(eBook PDF) Understanding Motivation

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To Richard Troelstrup, who introduced me to psychology.

To Edwin Guthrie, who first deeply interested me in psychology.

To Steven Cole, who mentored and supported me so that

I could participate in this wonderful profession.
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Brief Contents

Preface iii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Motivation in Historical Perspective 28
Chapter 3 The Motivated and Emotional Brain 51

Part I Needs 81
Chapter 4 Physiological Needs 83
Chapter 5 Extrinsic Motivation 116
Chapter 6 Psychological Needs 152
Chapter 7 Implicit Motives 183

Part II Cognitions 211

Chapter 8 Goal Setting and Goal Striving 213
Chapter 9 Mindsets 239
Chapter 10 Personal Control Beliefs 268
Chapter 11 The Self and Its Strivings 303

Part III Emotions 335

Chapter 12 Nature of Emotion: Six Perennial Questions 337
Chapter 13 Aspects of Emotion 369
Chapter 14 Individual Emotions 404

Part IV Applied Concerns 429

Chapter 15 Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology 431
Chapter 16 Unconscious Motivation 466
Chapter 17 Interventions 496
References 515
Author Index 603
Subject Index 619

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Detailed Contents

Preface iii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Motivation and Emotion 2
Motivational Science 4
Two Perennial Questions 6
What Causes Behavior? 6
Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity? 7
Subject Matter 9
Internal Motives 10
External Events and Social Contexts 11
Motivation versus Influence 11
Expressions of Motivation 12
Behavior 12
Engagement 12
Psychophysiology 14
Brain Activations 14
Self-Report 15
Framework to Understand Motivation and Emotion 15
Ten Unifying Themes 16
Motivation and Emotion Benefit Adaptation and Functioning 16
Motivation and Emotion Direct Attention 17
Motivation and Emotion Are “Intervening Variables” 18
Motives Vary Over Time and Influence the Ongoing Stream of Behavior 19
Types of Motivations Exist 20
We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior 21
Motivation Study Reveals What People Want 22
To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions 23
When Trying to Motivate Others, What Is Easy to Do Is Rarely What Is Effective 24
There Is Nothing So Practical as a Good Theory 25
Summary 25

Chapter 2 Motivation in Historical Perspective 28

Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts 29
Grand Theories 30
Will 30
Instinct 31
Drive 33

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Detailed Contents ix

Rise of the Mini-Theories 39

Active Nature of the Person 40
Cognitive Revolution 40
Socially Relevant Questions 41
Contemporary Era 43
The 1990s Reemergence of Motivation Study 45
Brief History of Emotion Study 47
Conclusion 48
Summary 49
Readings for Further Study 50

Chapter 3 The Motivated and Emotional Brain 51

Motivation, Emotion, and Neuroscience 52
Day-to-Day Events Activate Specific Brain Structures 53
Activated Brain Structures Generate Specific Motivations and Emotions 55
Neural Basis of Motivation and Emotion 55
Cortical Brain 55
Subcortical Brain 56
Bidirectional Communication 56
Individual Brain Structures Involved in Motivation and Emotion 58
Reticular Formation 58
Amygdala 61
Basal Ganglia 63
Ventral Striatum, Nucleus Accumbens, and Ventral Tegmental Area 63
Hypothalamus 66
Insula 67
Prefrontal Cortex 69
Orbitofrontal Cortex 72
Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex 73
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex 73
Anterior Cingulate Cortex 74
Hormones 74
Conclusion 76
Summary 76
Readings for Further Study 79

Part I Needs 81

Chapter 4 Physiological Needs 83

Need 85
Three Types of Needs 85
Fundamentals of Regulation 87
Physiological Need 88
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Psychological Drive 88
Homeostasis 89
Negative Feedback 89
Multiple Inputs/Multiple Outputs 90
Intraorganismic Mechanisms 91
Extraorganismic Mechanisms 91
The Homeostatic Mechanism 91
Thirst 92
Physiological Regulation 92
Environmental Influences 94
Hunger 96
Short-Term Appetite 96
Long-Term Energy Balance 97
Environmental Influences 99
Self-Regulatory Influences 101
Weight Gain and Obesity 102
Comprehensive Model of Hunger 102
Sex 103
Physiological Regulation 105
Facial Metrics 107
Sexual Scripts 110
Sexual Orientation 111
Evolutionary Basis of Sexual Motivation 112
Summary 114
Readings for Further Study 115

