a synonyme of cant. It also
gave book-learning its supposed tendency to mental aberration. Can
we wonder at that result of an age when the literary products of
Christian Europe were confined almost exclusively to ghost-stories
and manuals of ceremony? Can we wonder that delusions of the
most preposterous kind assumed the virulence of epidemic
diseases? Maniacs of self-mutilation, of epileptic contortions, of
were-wolf panics, traversed Europe from end to end. Men gloried in
ignorance, and boasted their neglect of worldly science till the
consequences [190]of that neglect avenged its folly in actual
madness.

The saddest of all the sad “it might have beens” is, perhaps, a
reverie on the probable results of earlier emancipation—of the
employment of thirteen worse than wasted centuries in scientific
inquiries, agricultural improvements, social and sanitary reforms. We
might have failed to enter the portals of the New Jerusalem, but we
would probably have regained our earthly paradise.
[Contents]

E.—REFORM.

The days of the Holy Inquisition are past; but the restless
propaganda of Jesuitry still shames the inactivity of Rationalism. Our
friends sit listless, relying on the theoretical advantages of their
cause, while the busy intrigues of our enemies secure them all
practical advantages.

Even in our model republic only primary education stands neutral,

while private enterprise has made nearly every higher college a
stronghold of dogmatism. And even the semi-secularism of primary
instruction is more than offset by the ultra-orthodoxy of “Sunday-
schools.” Millions of factory children have to sacrifice their only day
of leisure at the bidding of their dogmatic task-master and with the
timid connivance of their parents. “We cannot row against the
stream,” I have heard even Freethinkers say. “Let the youngsters join
the crowd; if it does them no good, it can do no harm.” But it will do
harm, even beyond the waste of time and the wasted opportunities
for health-giving exercise. The [191]process of dogmatic inoculation
may fail to serve its direct purpose, but the weekly repetition of the
experiment is sure to contaminate the moral organism with unsound
humors which may become virulent at unexpected times and, likely
enough, undermine that very peace of the household which a short-
sighted mother hoped to promote by driving her boys to Sunday-
school, as she would drive troublesome cattle to a public pasture.

The Freethinkers of every community should combine to engage a

teacher, or at least facilitate home instruction by collecting text-books
of Secularism, such as Voltaire’s “Philosophical Cyclopedia;”
Rousseau’s “Emile;” Hallam’s “History of the Middle Ages;”
Ingersoll’s pamphlets; Paine’s “Age of Reason;” Lecky’s “History of
Rationalism” and “History of Morals;” Lessing’s “Nathan;” Goethe
and Schiller’s “Xenions;” Darwin’s “Descent of Man;” Plutarch’s
Biographies; Trelawney’s “Last Days of Shelley and Byron;”
McDonnell’s Freethought novels; Parker Pillsbury’s “Review of
Sabbatarian Legislation;” Reade’s “Martyrdom of Man;” Bennett’s
“Gods and Religions of Ancient and Modern Times;” Gibbon’s
“History of Christianity;” Keeler’s “Short History of the Bible;” “Bible
Myths and Their Parallels in Other Religions;” “Supernatural
Religion;” Greg’s “Creed of Christendom;” Lord Amberley’s “Analysis
of Religious Belief;” “Religion Not History.”

We should have Freethought colleges and Secular missions, and

even isolated Liberals might do better than “drift with the stream.”
They might let their [192]children pass their Sundays in the freedom of
the forests and mountains to worship the God of Nature in his own
temple, and learn a lesson from the parental devotion of their dumb
fellow-creatures. She-wolves, deprived of their whelps, have been
known to enter human habitations at night to suckle their young
through the bars of a heavy cage. Thrushes and fly-catchers will
enter an open window to feed or rescue their captive nestlings, and
with a still wider sympathy a Liberal friend of mine tries to aid his
neighbors’ children, as well as his own. Renouncing the hope of
abolishing Sabbatarianism, he conceived the idea of controlling it,
and induced his neighbors to send their children to a “Sunday
Garden” with a free museum of pictures and stuffed birds, gymnastic
contrivances, and a little restaurant of free temperance refreshments
—apples, peanuts, and lemonade. He defrays the expenses of the
establishment, which his neighbors consider a sort of modified
kindergarten; and under the name of “Sunday books” circulates a
private library of purely secular literature.

“If life shall have been duly rationalized by science,” says Herbert
Spencer, “parents will learn to consider a sound physical constitution
as an entailed estate, which should be transmitted unimpaired, if not
improved;” and with a similar recognition of social obligations
Freethinkers should endeavor to transmit to their children a bequest
of unimpaired common sense. Loyalty to their Protestant ancestors,
loyalty to posterity, and to the majesty of truth herself, should prompt
us to stand [193]bravely by our colors and train our children to
continue the struggle for light and independence.

By the far-reaching influence of education Secularists should bridge

the chasm which orthodoxy hopes to cross on the wings of faith.
Secularism shall preach the gospel of immortality on earth. [194]
 IV—OBJECTIVE MAXIMS.

[Contents]
CHAPTER XVI.
 FOREST CULTURE.

[Contents]

A.—LESSONS OF INSTINCT.