Chapter 5 Extrinsic Motivation 116

Quasi-Needs 119
Extrinsic Motivation 120
Incentives, Consequences, and Rewards 120
Incentives 121
Reinforcers 121
Managing Behavior by Offering Reinforcers 122
Consequences 124
Hidden Costs of Reward 130
Intrinsic Motivation 130
What Is So Great about Intrinsic Motivation? 131
Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation 133
Expected and Tangible Rewards 136
Implications 136
Benefits of Incentives, Consequences, and Rewards 137
Cognitive Evaluation Theory 139
Two Examples of Controlling and Informational Events 140
Types of Extrinsic Motivation 142
External Regulation 144
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Introjected Regulation 145

Identified Regulation 145
Integrated Regulation 146
Internalization and Integration 146
Amotivation 146
Motivating Others to do Uninteresting Activities 147
Providing Explanatory Rationales 148
Suggesting Interest-Enhancing Strategies 148
Summary 149
Readings for Further Study 151

Chapter 6 Psychological Needs 152

Psychological Needs 153
Organismic Psychological Needs 154
Person–Environment Dialectic 155
Person–Environment Synthesis versus Conflict 156
Autonomy 158
The Conundrum of Choice 160
Supporting Autonomy 161
Benefits from Autonomy Support 165
Benefits of Giving and Receiving Autonomy Support 165
Competence 167
The Pleasure of Optimal Challenge 167
Interdependency between Challenge and Feedback 168
Optimal Challenge and Flow 168
Structure 171
Feedback 173
Failure Tolerance 174
Relatedness 174
Involving Relatedness: Interaction with Others 175
Satisfying Relatedness: Perception of a Social Bond 175
Communal and Exchange Relationships 176
Fruits of Relatedness Need Satisfaction 177
Putting It all Together: Relationships and Social Contexts that Support Psychological Need
Satisfaction 178
Engagement 178
What Makes for a Good Day? 180
Vitality 180
Summary 181
Readings for Further Study 182

Chapter 7 Implicit Motives 183

Implicit Needs 185
Acquired Needs 186
Social Needs 187
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How Implicit Motives, as Acquired Psychological Needs, Motivate Behavior 188

Achievement 190
Origins of the Need for Achievement 191
Atkinson’s Model 192
Achievement for the Future 194
Dynamics-of-Action Model 195
Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Achievement 197
Affiliation 198
The Duality of Affiliation Motivation 199
Conditions That Involve the Affiliation and Intimacy Duality 200
Conditions That Satisfy the Affiliation Need 201
Power 202
Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Power 203
Power and Goal Pursuit 205
Is the Implicit Power Motive Bad? 205
Leadership Motive Pattern 205
Four Additional Social Needs 207
Summary 207
Readings for Further Study 209

Part II Cognitions 211

Chapter 8 Goal Setting and Goal Striving 213

Cognitive Perspective on Motivation 214
Plans of Action 215
Corrective Motivation 217
Discrepancy 218
Affect and Feelings 219
Two Types of Discrepancy 219
Goal Setting 220
Goal–Performance Discrepancy 221
Difficult, Specific, and Congruent Goals Enhance Performance 222
Feedback 225
Criticisms 225
Long-Term Goal Setting 227
Goal Striving 228
Mental Simulations 229
Implementation Intentions 230
Goal Disengagement 235
Epilogue: From where do Goals Come? 236
Summary 237
Readings for Further Study 238
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Chapter 9 Mindsets 239

Four Mindsets 240
Mindset 1: Deliberative–Implemental 241
Deliberative Mindset 242
Implemental Mindset 243
Downstream Consequences of the Deliberative versus Implemental Mindsets 243
Mindset 2: Promotion–Prevention 244
Promotion Mindset 244
Prevention Mindset 246
Different Definitions of Success and Failure 246
Different Goal-Striving Strategies 247
Ideal Self-Guides and Ought Self-Guides 248
Regulatory Fit Predicts Strength of Motivation and Well-Being 249
Mindset 3: Growth-Fixed 250
Fixed Mindset 250
Growth Mindset 250
Meaning of Effort 251
Origins of Fixed-Growth Mindsets 252
Different Fixed-Growth Mindsets Lead to Different Achievement Goals 254
Achievement Goals 255
Mindset 4: Cognitive Dissonance 261
Dissonance-Arousing Situations 262
Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive Dissonance 264
Self-Perception Theory 265
Summary 265
Readings for Further Study 266

Chapter 10 Personal Control Beliefs 268

Motivation to Exercise Personal Control 269
Two Kinds of Expectancy 270
Perceived Control: Self, Action, and Control 271
Self-Efficacy 272
Sources of Self-Efficacy 274
Self-Efficacy Effects on Behavior 276
Self-Efficacy or the Psychological Need for Competence? 279
Empowerment 280
Empowering People: Mastery Modeling Program 281
Mastery Beliefs 282
Ways of Coping 282
Mastery versus Helplessness 282
Learned Helplessness 284
Learning Helplessness 285
Application to Humans 286
Components 288
Helplessness Effects 289
Helplessness and Depression 291
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Attributions and Explanatory Style 292

Pessimistic Explanatory Style 293
Optimistic Explanatory Style 294
Alternative Explanations 295
Reactance Theory 297
Reactance and Helplessness 297
Hope 298
Expectancy-Value Model 299
Summary 300
Readings for Further Study 302

Chapter 11 The Self and Its Strivings 303

The Self 304
The Problem with Self-Esteem 306
Self-Concept 308
Self-Schemas 308
Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas 309
Consistent Self 310
Self-Verification and Self-Concept Change 311
Why People Self-Verify 312
Possible Selves 313
Agency 315
Self as Action and Development from Within 315
Self-Concordance 317
Personal Strivings 319
Self-Regulation 321
Self-Regulation: Forethought through Reflection 322
Developing More Competent Self-Regulation 323
Self-Control 324
Is the Capacity to Exert Self-Control Beneficial to a Successful Life? 329
Identity 329
Roles 329
Identity-Establishing Behaviors 330
Identity-Confirming Behaviors 330
Identity-Restoring Behaviors 331
What is the Self? 331
Summary 332
Readings for Further Study 333

Part III Emotions 335

Chapter 12 Nature of Emotion: Six Perennial Questions 337

Six Perennial Questions 339
What is an Emotion? 339
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Definition 340
Relation between Emotion and Motivation 343
What Causes an Emotion? 344
Two-Systems View 344
Chicken-and-Egg Problem 345
What Ends an Emotion? 346
How Many Emotions Are There? 347
Biological Perspective 347
Cognitive Perspective 349
Reconciliation of the Numbers Issue 350
What Good Are the Emotions? 352
Coping Functions 353
Social Functions 354
Why We Have Emotions 356
Can We Control Our Emotions? 357
Emotion Regulation Strategies 358
What is the Difference between Emotion and Mood? 361
Everyday Mood 361
Positive Affect 364
Summary 366
Readings for Further Study 368

Chapter 13 Aspects of Emotion 369

Biological Aspects of Emotion 370
James–Lange Theory 371
Contemporary Perspective 372
Brain Activity Activates Individual Emotions 374
Facial Feedback Hypothesis 375
Cognitive Aspects of Emotion 382
Appraisal 382
Complex Appraisal 385
Appraisal as a Process 387
Emotion Differentiation 388
Emotion Knowledge 390
Attributions 391
Emotions Affect Cognition 395
Social Aspects of Emotion 395
Social Interaction 395
Social Sharing of Emotion 396
Cultural Construction of Emotion 398
Summary 401
Readings for Further Study 402

Chapter 14 Individual Emotions 404

Basic Emotions 406
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Fear 406
Anger 407
Disgust 408
Contempt 410
Sadness 410
Joy 411
Interest 412
Self-Conscious Emotions 414
Shame 414
Guilt 415
Embarrassment 416
Pride 417
Triumph 418
Interrelations among Shame, Guilt, Pride, and Hubris 418
Cognitively Complex Emotions 418
Envy 418
Gratitude 420
Disappointment and Regret 422
Hope 423
Schadenfreude 423
Empathy 423
Compassion 426
Summary 426
Readings for Further Study 427

Part IV Applied Concerns 429

Chapter 15 Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology 431

Holism and Positive Psychology 433
Holism 434
Positive Psychology 434
Self-Actualization 435
Hierarchy of Human Needs 435
Encouraging Growth 437
Actualizing Tendency 439
Organismic Valuing Process 439
Emergence of the Self 440
Conditions of Worth 441
Conditional Regard as a Socialization Strategy 443
Fully Functioning Individual 445
Humanistic Motivational Phenomena 445
Causality Orientations 445
Growth-Seeking versus Validation Seeking 447
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Relationships 448
Freedom to Learn 450
Self-Definition and Social Definition 451
Problem of Evil 451
Positive Psychology 453
Happiness and Well-Being 454
Eudaimonic Well-Being 456
Optimism 457
Meaning 458
Positivity 459
Interventions 461
Criticisms 462
Summary 463
Readings for Further Study 464