It is wonderful how often instinct has anticipated the practical lessons

of science. Long before comparative anatomy taught us the
characteristics of our digestive organs the testimony of our natural
predilections indicated the advantages of a frugal diet. Long before
modern hygiene pointed out the perils of breathing the atmosphere
of unventilated dormitories the evidence of our senses warned us
against the foulness of that atmosphere. And ages before the
researches of agricultural chemistry began to reveal the protective
influence of arboreal vegetation, an instinct which the child of
civilization shares with the rudest savage revolted against the
reckless destruction of fine woodlands, and sought to retrieve the
loss by surrounding private homes with groves and parks. The love
of forests is as natural to our species as the love of rocks to the
mountain-goat. Trees and tree-shade are associated with our
traditions of paradise, and that the cradle of the human race was not
a brick tenement or a wheat-farm, but a tree-garden, is one of the
few points on which the genesis of Darwin agrees with that of the
Pentateuch. [195]The happiest days of childhood would lose half their
charm without the witchery of woodland rambles, and, like an echo
of the foreworld, the instincts of our forest-born ancestors often
awake in the souls of their descendants. City children are
transported with delight at the first sight of a wood-covered
landscape, and the evergreen arcades of a tropical forest would
charm the soul of a young Esquimaux as the ever-rolling waves of
the ocean would awaken the yearnings of a captive sea-bird. The
traveler Chamisso mentions an interview with a poor Yakoot, a
native of the North Siberian ice-coast, who happened to get hold of
an illustrated magazine with a woodcut of a fine southern landscape:
a river-valley, rocky slopes rising toward a park-like lawn with a
background of wooded highlands. With that journal on his knees the
Yakoot squatted down in front of the traveler’s tent, and thus sat
motionless, hour after hour, contemplating the picture in silent
rapture. “How would you like to live in a country of that kind?” asked
the professor. The Yakoot folded his hands, but continued his
reverie. “I hope we shall go there if we are good,” said he at last, with
a sigh of deep emotion.

The importance of hereditary instincts can be often measured by the

degree of their persistence. Man is supposed to be a native of the
trans-Caucasian highlands—Armenia, perhaps, or the terrace-lands
of the Hindookoosh. Yet agriculture has succeeded in developing a
type of human beings who would instinctively prefer a fertile plain to
the grandest highland paradise of the East. Warfare has in like
manner [196]engendered an instinctive fondness for a life of perilous
adventure, as contrasted with the arcadian security of the Golden
Age. There are men who prefer slavery to freedom, and think pallor
more attractive than the glow of health, but a millennium of
unnaturalism has as yet failed to develop a species of human beings
who would instinctively prefer the dreariness of a treeless plain to the
verdure of a primeval forest.

[Contents]

B.—REWARDS OF CONFORMITY.
The love of forest-trees is a characteristic of the nature-abiding
nations of the North, and has rewarded itself by an almost complete
reversion of the original contrast between the garden lands of the
South and the inhospitable wilderness of the higher latitudes. Forest
destruction has turned Southern Europe into a desert, while the
preservation of forests has made the homes of the hyperborean
hunters an Eden of beauty and fertility. “One-third to the hunter, two-
thirds to the husbandman,” was the rule of Margrave Philip in his
distribution of forest and fields, and expresses the exact proportion
which modern science indicates as most favorable to the perennial
fertility of our farm-lands. In a single century the forest-destroying
Spaniards turned many of their American colonies from gardens into
sand-wastes, while, after fourteen hundred years of continuous
cultivation, the fields of the Danubian Valley are still as fertile as in
the days of Trajan and Tacitus. Along the river-banks and half-way
up the foot-hills the arable land has been cleared, but higher [197]up
the forest has been spared. All the highlands from Ratisbon to Buda-
Pesth still form a continuous mountain park of stately oaks and
pines, and, as a consequence, springs never fail; crops are safe
against winter floods and summer drouths; song-birds still return to
their birthland, and reward their protectors by the destruction of
noxious insects; meadows, grain-fields, and orchards produce their
abundant harvest year after year; famine is unknown, and
contagious diseases rarely assume an epidemic form. In Switzerland
and Prussia the preservation of the now remaining woodlands is
guaranteed by strict protective laws; Scandinavia requires her forest-
owners to replant a certain portion of every larger clearing; in Great
Britain the parks of the ancient mansions are protected like sacred
monuments of the past, and landowners vie in lining their field-trails
with rows of shade-trees. The fertility of those lands is a constant
surprise to the American traveler disposed to associate the idea of
eastern landscapes with the picture of worn-out fields. Surrounded
by Russian steppes and trans-Alpine deserts, the homes of the
Germanic nations still form a Goshen of verdure and abundance.
Forest protectors have not lost their earthly paradise.

[Contents]

C.—PERVERSION.

Sixteen hundred years ago the highlands of the European continent

were still covered with a dense growth of primeval forests. The
healthfulness and fertility of the Mediterranean coastlands surpassed
that of the most favored regions of the present world, [198]and the
dependence of those blessings on the preservation of the spring-
sheltering woodlands was clearly recognized by such writers as Pliny
and Columella, though their own experience did not enable them to
suspect all the ruinous consequences of that wholesale forest
destruction, which modern science has justly denounced as the ne
plus ultra folly of human improvidence. Practical experiments had,
however, demonstrated such facts as the failing of springs on
treeless slopes, and the violence of winter floods in districts
unprotected by rain-absorbing forests, and tree culture was practiced
as a regular branch of rational husbandry. But with the triumph of the
Galilean church came the millennium of unnaturalism. Rational
agriculture became a tradition of the past; the culture of secular
science was fiercely denounced from thousands of pulpits;
improvidence, “unworldliness,” and superstitious reliance on the
efficacy of prayer were systematically inculcated as supreme virtues;
the cultivators of the soil were treated like unclean beasts, and for a
series of centuries the garden regions of the East were abandoned
to the inevitable consequences of neglect and misculture.