Chapter 16 Unconscious Motivation 466

Psychodynamic Perspective 467
Psychoanalytic Becomes Psychodynamic 468
Dual-Instinct Theory 470
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory 471
The Unconscious 472
Freudian Unconscious 473
Adaptive Unconscious 474
Implicit Motivation 476
Priming 477
Psychodynamics 479
Repression 479
Suppression 480
Do the Id and Ego Actually Exist? 482
Ego Psychology 482
Ego Development 483
Ego Defense 484
Ego Effectance 487
Object Relations Theory 488
Criticisms 492
Summary 493
Readings for Further Study 495

Chapter 17 Interventions 496

Applying Principles of Motivation and Emotion 497
Explaining Motivation and Emotion 497
Predicting Motivation and Emotion 498
Solving Motivational and Emotional Problems 498
Practice Problems 499
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Four State-of-the-Art Interventions 501

Intervention 1: Supporting Psychological Need Satisfaction 501
Intervention 2: Increasing a Growth Mindset 504
Intervention 3: Promoting Emotion Knowledge 507
Intervention 4: Cultivating Compassion 510
Wisdom Gained from a Scientific Study of Motivation and Emotion 513
References 515
Author Index 603
Subject Index 619
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Chapter 1

Introduction
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
MOTIVATIONAL SCIENCE
TWO PERENNIAL QUESTIONS
What Causes Behavior?
Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity?

SUBJECT MATTER
Internal Motives
External Events and Social Contexts
Motivation versus Influence

EXPRESSIONS OF MOTIVATION
Behavior
Engagement
Psychophysiology
Brain Activations
Self-Report

FRAMEWORK TO UNDERSTAND MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

TEN UNIFYING THEMES
Motivation and Emotion Benefit Adaptation and Functioning
Motivation and Emotion Direct Attention
Motivation and Emotion Are “Intervening Variables”
Motives Vary Over Time and Influence the Ongoing Stream of Behavior
Types of Motivations Exist
We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior
Motivation Study Reveals What People Want
To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions
When Trying to Motivate Others, What Is Easy to Do Is Rarely What Is Effective
There Is Nothing So Practical as a Good Theory

SUMMARY

1
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2 Chapter 1 Introduction

E very morning on my way to work, I walk by the same beautiful tree. Some of these
mornings are bitterly cold. On these winter days, I realize that I can do something that the
tree cannot. I can move. I can walk inside a building, put on a coat, or bring along a cup of
hot coffee. The tree, however, just stands there day after day. So, I worry about that tree. I
worry because the tree cannot take action and do what is necessary to protect itself—from
the cold, from a chainsaw, and from bark-eating beetles. My desire to move is an incredible
asset, and this asset is the theme of the present book. Indeed, the words motivation, emotion,
and motive are all derived from the Latin verb movere, which means “to move.” This book is
about all the forces that generate and sustain movere. It is a story about how the motivational
and emotional assets we all possess help us move forward toward optimal functioning and
greater well-being.

MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

What is motivation? What is emotion? One reason to read this book is, of course, to find
answers to these questions. But as a way of beginning the journey, pause for a moment and
generate your own answers to these two questions, however preliminary, however tenta-
tive, however personal and private. Perhaps scribble your definitions on a notepad or in the
margins of this book.
Any effort to define motivation and emotion begins with the choice of a noun inserted
into the following two blank spaces: “Motivation is a___.” and “Emotion is a___.” Figuring
out what needs to be inserted into those two blank lines is a fruitful activity.
Are motivation and emotion desires? Are they feelings? or ways of thinking? urges?
impulses? strivings? processes, or a set of processes? needs, or a collection of needs? Are
they temporary states that rise and fall in a matter of minutes, or are they enduring traits
that last a lifetime? On page 9, the text offers a definition with which almost everyone
who studies motivation would agree (see “Subject Matter” section). On page 10, the text
offers a consensual definition of emotion (see “Internal Motives” section). As you progress
through the pages of this book, you will find that your definitions will grow in clarity and
sophistication. With ever-growing clarity and with deeper understanding, you will become
increasingly able to understand motivational and emotional phenomena and explain how
and why they work. You will also become increasingly able to support and enhance moti-
vational strivings in yourself and in others. As the title of the book implies, the journey over
the next 600 pages is to understand motivation and emotion—and to do so in a way that is
clear, sophisticated, and practical.
But the journey can be a long one. So, before taking those first steps, pause for a
moment and ask yourself why someone might want to take this journey of understanding in
the first place. Why read these pages? Why ask questions in class? Why go online to read
motivation- and emotion-related articles? Why stay up until 2:00 in the morning pondering
questions of human motivation? Consider two reasons.
First, learning about motivation and emotion is a very interesting thing to do. Few
topics spark and entertain the imagination so well. Anything that tells us about who we are,
why we want what we want, and how we can improve our lives is going to be interesting.
And anything that tells us about what other people want, why they want what they want,
and how we can improve their lives is going to be interesting. When trying to explain why
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Motivation and Emotion 3

people want what they want and why people do what they do, we can turn to theories of
motivation to learn about topics such as human nature, strivings for achievement and power,
desires for biological sex and for psychological intimacy, and emotions like fear and anger.
These theories explain how to cultivate talent and creativity, develop interests and grow
competencies, and they help us set goals and make plans.
Second, learning about motivation and emotion is an important and valuable thing to
do. Learning about motivation and emotion can be an extremely practical and worthwhile
undertaking. It can be quite useful to know where motivation comes from, why it sometimes
changes and why other times it does not, under what conditions motivation increases or
decreases, what aspects of motivation can and cannot be changed, and whether some types
of motivation are more beneficial than are other types. Knowing such things, we can apply
our knowledge to situations such as trying to motivate employees, coach athletes, counsel
clients, raise children, engage students, or change our own ways of thinking, feeling, and
behaving. Understanding motivation and emotion offers a reliable pathway to gain valued
outcomes, such as trying to attain expertise, perform better, find meaning, and increase
our sense of happiness and personal growth. To the extent that a study of motivation and
emotion can tell us how we can improve our lives and the lives of others, the journey will
be time well spent.
Studying motivation and emotion is an opportunity to gain both theoretical understand-
ing and practical know-how. As a case in point, consider exercise. Think about it for a
moment: Why would anyone want to exercise? Can you explain this? Can you explain
where the motivation to exercise comes from? Do you understand why people might be
more willing to exercise under some conditions yet less willing to do so under other con-
ditions? Can you explain why one person might be more willing to exercise than another?
Can you explain why the same person sometimes wants to exercise but other times does not
want to exercise? Can you offer any constructive suggestions to increase people’s motiva-
tion to exercise? If someone hated to exercise, could you intervene in such a way that he or
she would truly want to exercise?
And we need to consider not only the motivation to exercise but also the motivation not
to exercise. What if exercising makes us feel anxious or stressed? What if exercise makes us
feel incompetent and embarrassed? What if we feel tired, or what if we just do not feel like
putting forth all that effort? What if time spent exercising takes us away from other things
we like to do, such as watching television, reading a book, or logging on to Facebook?
And there are of course many different ways to exercise, assuming that one actually has
sufficient motivation to do so. So, we need to ask: Why run laps around a track? Why jump
up and down during an aerobics class? Why climb stairs on a machine that does not really
go anywhere? Or, why do we sometimes pass by the elevator or escalator to walk up 10
flights of stairs? Or, why do we always take the elevator or escalator, rather than the stairs?
Why walk briskly in the park, or swim laps in a pool? Why run when you know your lungs
will collapse for want of air? Why jump and stretch when you know your muscles will rip
and tear? Why take an hour out of the day when you just do not feel like it or when your
schedule simply will not allow it? Why muster together all the energy and effort you will
need to overcome the sheer inertia of inactivity? Why exercise when life offers so many
other interesting things to do? Why indeed.
These questions ask about exercise, but they could just as easily be about the motivation
underlying any activity. If you play the piano, why do you do so? If you are fluent in a
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4 Chapter 1 Introduction

second language, why did you go through all the effort to learn that foreign language?
If you spent the afternoon working hard to learn something new or to develop a talent,
then why?

MOTIVATIONAL SCIENCE
Thirteen different motivation-based reasons to exercise appear in Table 1.1. Who is to say
which of these reasons are valid and which other reasons are erroneous? In answering a
question such as, Why exercise?, a person can rely on personal experience and intuition to
generate an answer. This is a fine starting point, but the study of motivation and emotion is a
behavioral science. The term science signals that answers to motivational questions require
objective, data-based, empirical evidence gained from well-conducted and peer-reviewed

Table 1.1 Thirteen Different Motivational Reasons to Exercise

Why Exercise? Source of Motivation Illustration

Fun, enjoyment Intrinsic motivation Children exercise spontaneously—they run
and jump and chase, and they do so simply
for the sheer fun of it.
Personal challenge Flow Athletes get “in the zone” when their sport
optimally challenges their skills.
Forced to do so External regulation Athletes exercise because their coach tells
them to do so.
Accomplish a goal Goal Runners see if they can run a mile in six
minutes or less.
Health benefits Value People exercise to lose weight or to strengthen
the heart.
Inspired to do so Possible self People watch others exercise and become
inspired to do the same.
Pursuit of a standard Achievement strivings Snow skiers race to the bottom of the
of excellence mountain trying to beat their previous best
time.
Satisfaction from a job Perceived competence As exercisers make progress, they feel more
well done competent, more effective.
An emotional kick Opponent process Vigorous jogging can produce a runner’s high
(a euphoric rebound to the pain).
Good mood Positive affect Beautiful weather can induce a good mood
such that people exercise spontaneously, as
they skip along without even knowing why.
Alleviate guilt Introjection People exercise because they think that is what
they should, ought to, or have to do to
please others or to relieve their own sense of
internalized shame or guilt.
Relieve stress, silence, Personal control After a stressful day, people go to the gym,
depression which they see as a structured and
controllable environment.
Hang out with friends Relatedness Exercise is often a social event, a time to enjoy
hanging out with friends.
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Motivational Science 5

research findings. Motivational science does not accept quotes from famous basketball
coaches as definitive answers, however inspirational and attention-getting those quotes may
be. Instead, research on motivation and emotion seeks to construct theories about how moti-
vational processes work. It is from these theories of motivation and emotion that hypotheses
can be generated to be put to objective empirical test so as to assess their scientific merit.
The ongoing processes of putting one’s ideas about motivation to empirical test is a crucial
process to realizing the title of this book (i.e., Understanding Motivation and Emotion),
because the motivational concepts one uses need to be chosen carefully, and they need to
be continually evaluated against new findings. Inadequate concepts are best tossed aside,
useful concepts need to be improved upon, and new explanatory concepts need to be dis-
covered.
A theory is an intellectual framework that organizes a vast amount of knowledge about
a phenomenon so that the phenomenon can be better understood and explained (Fiske,
2004). The study of motivation and emotion exists to answer the Why? questions of behav-
ior, thought, and feeling, such as, Why did she do that? and Why does she feel and think
that way? Motivational theories therefore exist as answers to these sorts of questions, as in
The reason why she did that was because _____. To quote Bernard and Lac (2013, p. 574):
without an answer to why, we are left only with the description of behavior, and description
without explanation is ultimately unsatisfying.

To understand the nature of something such as achievement motivation and to explain

how it works, a theory of achievement motivation needs to do two things. First, it needs
to identify the relations that exist among naturally occurring, observable phenomena. For
instance, a theory needs to identify what causes the phenomenon and also what the phe-
nomenon itself causes. A theory of achievement motivation, for instance, will identify
variables such as optimal challenge, independent work, and rapid performance feedback
as the naturally occurring causes for achievement strivings, and it will identify variables
such as effort, persistence, and hope as its naturally occurring consequences. Second, it
needs to explain why those relations exist. For instance, why does a challenge (e.g., Here,
see if you can do this.) lead some people to experience hope and to exert greater effort while
it leads other people to experience only anxiety and to withhold effort? If you can identify
the antecedents and consequences to a motivational or an emotional phenomenon, then
your understanding will be clearer, more sophisticated, and more helpful. You will be well
positioned (well informed) when it comes time to improve your life or the life of a loved one.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the function and utility of a good theory (Trope, 2004). A theory
cuts through the complexity and noise of reality to represent how a phenomenon generally
works (“Representation” in Figure 1.1). How a theorist conceptualizes the phenomenon
may or may not be correct or complete. So, researchers use the theory to generate testable
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a prediction about what should happen if the theory is correct.
For instance, one hypothesis about achievement motivation might be that people with
challenging jobs with rapid performance feedback (e.g., entrepreneurs) should experience
greater and more frequent achievement strivings at work than do people who have
service-oriented jobs (e.g., nursing; Jenkins, 1987). With a hypothesis in hand, a research
study is carried out to collect the data necessary to evaluate the accuracy of the hypothesis.
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